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Columbia  ®nifaers^itp 


LIBRARY 


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s 
'l^ 

H 


HISTORY 

OF  THE 

REVOLUTIONS  IN   EUROPE, 

FROM 

THE  SUBVERSION 

OF  THE 

ROMAN    EMPIRE    IN   THE   WEST, 

TO  THE 

CONGRESS    OF    YIENNA. 

FROM 

THE  FRENCH  OF  CHRISTOPHER  WILLIAM  KOCH. 

WITH  A 

CONTINUATION   TO   THE   YEAR  1815, 
BY  M.  SCHCELL. 


REVISED  AND  CORRECTED  BY  J.  G.  COGSWELL. 


WITH  A 


SKETCH  OF  THE  LATE  REVOLUTIONS  IN  FRANCE, 
BELGIUM,  POLAND,  AND  GREECE. 


3BmbeUisi)e"0  tofti)  ISnjjrabinflS. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 

VOL.  L 

N  E  W  -  Y  O  R  K  : 
PUBLISHED  BY  N.  B.  PRATT. 

1836. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1832,  bj  D.  F.  Robinson  &  Co.,  In 
the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut 


CONTENTS   OF  VOLUME  I. 


Page 

Publisher's  Notice, 5 

Author's  Preface, 7 

Life  of  Koch,       13 

Chapter  I. 
Introdaction, 17 

Chapter  II. — Period  I. 

From  the  Invasion  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West,  by 
the  Barbarians,  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  A.  D. 
406—800, 41 

Chapter  III. — Period  II. 
From  Charlemagne  to  Otto  the  Great,  A.  D.  800—962,    .    .      63 

Chapter  IV. — Period  III. 
From  Otto  the  Great  to  Gregory  the  Great,  A.  D.  962—1074,      79 

Chapter  V. — Period  IV. 
From  Pqw  Gregory  VIII.  to  Boniface  VIII.  A.  D.  1074—1300,    101 

Chapter  VI. — Period  V. 

From  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  the  taking  of  Constantinople 

by  the  Turks,  A.  D.  1300—1453, 165 

Chapter  VII. — Period  VI.  '' 

From  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  to  the  peace 

ofWestphalia,  A.  D.  1453— 1648, 207 


CONTENTS  OF   VOLUME  II. 


Chapter  VIII.— Period  VII. 

From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  that  of  Utrecht,  A.  D. 

1648—1713, 3 

Chapter  IX. — Period  VIII. 

From  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  French  Revolution,  A.  D. 

1713—1789,      . 57 

Chapter  X. — Period  IX. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution,  to  the 

downfall  of  Buonaparte,  A.  D.  1789— 1815,      ....     140 

Chapter  XL 

The  Military  Predominance  of  France,  under  the  sway  of 

Napoleon  Buonaparte,  A.  D.  1802—1810, 198 

Chapter  XII. 

The  Decline  and  Downfall  of  the  Empire  of  Buonaparte, 

A.  D.  1810— 1815, 258 

Appendix. 

From  the  second  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  A.  D   1815, 

to  the  French  Revolution  in  July,  1830, 303 

Revolution  in  Belgium,  A.  D.  1830, 328 

Revolution  in  Poland,  A.  D.  1830, 329 

Revolution  in  Greece,  A.  D.  1821—1827, 341 

War  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  A.  D.  1828  and  1829,       .  361 
England,  from  A.  D.  1816,  till  the  passing  of  the  Reform 

Bill  in  1832, 365 

Notes , 377 


PUBLISHER'S  NOTICE. 


The  Publisher  of  the  present  edition  of  Koch's  Revolutions, 
has  been  induced  to  prepare  this  work  for  publication  on  account 
of  the  very  high  reputation  which  it  has  in  Europe,  and  its  general 
adoption  there  in  Literary  Institutions,  as  the  outline  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  portion  of  History  which  it  embraces.  Its  high  merit 
would  no  doubt  have  obtained  for  it  an  earlier  reprint  from  the 
American  press,  but  for  the  errors  with  which  the  English  trans- 
lation abounds.  These  defects,  it  is  hoped,  will  not  be  found  in 
the  present  edition,  which  has  been  revised  by  a  gentleman  who 
has  endeavored  not  only  to  correct  the  faults  of  language,  but  also 
to  strike  from  its  pages  all  expressions  of  principles  inconsistent 
with  the  liberal  spirit  of  philosophical  history. 

A  practical  acquaintance  with  the  work  as  a  Manual  of  History^ 
has  convinced  this  gentleman  of  its  admirable  adaptation  to  this 
purpose,  and  enabled  him  to  recommend  it  for  its  fidelity,  impar- 
tiality, conciseness,  clear  argument,  enlightened  spirit,  and  learned 
research.  Omitting  no  important  event,  and  dwelling  very  fully 
upon  those  which  have  had  great  influence  in  producing  the  per- 
manent changes  which  the  civilized  world  has  undergone  in  the 
last  fifteen  centuries,  it  may  almost  claim,  he  thinks,  the  united 
advantages  of  a  compendious  and  an  elaborate  History. 

In  order  perfectly  to  adapt  the  work  to  the  present  time,  a  sketch 
of  the  late  Revolutions  in  France,  Belgium,  Poland,  and  Greece, 
has  been  prepared  with  much  labor  and  care,  and  added  to  the 


VI  PUBLISHER'S  NOTICE. 

present  edition,  making  it  the  most  complete  historical  work  on 
Modern  Europe,  yet  oJBfered  to  the  public. 

In  full  confidence  that  it  will  be  found  deserving  of  the  high 
character  it  has  sustained  abroad,  as  a  valuable  and  faithful 
guide  to  a  knowledge  of  the  History  of  Modern  Europe,  it  is  now 
oflfered  to  the  patronage  of  the  friends  of  Useful  Knowledge,  by 

THE  AMERICAN  PUBLISHER. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


The  work  here  presented  to  the  public,  is  a  summary  of  the  Revolutions, 
both  general  and  particular,  which  have  happened  in  Europe  since  the 
extinction  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  fifth  century.  As  an  elementary 
book,  it  will  be  found  useful  to  those  who  wish  to  have  a  concise  and  ge- 
neral view  of  the  successive  revolutions  that  have  changed  the  aspect  of 
states  and  kingdoms,  and  given  birth  to  the  existing  policy  and  establish- 
ed order  of  society  in  modern  times. 

Without  some  preliminary  acquaintance  with  the  annals  of  these  revo- 
lutions, we  can  neither  study  the  history  of  our  own  country  to  advantage, 
nor  appreciate  the  influence  which  the  different  states,  formed  from  the 
wreck  of  the  ancient  Roman  Empire,  reciprocally  exercised  on  each  other. 
Allied  as  it  were  by  the  geographical  position  of  their  territories,  by  a 
conformity  in  their  religion,  language,  and  manners,  these  states  contract- 
ed new  attachments  in  the  ties  of  mutual  interests,  which  the  progress  of 
civilization,  commerce,  and  industry,  tended  more  and  more  to  cement 
and  confirm.  Many  of  them  whom  fortune  had  elevated  to  the  summit 
of  power  and  prosperity,  carried  their  laws,  their  arts  and  institutions, 
both  civil  and  military,  far  beyond  the  limits  of  their  own  dominions. 
The  extensive  sway  which  the  Romish  hierarchy  held  for  nearly  a  thou- 
sand years  over  the  greater  part  of  the  European  kingdoms,  is  well  known 
to  every  reader  of  history. 

This  continuity  of  intercourse  and  relationship  among  the  powers  of 
Europe,  became  the  means  of  forming  them  into  a  kind  of  republican  sys- 
tem ;  it  gave  birth  to  a  national  law  and  conventional  rights,  founded  on 
the  agreement  of  treaties,  and  the  usages  of  common  practice.  A  lauda- 
ble emulation  sprung  up  among  contemporary  states.  Their  jealousies, 
and  even  their  competitions  and  divisions,  contributed  to  the  progress  of 
civilization,  and  the  attainment  of  that  high  state  of  perfection  to  which 
all  human  sciences  and  institutions  have  been  carried  by  the  nations  of 
modern  Europe. 

It  is  these  political  connexions,  this  reciprocal  influence  of  kingdoms 
and  their  revolutions,  and  especially  the  varieties  of  system  which  Europe 
has  experienced  in  the  lapse  of  so  many  ages,  that  require  to  be  developed 


VUl  PREFACE. 

in  a  general  view,  such  as  that  which  professes  to  be  the  object  of  the  pre- 
sent work. 

The  author  has  here  remoddled  his  "  Views  of  the  Revolutions  of  the 
Middle  Ages,"  (published  in  1790,)  and  extended  or  abridged  the  different 
periods  according  to  circumstances.  In  continuing  this  work  down  to 
the  present  time,  he  has  deemed  necessary  to  conclude  at  the  French 
Revolution,  as  the  numerous  results  of  that  great  event  are  too  much  in- 
volved in  uncertainty  to  be  clearly  or  impartially  exhibited  by  contempo- 
rary writers.* 

The  work  is  divided  into  eight  periods  of  time,t  according  with  the 
principal  revolutions  which  have  changed,  in  succession,  the  political 
state  of  Europe.  At  the  head  of  each  period,  is  placed  either  the  desig- 
nation of  its  particular  revolution,  or  that  of  the  power  or  empire  which 
held  the  ascendancy  at  the  time.  In  limiting  his  treatise  solely  to  the 
Revolutions  of  Europe,  the  writer  has  not  touched  upon  those  of  Asia  and 
the  East,  except  in  so  far  as  they  have  had  immediate  influence  on  the 
destinies  of  Europe.  Conscious  also  that  the  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  an  historian  is  veracity,  and  that  the  testimony  of  a  writer  who  has 
not  himself  been  an  eye-witness  of  the  events  he  records,  cannot  be  relied 
on  with  implicit  confidence,  the  author  has  imposed  on  himself  the  inva- 
riable rule  of  citing,  with  scrupulous  care,  the  principal  authorities  and 
vouchers  of  each  period  and  country  that  have  guided  him  during  his 
researches,  in  selecting  and  examining  his  materials  by  the  torch  of  pa- 
tient criticism.  Without  this  labour  and  precaution,  the  work  would 
have  been  of  no  avail  as  an  elementary  help  to  those  who  were  desirous 
of  acquiring  a  more  minute  and  solid  knowledge  of  history. 
,  As  a  useful  and  subsidiary  accompaniment,  an  Introduction  has  been 
prefixed,  in  which  are  given  some  general  remarks  on  history  and  geogra- 
phy, as  also  on  genealogy  and  chronology,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
auxiliary  sciences.  These  preliminary  notices  are  followed  by  a  short 
ontline  of  ancient  history,  down  to  the  time  of  the  Barbarian  invasion  in 
the  fifth  century.  With  this  grand  era  the  present  work  properly  com- 
mences, when  a  new  series  of  kingdoms  and  governments  sprung  up  in 
Europe. 

*  In  the  edition  of  1823,  from  which  the  present  translation  is  made,  the  Tableau  has 
been  continued  by  the  Editor,  M.  Schoell,  down  to  the  20th  of  November,  1815. 
t  Nine  in  the  last  editions,  including  the  continuation. 


LIFE  OF  KOCH. 


Christopher  William  Koch,  equally  distinguished  as  a 
lawyer  and  a  learned  historian,  was  born  on  the  9th  of  May  1737 
at  Bouxwiller,  a  small  town  in  the  seigniory  of  Lichtenberg-  in 
Alsace,  v/hich  then  belonged  to  the  Prince  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
His  father,  who  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Finance 
under  that  prince,  sent  him  to  an  excellent  school  in  his  native 
place,  where  he  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education.  At 
the  age  of  thirteen,  he  went  to  the  Protestant  Unive'''=;ity  of 
Strasbourg,  w^herehe  prosecuted  his  studies  under  the  celebrated 
Schoepflin.  Law  was  the  profession  to  which  he  was  de'^tined; 
but  he  showed  an  early  predilection  for  the  study  of  history^ 
and  the  sciences  connected  with  it,  such  as  Diplovzatics,  or  the 
art  of  deciphering  and  verifying  ancient  writs  and  chartularies^ 
Genealogij,  Chronology^  &c.  Schcepflin  was  not  slow  to  appre- 
ciate the  rising  merit  of  his  pupil,  and  wished  to  make  him  the 
companion  of  his  labours.  He  admitted  him  to  his  friendship, 
and  became  the  means  of  establishing  him  as  his  successor  in 
that  famous  political  academy,  which  his  reputation  had  formed 
at  Strasbourg,  by  attracting  to  that  city  the  youth  of  the  first 
families,  and  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Koch  devoted  much  of 
his  time  to  the  Canon  Law,  and  soon  gave  a  prooi  of  the  pro- 
gress he  had  made  in  that  branch  of  study,  by  the  Academical 
Dissertation  which  he  published  in  1761,  under  the  title  of 
Commentatio  de  Collatione  dignitatum,  et  heneficiorum  ecclesi- 
asticorum  iii  impei'io  Romano- Germanico.  This  treatise  was 
a  prelude  to  his  Commentary  on  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
which  he  published  in  1789 — a  work  which  excited  an  extra- 
ordinary sensation  in  Catholic  Germany,  and  procured  the 
author  the  favourable  notice  of  such  prelates  as  were  most 
eminent  for  learning  and  piety. 

After  taking  his  academic  degree,  Koch  repaired  to  Paris  in 
1762,  where  he  staid  a  year  ;  honoured  with  the  society  of  the 
most  distinguished  literati  in  the  capital,  and  frequenting  the 
Ro3^al  Library,  wholly  occupied  in  those  researches  which  pre- 
pared him  for  the  learned  labours  in  which  he  afterwards  en 
gaged.  On  his  return  to  Strasbourg,  he  wrote  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Historia  Zaringo-Badensis,  of  which  the  first  volume 
only  was  drawn  up  by  Schoepflin.  All  the  others  are  entirely 
the  work  of  Koch,  though  they  bear  the  name  of  the  master 
who  had  charged  him  wich  the  execution  of  this  task.  Schoepflin 
bequeathed  to   the  city  cf  Strasbourg,  in  1766,  his  valuable 

VOL.  L  2 


14  LIFE    OF    KOCH. 

library  and  his  cabiret  of  antiques,  on  condition  that  Koch 
should  be  appointed  keeper;  which  he  was,  in  effect,  on  the 
death  of  the  testator  in  1771.  He  obtained,  at  the  same  time, 
the  title  of  Professor,  which  authorized  him  to  deliver  lectures; 
for  the  chair  of  Schcepflin  passed,  according  to  the  statutes  of 
the  University,  to  another  professor, — a  man  of  merit  but  inca- 
pable of  supplying  his  place  as  an  instructor  of  youth  in  the 
study  of  the  political  sciences.  The  pupils  of  Schcepflin  were 
thus  transferred  to  Koch,  who  became  the  head  of  that  diplo- 
matic school,  which,  for  sixty  years,  gnve  to  the  public  so  great 
a  number  of  ministers  and  statesmen. 

In  1779  the  Government  of  Hanover  offered  him  the  chair  of 
public  German  Law  in  the  University  of  Gottingen,  which  he 
declined.  Next  year  the  Emperor  Josepeh  II.,  who  knew  well 
how  to  distinguish  merit,  complimented  him  with  the  dignity 
of  Knight  of  the  Empire,  an  intermediate  title  between  that  o 
baron  and  the  simple  rank  of  noblesse.  About  the  same  perioa 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  Public  Law  at  Strasbourg,  which  he 
held  until  that  University  was  suppressed  at  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. Towards  the  end  of  17S9,  the  Protestants  of  Alsace  sent 
him  as  their  envoy  to  Paris,  to  solicit  from  the  King  and  the 
Constitutional  Assembly,  the  maintenance  of  their  civil  and  re- 
ligious rights,  according  to  the  faith  of  former  treaties.  He 
succeeded  in  obtaining  for  them  the  decree  of  the  17th  of 
August  1790,  which  sanctioned  these  rights,  and  declared  that 
the  ecclesiastical  benefices  of  the  Protestants  were  not  included 
among  those  which  the  decree  of  the  1st  of  November  prece- 
ding, had  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  nation.  The  former 
decree  was  moreover  extended  and  explained  by  an  act,  bearing 
date  December  1st  1790.  Both  of  these  were  approved  and 
ratified  by  the  King. 

Meantime,  the  terrors  and  turbulence  of  the  Revolution  had 
dispersed  from  Strasbourg  that  brilliant  assemblage  of  youth, 
which  the  reputation  of  the  professors,  and  the  natural  beauties 
of  the  place,  had  attracted  from  all  quarters.  These  disastrous 
events  interrupted  the  career  of  Koch,  at  a  time  when  he  was 
capable  of  rendering  the  most  imp'^^'tant  services  to  his  country. 
From  that  moment  he  devoted  L  self  to  public  affair;'.  Being 
appointed  a  Member  of  the  first  xjegislative  Assembly,  he  op- 
posed the  faction  which  convulsed  the  nation,  and  ultimately 
subverted  the  throne.  When  President  of  the  Committee  of 
that  Assembly,  he  exerted  himself  for  the  maintenance  of  peace  ; 
and,  in  a  Report  which  he  made  in  1792,  he  foretold  the  cala 
mities  which  would  over  ^Im  France,  if  war  should  be 
declared  against  Austria        i'h'^   republican   faction,  by  their 


LIFE    OF     KOCH. 


15 


clamours,  silenced  the  remonstrances  of  Koch,  when,  on  the 
20th  of  April,  he  spoke  in  opposition  to  a  measure  which  proved 
so  f^ial  to  France.  An  official  letter  which  he  addressed,  10th 
of  August,  to  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
sufficiently  expressed  the  horror  with  which  that  day's  proceed- 
ino-s  had  inspired  him.  He  procured,  moreover,  the  concurrence 
of  his  fellow-citizens  in  a  resistance,  which  he  had  then  some 
reason  to  hope  would  be  made  a  common  cause  by  the  other 
provinces.  This  letter  drew  down  upon  him  the  persecution 
of  the  ruling  party.  He  was  immured  in  a  prison,  where  he 
languished  for  eleven  months,  and  from  which  he  had  no  pros- 
pect of  escape,  except  to  mount  the  scaffold.  The  revolution 
of  the  9th  Thermidor  restored  him  to  liberty,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed, by  the  voice  of  his  fellow-citizens,  to  the  Directory  of 
their  provincial  department.  He  endeavoured  by  all  means  in 
his  power  to  defeat  the  measures  that  were  taken  to  injure  his 
constituents  ;  and  had  influence  enough,  it  is  said,  to  prevent 
the  sale  of  the  funds  belonging  to  manufactories  and  hospitals. 
He  then  resumed  with  pleasure  those  functions  which  he  had 
unwillingly  accepted;  in  1795,  he  recommenced  his  professorship 
of  public  law,  and  returned  with  new  zeal  to  his  literary  labours, 
which  had  been  too  long  interrupted.  Six  years  he  spent  in 
these  useful  occupations  ;  from  which,  however,  he  was  once 
more  detached  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  which  nominated  him 
a  member  of  the  Tribunal.  This  nomination  Koch  accepted, 
in  the  hope  of  being  useful  to  his  Protestant  countrymen,  and 
to  the  city  of  Strasbourg,  in  obtaining  the  re-establishment  of 
the  reformed  religion,  and  its  restoration  in  the  University. 
He  did,  in  effect,  exert  himself  much  in  behalf  of  religion,  ac- 
cording to  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  as  well  as  of  the  Pro- 
testant Academy  at  Strasbourg,  which  was  suppressed  at  this 
period. 

The  Tribunal  having  been  suppressed,  Koch  declined  all  places 
of  trust  or  honour  which  were  offered  him  ;  and  only  requested 
permission  to  retire,  that  he  might  have  a  short  interval  for  him- 
self between  business  and  the  grave.  A  pension  of  3000  francs 
was  granted  him,  without  any  solicitation  on  his  part.  In  1808, 
he  returned  to  Strasbourg,  where  he  continued  to  devote  him- 
self to  letters,  and  in  administering  to  the  public  good.  About 
the  end  of  1810,  the  Grand-master  of  the  University  of  France 
conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Honorary  Rector  of  the  Academy 
of  Strasbourg.  His  health,  which  had  been  prolonged  by  a  life 
of  great  temperance  and  regularity  and  the  peace  which  results 
from  a  good  conscience,  became  disordered  in  1812,  when  he 
fell  into  a  state  of  languor,  which  terminated  his  life  on  the  25tb 


16  LIFE    OF    KOCH. 

of  October  1813.  His  colleagues,  the  professors  of  Strasbourg, 
ei'ected  to  his  memory  a  monument  of  white  marble  in  the 
churcn  of  St.  Thomas,  near  those  of  Schoepflin  and  Oberlin  ; 
which  was  executed  by  M.  Ohnmacht,  an  eminent  eculptor  in 
Strasbourg.  One  of  his  biographers  has  pronounced  the  fol- 
lowing eulogium  on  Koch  : — "A  noble  regard  for  justice  and 
truth,  a  penetration  beyond  common,  a  diligence  unrivalled  in 
historical  researches,  a  remarkable  talent  in  arranging  and  illus- 
trating his  subject,  an  incorruptible  integrit}'^  of  principle,  and 
unclouded  serenity  of  mind,  with  a  zealous  desire  of  rendering 
his  researches,  his  information  and  activity,  useful  to  his  species 
— these  were  the  prominent  features  of  the  mind  and  character 
of  this  amiable  man."  In  addition  to  this,  it  has  been  remarked, 
that  although  Professor  Koch  had  not  the  art  of  a  graceful  or 
even  a  fluent  elocution,  no  man  ever  possessed  in  a  higher  de- 
gree the  talents  and  qualifications  of  a  public  instructor.  Like 
Socrates,  he  had  a  manner  peculiar  to  himself  He  was  no*'  so 
much  a  teacher  of  sciences,  as  of  the  means  of  acquirng  them. 
He  could  inspire  his  scholars  with  a  taste  for  labour,  and  knew 
how  to  call  forth  their  several  powers  and  dispositions.  Though 
a  man  of  the  most  domestic  habits,  and  a  lover  of  children,  Koch 
never  married. 

Two  lives  of  this  celebrated  professor  have  been  written  by 
foreigners.  The  one  is  by  M.  SchweighsBuser  junior,  a  profes- 
sor at  Strasbourg;  and  the  other  is  prefixed  to  the  new  edition 
of  the  Histoire  des  Traites  de  Paix,  by  M.  Schoell,  the  editor 
and  continuator  of  several  of  our  author's  works.  This  latter 
biographer  has  accompanied  his  sketch  with  a  descriptive  cata- 
logue of  all  Koch's  works,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  fol- 
lowing : — 1.  Tables  Genealogiques  des  Maisons  Soiweraines  du 
Midi  et  de  V Quest  de  V Europe.  2.  Sanctio  Pragmatica  Gev' 
manorum  illustrata.  3.  Abrege  de  VHistoire  des  Traites  d) 
Paix  entre  les  Puissances  de  VEurope.  A  new  edition  of  this 
work  appeared  in  1818,  enlarged  and  continued  by  M.  Schoell 
down  to  the  Congress  of  Vienna  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1815. 
4.  Table  des  Traites  entre  la  France  et  les  Puissances  Etran- 
geres,  depuis  la  Paix  de  Westpkalie,  <^c.  5.  Tableau  des  Revo- 
lutions de  VEurope,  <^c.  6.  Tables  Genealogiques  des  Maisons 
Soicveraiiies  de  VEst  et  du  Nord  de  r Europe.  This  work  was 
published,  after  the  author's  death,  by  M.  Schoell.  Besides 
these,  Koch  left  various  manuscripts,  containing  memoirs  of  hi« 
own  life  ;  and  several  valuable  papers  on  the  ancient  ecclesias 
deal  history  and  literature  of  his  native  province. 

A.  C. 


CHAPTER    I 


JNTTlonUCTTOrvT 


History  has  very  properly  been  considered  as  that  particulai 
branch  of  philosophy,  which  teaches,  by  examples,  how  men 
ought  to  conduct  themselves  in  all  situations  of  life,  both  pub- 
lic and  private.  Such  is  the  infirmity  and  incapacity  of  the 
human  mind,  that  abstract  or  general  ideas  make  no  lasting 
impression  on  it ;  and  often  appear  to  us  doubtful  or  obscure, — 
at  least  if  they  be  not  illustrated  and  confirmed  by  experience 
and  observation. 

It  is  from  history  alone,  which  superadds  to  our  own  expe- 
rience that  of  other  men  and  of  other  times,  that  we  learn  to 
conquer  the  prejudices  which  we  have  imbibed  from  education, 
and  which  our  own  experience,  often  as  contracted  as  our  edu- 
cation, tends  in  general  rather  to  strengthen  than  to  subdue  or 
destroy.  "  Not  to  know,"  says  Cicero,  "  what  happened  before 
we  were  born,  is  to  remain  always  a  child  :  for  what  were  the 
life  of  man,  did  we  not  combine  present  events  with  the  recol- 
lections of  past  ages  ?" 

There  are  certain  principles  or  rules  of  conduct  that  hold 
true  in  all  cases ;  because  they  accord  and  consist  with  the  in- 
variable nature  of  things.  To  collect  and  digest  these,  belongs 
to  the  student  of  history,  who  may,  in  this  wa}^,  easily  form  to 
himself  a  system,  both  of  morals  and  politics,  founded  on  the 
combined  judgment  of  all  ages,  and  confirmed  by  universal  ex- 
perience. Moreover,  the  advantages  that  we  reap  from  the 
study  of  history  are  preferable  to  those  we  acquire  b}^  our  own 
experience  ;  for  not  only  does  the  knowledge  we  derive  from 
this  kind  of  study  embrace  a  greater  number  of  objects,  but  it 
is  purchased  at  the  expense  of  others,  while  the  attainments  we 
make  from  personal  experience  often  cost  us  extremely  dear. 

"  We  may  learn  wisdom,"  says  Polybius,  "  either  from  our 
own  misfortunes,  or  the  misfortunes  of  others.  The  knowledge," 
adds  that  celebrated  historian,  "  which  we  acquire  at  our  own 
expense,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  efficacious  ;  but  that  which  we 
learn  from  the  misfortunes  of  others  is  the  safest,  in  as  much 
as  we  receive  instruction  without  pain,  or  danger  to  ourselves." 
This  knowledge  has  also  the  advant"= '"  of  being  in  general 
more  accurate,  and  more  complete  thu.  i  which  we  derive 
from  individual  experience.  To  history  ctlone  it  belongs  to 
judge  with  impartiality  of  public  characters  and  political  mea 

2=^ 


1^ 


CHAPTER   I. 


sures,  which  ave  often  either  misunderstood  or  not  properly  ap- 
preciated by  ih'-ir  contemporaries  ;  and  while  men  individually, 
und  from  their  own  observation,  can  see  great  events  as  it  were 
but  in  part,  his\ory  embraces  the  whole  in  all  its  various  details. 
Thus,  for  example,  we  can  see  but  imperfectly  all  the  bearings 
of  that  mighty  revolution  which  is  now  1793,  passing  before 
our  eyes ;  and  it  will  remain  for  posterity  to  perceive  all  its 
influence  and  eifects,  and  to  judge  of  its  different  actors  with- 
out feelings  of  irritation  or  party  spirit. 

It  is  a  fact  universally  admitted,  that  all  ranks  and  profes- 
sions of  men,  hnd  in  history  appropriate  instruction,  and  rules 
of  conduct  suited  to  their  respective  conditions.  In  occupying 
the  mmd  agreeably  with  such  a  vast  diversity  of  subjects,  it 
serves  to  form  the  judg^ment,  to  inspire  us  with  the  ambition  of 
glory,  and  the  love  of  virtue.  Those  especially  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  study  of  politics,  or  who  are  destined  to  the 
management  of  public  affairs,  will  discover  in  history  the  struc- 
ture and  constitution  of  governments,  their  faults,  and  their 
advantages,  their  strength  and  their  weakness;  they  will  find 
there  the  origin  and  progress  of  empires,  the  principles  that 
have  raised  them  to  greatness,  and  the  causes  which  have  pre- 
pared their  fall.  The  philosopher,  and  the  man  of  letters,  will 
there  trace  the  progress  of  the  human  mind,  the  errors  and  il- 
lusions that  have  led  it  astray ;  the  connexion  of  causes  and 
effects  ;  the  origin  of  arts  and  sciences,  their  changes,  and  their 
influence  on  society  ;  as  well  as  the  innumerable  evils  that 
have  sprung  from  ignorance,  superstition  and  tyranny. 

History,  in  short,  avails  more  than  all  precepts  to  cure  us  of 
those  mistakes  originating  in  self-love,  and  national  partiality. 
He  who  knows  no  other  country  than  his  own,  easily  persuades 
himself,  that  the  government,  manners,  and  opinions  of  the  lit- 
tle corner  of  the  earth  which  he  inhabits,  are  the  only  ones  con- 
sistent with  reason  and  propriet3\  Self-love,  so  natural  to  man, 
cherishes  this  prejudice,  and  makes  him  disdain  all  other  na- 
tions. It  is  only  by  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  history, 
and  by  familiarizing  ourselves  with  the  institutions,  customs, 
and  habits  of  different  ages,  and  of  different  countries,  that  we 
learn  to  esteem  wisdom  and  virtue,  and  to  acknowledge  ta- 
lents wherever  they  exist.  Besides,  when  we  observe,  that 
though  revolutions  are  continually  changing  the  face  of  king- 
doms, nothing  essentially  new  ever  happens  in  the  world,  we 
cease  to  be  longer  the  slaves  of  that  extravagant  admiration, 
and  that  credulous  astonishment  which  is  generally  the  charac- 
teristic of  ignorance,  or  the  mark  of  a  feeble  mind. 

The  most  important  attribute  of  history  is  truth,  and  in  order 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

to  find  this  out,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  materials  which 
serve  as  the  elements  and  evidences  of  history,  by  the  test  of 
sound  criticism.  These  materials  are  of  two  kinds  :  I.  Public 
Acts  and  Records^  such  as  medals,  inscriptions,  treaties,  char- 
ters, official  papers ;  and  in  general,  all  w^ritings  drawn  up  or 
published  by  the  established  authorities.  II.  Private  writers, 
viz.  authors  of  histories,  of  chronicles,  memoirs,  letters,  &c. 
These  writers  are  either  contemporary,  or  such  as  live  remote 
from  the  times  of  which  they  write. 

Public  acts  and  official  records,  are  the  strongest  evidences 
we  can  possibly  have  of  historical  truth ;  but  as,  in  different 
ages,  there  have  been  fabricators  of  pretended  acts  and  wri- 
tings, it  becomes  necessary,  before  making  use  of  any  public 
document,  to  be  assured  that  it  is  neither  spurious  nor  falsified. 
The  art  of  judging  of  ancient  charters  or  diplomas,  and  discri- 
minating the  true  from  the  false,  is  called  Diplomatics ;  '  in 
the  same  way  as  we  give  the  name  o{  Numismatics  to  the  art  of 
distinguishing  real  medals  from  counterfeit.  Both  of  these 
sciences  are  necessary  in  the  criticism  of  histor\^ 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  subjoin  here  some  rules  that 
may  serve  as  guides  in  the  proper  selection  of  historical  docu- 
ments. 

1.  The  authority  of  any  chartulary  or  public  act  is  preferable 
to  that  of  a  private  writer,  even  though  he  were  contemporary. 
These  public  registers  it  is  always  necessary  to  consult,  if  pos- 
sible, before  having  recourse  to  the  authority  of  private  writers  ; 
and  a  history  that  is  not  supported  by  such  public  vouchers  must 
in  consequence  be  very  imperfect. 

2.  When  public  acts  are  found  to  accord  with  the  testimony 
of  contemporary  authors,  there  results  a  complete  and  decisive 
proof,  the  most  satisfactory  that  can  be  desired,  for  establishing 
the  truth  of  historical  facts. 

3.  The  testimony  of  a  contemporary  author  ought  generally 
to  be  preferred  to  that  of  an  historian,  who  has  written  long 
after  the  period  in  which  the  events  have  happened. 

4.  Whenever  contemporary  writers  are  defective,  great  cau- 
tion must  be  used  with  regard  to  the  statements  of  more  mo- 
dern historians,  whose  narratives  are  often  very  inaccurate,  or 
altogether  fabulous. 

5.  The  unanimous  silence  of  contemporary  authors  on  any 
memorable  event,  is  of  itself  a  strong  presumption  for  suspect- 
ing, or  even  for  entirely  rejecting,  the  testimony  of  very  recent 
Writers. 

6.  Historians  who  narrate  events  that  have  happened  ante- 
rior to  the  times  in  which  they  lived,  do  not,  properly  speaking 


20  CHAPTER    I. 

deserve  credit,  except  in  so  far  as  they  make  us  acquainted  with 
the  sources  whence  they  have  drawn  their  information. 

7.  In  order  to  judge  of  the  respective  merits  of  historians, 
and  the  preference  we  ought  to  give  some  beyond  others,  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  the  spirit  and  character  of  each,  as  well 
as  the  circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed  at  the  time  of 
writing. 

Hence  it  follows  : — That  we  ought  to  distrust  an  historian 
who  is  deficient  in  critical  discernment,  who  is  fond  of  fables, 
or  who  scruples  not,  in  order  to  please  and  amuse  his  readers, 
to  alter  or  disguise  the  truth  :  That  as  impartiality  is  an  essen- 
tial quality  in  a  historian,  we  must  always  be  on  our  guard 
against  writers  who  allow  their  minds  to  be  warped  aside  by 
the  prejudices  of  their  nation,  their  party,  or  their  profession  ; 
for,  in  order  to  be  impartial,  the  historian  must  form  his  judg- 
ment on  actions  themselves,  without  regard  to  the  actors  :  That 
historians  who  have  had  a  personal  concern  in  the  transactions, 
or  been  eyewitnesses  of  the  events  they  describe,  or  who,  wri- 
ting by  the  permission  or  authority  of  government,  have  had 
free  access  to  national  archives  and  public  libraries,  ought  al- 
ways to  be  preferred  to  those  who  have  not  enjoyed  the  same 
advantages :  That  among  modern  historians,  he  who  has  writ- 
ten last  often  deserves  more  confidence  than  those  who  have 
handled  the  same  subject  before  him  ;  inasmuch  as  he  has  had 
it  in  his  power  to  obtain  more  exact  information,  to  avoid  all 
party  spirit,  and  rectify  the  errors  of  his  predecessors. 

There  are  several  auxiliary  sciences  which  may  be  said  to 
constitute  the  very  foundation  of  history  ;  and  among  these,  geo- 
graphy, genealogy,  and  chronology,  hold  the  first  rank.  In 
truth,  no  fact  can  be  fully  established,  nor  can  any  narrative 
possess  interest,  unless  the  circumstances  relating  to  the  times 
and  places  in  which  the  events  have  happened,  as  well  as  to 
the  persons  who  have  been  concerned  in  them,  be  previously 
made  known,  and  distinctly  explained.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  geography,  genealogy,  and  chronology,  are  the  faithful  in- 
terpreters and  inseparable  companions  of  history. 

Geography  may  be  divided  into  mathematical,  physical,  and 
political ;  according  to  the  different  objects  which  it  embraces. 
Mathematical  geography  regards  the  earth,  considered  as  a 
measurable  body.  Physical  geography  has  for  its  object  to 
examine  the  natural  or  physical  structure  of  the  earth  ;  while 
political  geography  illustrates  the  different  divisions  of  the  earth 
which  men  have  invented,  such  as  kingdoms,  states,  and  pro- 
vinces. This  science  is  also  divided,  relatively  to  the  times  of 
which  it  treats,  into  ancient  middle-age,  and  modern  geography. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

Ancient  geography  is  that  which  explains  the  primitive  state  of 
the  world,  and  its  political  divisions  prior  to  the  subversion  of 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  west.  By  the  geography  of  the  middle 
ages,  is  understood  tliat  which  acquaints  us  with  the  political 
state  of  the  nations  who  figured  in  history  from  the  nfth  century 
to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth. 
Modern  geography  represents  to  us  the  state  of  the  world  and 
its  political  divi-sions,  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  present 
time. 

Antiquity  has  handed  down  to  us  the  works  of  several  very 
eminent  geographers,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom  are  Strabo, 
Ptolemy,  Pomponius  Mela,  Pausanias,  and  Stephanus  of  Byzan- 
tium. Among  the  moderns  who  have  laboured  in  this  depart- 
ment of  geography,  those  more  particularly  deserving  of  notice, 
are  CluveriuSjCellariuSjBrietjD'Anville,  Gosselin,  Mannert,  and 
Ukert. 

The  geography  of  the  middle  ages  is  but  little  known  ;  and 
remains  yet  a  sort  of  desert  which  demands  cultivation.  There 
does  not  exist  a  single  geographical  work  which  gives  a  correct 
representation  of  that  new  order  of  things,  which  the  German 
nations  introduced  into  Europe  after  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  fifth  century.  The  literati  of  France  and  Ger- 
many have  thrown  some  rays  of  light  on  certain  parts  of  these 
obscure  regions  ;  but  no  nation  in  Europe  can  yet  boast  of  having 
thoroughly  explored  them. 

Of  modern  authors,  the  most  conspicuous  as  the  restorer  of 
geographical  science,  is  Sebastian  Munster,  a  German,  who 
published  a  voluminous  work  on  cosmography,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Flemings  and  the  Dutch 
have  been  among  the  earliest  cultivators  of  geography  since 
the  revival  of  letters.  Ortelius,  Gerard  Mercator,  Varenius, 
Janson,  Bleau,  and  Fischer,  are  well  known  by  the  maps  and 
learned  works  which  they  have  produced. 

Among  the  number  of  celebrated  French  geographers  are  to 
be  reckoned  Sanson,  Delisle,  Cassini,  D'Anville  ;  and  more 
recently  Zannoni,  Bauche,  Mentelle,  Barbie  du  Bocage,  Malte- 
Brun,  &;c.  Delisle  is  the  first  who  submitted  geography  to  the 
touchstone  of  astronomical  observation.  Biisching,  a  German, 
wrote  a  work  on  geography,  which  has  been  translated  ?nto 
several  languages,  and  has  received  various  additions  and 
improvements,  especially  in  the  hands  of  the  French  transla- 
tors. M.  Ritter,  a  professor  at  Berlin,  published  a  work  in 
which  he  gives  anew  and  scientific  form  to  geograph3^ 

It  was  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  that 
the  attention  of  the  learned  was  turned  more  particularly  towards 


22  CHAPTER  5. 

geography,  when  a  series  of  the  most  elegant  maps  appeared  in 
all  the  principal  states  of  Europe.  The  wars  that  sprun-^  from 
the  revolution  encouraged  several  engineers  and  geographers, 
both  foreigners  and  Frenchmen,  to  publish  those  masterpieces 
of  their  art,  the  charts  and  plans  of  the  countries  that  had  served 
as  the  theatre  of  hostilities. 

Connected  with  geography  is  the  science  of  Statistics,  or  the 
study  of  the  constitution  and  political  economj;-  of  states.  Two 
Italians,  Sansovino  and  Botero,  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  were  the  first  that  attempted  to  treat  this  as  a  particular 
science,  separate  and  distinct  from  geography.  The  Germans 
followed  nearly  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Italian  writers  ;  they 
introduced  statistics  into  their  Universities  as  a  branch  of  study, 
and  gave  it  also  the  name  by  which  it  is  still  known. ^  It  was 
chiefly,  however,  during  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  the  governments  of  Europe  encouraged  the  study  of  this 
new  science,  which  borrow^s  its  illustrations  from  history,  and 
constitutes  at  present  an  essential  branch  of  national  polity. 

Genealogy,  or  the  science  which  treats  of  the  origin  and 
descent  of  illustrious  families,  is  not  less  important  to  the 
knowledge  of  history,  than  geography.  It  teaches  us  to  know 
and  distinguish  the  principal  characters  that  have  acted  a  con- 
spicuous part  on  the  theatre  of  the  world;  and  by  giving  us 
clear  and  explicit  ideas  of  the  ties  of  relationship  that  subsist 
among  sovereigns,  it  enables  us  to  investigate  the  rights  of 
succession,  and  the  respective  claims  of  rival  princes. 

The  study  of  Genealogy  is  full  of  difficulties,  on  account  of 
the  uncertainty  and  fabulous  obscurity  in  which  the  origin  of 
almost  every  great  family  is  enveloped.  Vanity,  aided  by  flattery 
has  given  birth  to  a  thousand  legendary  wonders,  that  fall  to 
pieces  at  the  touch  of  sound  criticism.  It  is  by  the  light  of  this 
science  that  we  learn  to  distinguish  certainties  from  probabilities, 
and  probabilities  from  fables  and  conjectures.  Few  families 
who  have  occupied  the  thrones  of  former  dynasties,  or  who  now 
hold  pre-eminent  rank  in  Europe,  can  trace  their  genealogy 
beyond  the  twelfth  century.  The  House  of  Capet  is  the  only 
one  that  can  boast  of  a  pedigree  that  reaches  back  to  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century.  The  origin  of  the  royal  families  of 
Savoy,  Lorrain,  Brunswick,  England,  and  Baden,  belongs  to  the 
eleventh  century  ;  all  the  others  are  of  a  date  posterior  to  these. 

A  single  fact  in  diplomatics  has  proved  sufficient  to  discredit 
a  multitude  of  errors  and  fables,  that  tradition  had  engrafted 
on  the  legends  of  the  dark  ages.  From  the  examinations  that 
have  been  made  of  ancient  charters  and  records,  there  is  abun- 
dant evidence  that,  prior  to  the  twelfth  century,  among  families 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

even  the  most  illustrious,  the  distinction  of  surnames  was  un- 
known. The  greatest  noblemen,  and  the  presumption  is  much 
stronger  that  common  gentlemen,  never  used  any  other  signa- 
ture than  their  baptismal  name  ;  to  which  they  sometimes  an- 
nexed that  of  the  dignity  or  order  with  which  they  were  invested. 
There  was  therefore  little  chance  of  distinguishing  families 
from  each  other,  and  still  less  of  distinguishing  individuals  of 
one  and  the  same  family.  It  was  only  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  and  during  the  era  of  the  crusades,  that  the  use 
of  family  names  was  gradually  introduced;  and  that  they  began, 
in  their  public  transactions,  to  superadd  to  their  baptismal  and 
honorary  names,  that  of  the  country  or  territory  they  possessed, 
or  the  castle  where  they  had  their  residence  ;  and  it  must  have 
required  nearly  two  hundred  years  before  this  practice  became 
general  in  Europe. 

The  Germans  were  the  first,  after  the  Reformation,  who 
combined  the  study  of  genealogy  with  that  of  history.  Among 
their  most  distinguished  genealogists  may  be  mentioned  Rein- 
erus  Reineccius,  Jerome  Henninges,  Elias  Reusner,  Nicolas 
Rittershusius,  James- William  Imhof,  and  the  two  Gebhards  of 
Luneburg,  father  and  son.  The  work  of  Henninges  is  much 
sought  after,  on  account  of  its  rarity ;  but  the  genealogical 
labours  of  the  two  Gebhards  are  particularly  remarkable  for  the 
profound  and  accurate  criticism  they  display.  The  principal 
writers  on  this  subject  among  the  French  are,  D'Hozier,  Gode- 
froy,  Andrew  Duchesne,  St.  Marthe,  Father  Anselme,  Chazot  de 
Nantigny,  and  M.  de  St.  Allais. 

Chronology,  or  the  science  of  computing  time,  represents 
facts  or  events  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  occurred.  The 
historian  ought  by  no  means  to  negle-ct  to  ascertain,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  the  exact  and  precise  date  of  events  ;  since,  without 
this  knovvledge.  he  will  be  perpetually  liable  to  commit  anachro- 
nisms, to  confound  things  with  persons,  and  often  to  mistake 
effects  for  causes,  or  causes  for  effects. 

This  study  is  not  without  its  difficulties,  which  are  as  perplex- 
ing as  they  are  singularly  various,  both  in  kind  and  degree. 
These  embarrassments  relate  chiefly,  1.  To  the  age  of  the 
world  ;  2.  The  different  forms  of  the  year  ;  3.  The  number  of 
years  that  elapsed  from  the  creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ ;  4. 
The  variety  of  epochs  or  periods  of  reckoning  time. 

Many  of  the  ancient  philosophers  maintained  that  the  world 
was  eternal.  Ocellus  Lucanus,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Py- 
thagorean sect,  attempted  to  prove  this  hypothesis,  in  a  treatise 
entitled  De  U?iive?'so,  which  the  Marquis  D'Argens  and  the 
Abbe  Batteux  have  translated  into  French.     Aristotle  followed 


24  CHAPTER   I. 

in  the  footsteps  of  Ocellus.     His  opinion  as  to  tht.  eternity  of 
the  upjverse,  is  deta*iled  at  length  in  his  commentaries  on  Physics. 

Some  modern  philosophers,  as  Buffon,  Hamilton,  Dolomieu, 
Saussure,  Faujas  de  St.  Fond,  &c.  have  assigned  to  our  globe 
an  existence  long  anterior  to  the  ages  when  history  commences. 
Their  reasoning  they  support  by  the  conformation  of  the  globe 
itself,  as  well  as  the  time  that  must  have  necessarily  elapsed 
before  the  earth,  in  the  progressive  operations  of  nature,  could 
be  rendered  a  suitable  habitation  for  man. 

The  most  ancient  account  that  we  have  of  the  origin  of  the 
world,  and  of  the  human  race,  is  derived  from  Moses.  This 
leader  and  lawgiver  of  the  Jewish  nation,  lived  about  1500  years 
before  Christ ;  and  nearly  1000  before  Herodotus,  the  most  an- 
cient profane  author  whose  works  have  been  handed  down  to 
our  times.  According  to  Moses  and  the  Jewish  annals,  the 
history  of  the  human  race  does  not  yet  comprehend  a  period  of 
six  thousand  years.  This  account  seems  to  be  in  opposition  to 
that  of  several  ancient  nations,  such  as  the  Egyptians,  Indians, 
Chaldeans,  Thibetians,  and  Chinese,  who  carry  back  their  chro- 
nology to  a  very  remote  date,  and  far  beyond  what  Moses  has 
assigned  to  the  human  race.  But  it  is  sufficient  at  present  to 
remark,  that  this  high  antiquity,  which  vanity  has  led  these  na- 
tions to  adopt  as  a  reality,  is  either  altogether  imaginary,  or 
purely  mythological,  founded  on  a  symbolical  theology,  whose 
mysteries  and  allegories  have  been  but  little  understood.  This 
primeval  epoch  is  usually  filled  with  gods  and  demigods,  who 
are  alleged  to  have  reigned  over  these  nations  for  so  many  my- 
riads of  years. 

Traditions  so  fabulous  and  chimerical  will  never  destroy  the 
authenticity  of  Moses,  w^ho  independently  of  his  nativity,  and 
the  remote  age  in  which  he  lived,  merits  implicit  credit  from 
the  simplicity  of  his  narrative,  and  from  the  circumstance,  that 
there  has  never  yet  been  discovered  on  the  surface,  or  in  the 
internal  structure  of  the  earth,  any  organic  evidence  or  work  of 
human  art,  that  can  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  history  of  the 
world,  or  more  properly  speaking,  of  the  human  race,  is  ante- 
cedent to  the  age  which  the  Jewish  legislator  has  assigned  it. 

With  regard  to  the  division  of  time,  a  considerable  period 
must,  no  doubt,  have  elapsed  before  men  began  to  reckon  by 
years,  calculated  according  to  astronomical  observations.  Two 
sorts  or  forms  of  computation  have  been  successively  in  use 
among  different  nations.  Some  have  employed  solar  years,  cal- 
culated by  ihe  annual  course  of  the  sun  ;  others  have  made  use 
of  lunar  year's,  calculated  by  the  periodical  revolutions  of  the 
moon,     AH  Christian  nations  of  the  present  day  adopt  the  solar 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

year;  while  the  lunar  calculation  is  that  followed  by  the  Ma- 
hometans. The  solar  year  consists  of  365  days,  5  hours,  48', 
45",  SO'":  the  lunar  year,  of  354  days,  3  hours,  48',  3S",  12"'. 

The  invention,  or  more  properly  speaking,  the  calculation  of 
the  solar  year,  is  due  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who,  by  the 
position  of  the'r  country,  as  well  as  by  the  periodical  overflow- 
ings and  ebbings  of  the  Nile,  had  early  and  obvious  induce- 
ments for  making  astronomical  observations.  The  solar  year 
has  undergone,  in  process  of  time,  various  corrections  and  de- 
nominations. The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  indicated  by 
the  distinctions,  still  in  use,  of  the  Julian,  the  Gregorian,  and 
the  Reformed  year. 

Julius  Caesar  introduced  into  the  Roman  empire,  the  solar  or 
Egyptian  year,  which  took  from  him  the  name  of  the  Julian 
3'ear.  This  he  substituted  instead  of  the  lunar  year,  which  the 
Romans  had  used  before  his  time.  It  was  distinguished,  on  ac- 
count of  a  slight  variation  in  the  reckoning,  into  the  common 
and  bissextile  or  leap  year.  The  common  Julian  year  consist- 
ed of  365  days  ;  and  the  bissextile,  which  returned  e\'ery  four 
years,  of  366  days.  This  computation  was  faulty,  inasmuch 
as  it  allowed  365  days,  and  6  entire  hours,  for  the  annual  re- 
volution of  the  sun  ;  being  an  excess  every  year,  of  IT,  14", 
30"',  beyond  the  true  time.  This,  in  a  long  course  of  ages, 
had  amounted  to  several  days  ;  and  began,  at  length,  to  derange 
the  order  of  the  seasons. 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.,''  wishing  to  correct  this  error,  employed 
an  able  mathematician,  named  Louis  Lilio,  to  reform  the  Julian 
year,  according  to  the  true  annual  course  of  the  sun.  A  new 
calendar  was  drawn  up,  which  was  called  after  the  name 
of  that  pontiff,  the  Gregorian  calendar;  and  as,  in  consequence 
of  the  incorrectness  of  the  Julian  era,  the  civil  year  had  gained 
ten  days,  the  same  Pope  ordered,  by  a  bull  published  in  1581, 
that  these  should  be  expunged  from  the  calendar  ;  so  that,  in- 
stead of  the  5th  of  October  1582,  they  should  reckon  it  the  loth. 

The  Catholic  States  adopted  this  new  calendar  without  the 
least  difficulty;  but  the  Protestants  in  the  Empire,  and  the 
rest  of  Europe,  as  also  the  Russians  and  the  Greeks,  adhered 
to  the  Julian  year  ;  and  hence  the  distinction  between  the  old 
and  new  style,  to  which  it  is  necessary  to  pay  attention  in  all 
public  acts  and  writings  since  the  year  1582  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  difference  between  the  old  and  new  style,  which, 
until  1699,  was  only  ten  days,  and  eleven  from  the  commence- 
ment of  1700,  must  be  reckoned  twelve  days  during  the  pre- 
sent century  of  1800;  so  that  the  1st  of  January  of  the  old 
year,  answers  to  the  13th  of  the  new. 

VOL.  I.  3 


26 


CHAPTER    I. 


The  Reformed  Year  or  Calendar,  as  it  is  called,  is  distinct 
from  the  Greoorjan,  and  applies  to  the  calculation  of  the  year, 
which  was  made  by  a  professor  at  Jena,  named  Weigel.  It 
differs  from  the  Gregorian  year,  as  to  the  method  of  calculating 
ihe  time  of  Easter,  and  the  other  moveable  feasts  of  the  Chris- 
tian churches.  The  Protestants  of  Germany,  Holland,  Den- 
mark and  Switzerland,  adopted  this  new  calendar  in  1700 
Their  example  was  followed  in  1752,  by  Great  Britain  ;  and  in 
1753,  by  Sweden ;  but  since  the  year  1776,  the  Protestants  of 
Germany,  Switzerland  and  Holland,  abandoned  the  reformed 
calendar,  and  adopted  the  Gregorian  ;  and  there  is,  properly 
speaking,  no  nation  in  Europe  at  this  day,  except  the  Russians 
and  the  Greeks,  which  makes  use  of  the  Julian  calendar,  or 
old  style.^ 

But  it  is  not  merely  the  variations  that  have  prevailed  as  to 
the  form  and  computation  of  the  year,  that  have  perplexed  the 
science  of  chronology ;  the  different  methods  of  commencing 
it,  have  also  been  the  source  of  much  confusion.  The  Romans, 
from  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  began  the  year  on  the  first  of 
January.  The  ancient  Greeks  at  first  reckoned  from  the  win- 
ter solstice,  and  afterwards  from  midsummer;  the  Syro-Mace- 
donians  or  Seleucidse,  commenced  from  the  autumnal  equinox. 
The  sacred  year  of  the  Jews,  began  with  the  first  new  moon 
after  the  vernal  equinox,  that  is,  in  the  month  of  March  ;  and 
their  civil  j^ear  began  with  the  new  moon  immediately  follow- 
ing the  autumnal  equinox,  that  is,  in  the  month  of  September. 

The  same  diversity  of  practice  v/hich  we  observe  among  the 
ancients,  existed  also  in  the  middle  ages.  The  Franks,  under 
the  Merovingian  kings,  began  the  year  with  the  month  of  March. 
The  Popes  began  it  sometimes  at  Christmas,  or  the  25lh  of  De- 
cember; sometimes  on  the  1st  of  January;  and  sometimes  on 
the  25lh  of  March,  called  indiscriminately  the  day  of  the  Annun- 
ciation or  Incarnation.  Under  the  Carlovingian  princes,  two 
methods  of  beginning  the  year  were  generally  prevalent  in 
France, — the  one  fixed  its  commencement  at  Christmas,  or  the 
25lh  of  December,  and  the  other  at  Easter ;  that  is,  at  the  day 
on  which  that  moveable  feast  happened  to  fall.  This  latter 
custom  prevailed  also  under  the  Capetian  kings,  and  it  was  not 
suppressed  until  near  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Charles  IX.,  by  an  edict  published  in  1564,  ordered,  that  in 
France  the  year  should  henceforth  commence  on  the  1st  of  Ja- 
nuary. Previously  to  this  edict,  it  sometimes  happened,  from 
the  variable  date  of  Easter,  that  the  same  month  was  found  to 
occur  twice  in  one  and  the  same  year.  For  example,  the  year 
1358  having  begun  on  the  1st  of  April,  on  which  Easter  day 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

happened  to  fall,  did  not  terminate  until  the  20th  of  April  fol- 
lowing, that  is,  on  the  eve  preceding  Easter.  There  were  con- 
sequently in  this  year,  nearly  two  complete  months  of  April. 
Since  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  it  has  continued  the  invariable 
practice  in  France  to  begin  the  year  on  the  1st  of  January. 

In  England,  the  year  used  to  commence  on  the  2oth  of  March, 
and  the  old  style  was  there  observed  until  1753  ;  when,  by  vir- 
tue of  an  act  of  Parliament,  passed  in  1752,  the  beginning  of 
the  year  was  transferred  to  the  1st  of  January.  It  was  decreed 
also,  at  the  same  time,  that,  in  order  to  accommodate  the  En- 
glish chronology  to  the  new  style,  the  3d  of  September  1752, 
should  be  reckoned  the  14th  of  the  same  month.  ' 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  the  perplexity  and  confusion  that  must 
have  been  introduced  into  chronology,  as  much  by  the  differ- 
ence of  styles  as  by  the  different  methods  of  commencing  the 
year.  Nothing  is  more  probable,  than  that  we  should  here 
find  mistakes  and  contradictions  which,  in  reality,  have  no  ex- 
istence ;  and  the  more  so,  as  the  writers  or  recorders  of  public 
-icts,  who  employ  these  different  styles,  or  date  the  beginning  of 
■Jie  year  variously,  never  give  us  any  intimation  on  the  sub- 
ject;  and  all  reckon  promiscuously  from  the  year  of  Christ's 
nativity,  without  informing  us  whether  they  follow  the  old  or 
the  new  style — whether  they  commence  the  year  in  the  month 
of  January  or  March,  at  Easter  or  at  Christmas. 

Modern  chronologists  have  found  much  embarrassment  in 
calculating  the  number  of  years  that  elapsed  between  the  crea- 
tion and  the  birth  of  Christ.  Father  Petau,  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  in  this  science,  admits,  that  this  point  of  chrono- 
logy is  to  be  established  rather  by  probable  conjectures  than  so- 
lid arguments.  There  have  even  been  reckoned,  according  to 
Fabricius,  about  a  hundred  and  forty  different  opinions  respect- 
ing the  epoch  of  Christ's  nativity.  Some  fix  this  era  in  the 
year  of  the  world  3616,  while  others  carry  it  back  to  the  year 
6484.  This  great  discordance  of  opinions  arises  from  the  con- 
tradictions found  to  exist  between  the  three  principal  texts  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  Hebrew  text,  for  instance,  to  which  most 
chronologists  gives  the  preference,  fixes  the  deluge  in  the  year 
of  the  world  1656  ;  while,  according  to  the  Samaritan  text,  it 
happened  in  1307;  and,  according  to  the  Septuagint,  in  2242. 
The  system  at  present  most  accredited,  is  that  of  Archbishop 
Usher,  an  Irish  prelate,  who,  founding  his  calculation  on  the 
Hebrew  text,  fixes  ihe  date  of  Christ's  nativity  in  the  year  of 
the  world  4000. 

A  variety  of  epochs  prevailed  at  different  times ;  as  most  na- 
tions, both  ancient  and  modern,  who  had  governments  and  laws 


2S 


CHAPTER   I. 


of  their  own,  adopted  chronological  eras  that  were  peculiar  to 
themselves.  The  ancient  Greeks  had  their  Olympiads,  and 
the  Syro-Macedonians  the  era  of  the  Seleucidae.  The  Romans 
calculated  by  consulships,  which  became  the  era  of  their  public 
acts  ;  and  besides  these,  their  historians  used  to  reckon  from 
the  foundation  of  the  city,  which  goes  back  752  years  before 
Christ,  or  3249  after  the  creation.  The  era  of  Dioclesian,  in- 
troduced in  honour  of  that  emperor,  and  sometimes  also  called 
the  era  of  the  martyrs,  began  in  the  year  2S4  after  Christ,  and 
was  for  a  long  time  used  in  the  West.  But,  without  stopping 
here  to  enumerate  the  different  eras  of  antiquity,  we  shall  rather 
restrict  ourselves  at  present  to  the  pointing  out  of  those  that 
belong  more  properly  to  modern  history,  viz.  1.  The  era  of 
the  modern  Greeks.  2.  Of  the  modern  Jews.  3.  Of  the  Spa- 
niards. 4.  The  Hegira,  or  Mahometan  era.  5.  The  Diony- 
sian,  or  Christian  era. 

The  era  of  the  modern  Greeks  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Mundane  era  of  Constantinople.  It  begins  5508  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ.  The  first  year  of  the  Incarnation  thus  falls 
in  the  year  of  the  world  5509  ;  and,  consequently,  the  year 
1823  of  the  Christian  era  answers  to  the  year  7331  of  the  Mun- 
dane era  of  Constantinople.  Under  this  system,  two  kinds  of 
years  are  in  use,  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical.  The  former 
commences  with  the  month  of  September,  the  other  has  begun 
sometimes  on  the  21st  of  March,  and  sometimes  on  the  1st  of 
April.  This  era  is  followed,  even  at  this  day,  by  the  Greek 
church.  The  Russians,  who  adopted  it  from  the  Greeks,  along 
with  the  Christian  religion,  made  use  of  it  even  in  their  civil 
acts,  until  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great.  That  emperor,  in 
1700,  abolished  the  Mundane  era  of  Constantinople,  and  sub- 
stituted in  its  place,  the  Christian  era,  and  the  Julian  calendar 
or  old  style. 

The  modern  Jews  have  likewise  a  mundane  era  ;  as  they 
reckon  from  the  creation  of  the  world.  It  commences  on  the 
7th  of  October  of  the  Julian  year,  and  reckons  3761  years  be- 
fore Christ.  The  year  3762  of  the  world,  is  the  first  of  the 
Christian  era,  according  to  the  Jews  ;  and  the  current  year 
(1823)  answers  to  the  year  5583  of  their  mundane  era. 

In  Spain,  the  era  began  with  the  year  of  Rome  714,  thirty- 
eight  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ;  being  the  time  when  the 
triumvirate  was  renewed  between  Coesar  Octavianus,  Mark  An- 
tony, and  Lepidus.  The  Spaniards,  wishing  to  give  Octavia- 
nus some  testimony  of  their  satisfaction  on  being  comprehended 
within  his  province,  began  a  new  era  w^ith  this  event,^  which 
prevailed  not  only  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  but  also  in  Africa, 


INTRODUCTION.  29 

and  those  parts  of  France  which  were  subject  to  the  dominion 
of  the  Visigoths.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  know,  that  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  constantly  employed  this  era  in  their 
annals  and  public  acts,  so  late  as  the  14th  and  15th  centuries, 
when  they  substituted  the  Christian  era  in  its  place. 

The  era  which  the  Mussulman  nations  follow  is  that  of  Ma- 
homet, called  ihe  Hegira,  or  the  Flight  of  the  Prophet.  It  be- 
gan on  the  16th  of  July  622  A.  C,  and  is  composed  of  lunar 
years.  In  order  to  find  out  in  what  year  of  the  vulgar  era  any 
given  year  of  the  Hegira  falls,  it  is  necessary  first  to  reduce 
the  lunar  into  solar  years,  and  then  add  the  number  622.  For 
example,  the  year  1238  of  the  Hegira,  answers  to  the  year  1823 
of  the  vulgar,  or  Christian  era.  It  began  on  the  18th  of  Sep- 
tember 1822,  and  ended  on  the  7th  of  the  following  September 

Dionysius  or  Denys  the  Little,  a  Roman  Abbe,  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  about  the  year  of  Christ  530, 
was  the  author  of  the  vulgar  era,  which  afterwards  received  a 
more  perfect  form  from  the  hands  of  the  venerable  Bede,  an 
English  monk,  about  the  year  720.  Before  that  time,  the  Latins, 
or  Christians  of  the  West,  employed  the  era  of  the  Consuls,  or 
that  of  Dioclesian.  Denys  the  Little,  imagining  it  would  be 
more  convenient  for  the  Christians  to  reckon  their  time  from  the 
birth  of  Christ,  applied  himself  with  great  industry  to  calculate 
the  number  of  years  that  had  elapsed  from  the  Incarnation  to 
his  own  times.  Modern  chronologists  have  remarked,  that 
both  Denys  and  Bede  were  mistaken  in  their  calculations  ;  but 
a  difference  of  opinion  prevails  on  this  subject,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  learned  work  of  Fabricius.  There  are  some  of 
these  chronologists  who  date  the  birth  of  Christ  thirty-four  years 
earlier,  while  others  find  a  difference  of  but  one  year,  or  at  most 
four,  between  the  true  epoch  of  the  nativity,  and  that  adopted 
by  Denys.  This  disagreement  of  the  modern  chronologists  has 
given  rise  to  the  distinction  between  the  true  era  of  the  birth 
of  Christ,  and  the  Vulgar  or  Dlonysiaii  era,  which  the  general 
usage  has  now  consecrated  and  established. 

In  France,  this  era  was  not  introduced  until  the  eighth  century. 
We  find  it  employed,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  acts  of  the  Coun- 
cils of  Germany,  Liptines,  and  Soissons,  held  in  the  years 
742-3-4,  under  Pepin,  surnamed  the  Short.  The  Kings  of 
France  never  used  it  in  their  public  acts,  until  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century ;  and  the  Popes  only  since  the  eleventh. 

In  order  to  compare  the  difl^erent  eras,  and  to  focilitate  the 
process  of  reducing  the  years  of  one  into  those  of  another,  a 
scheme  has  beeen  proposed  called  the  Julian  period.  The  in- 
vention of  this  is  due  to  Joseph  Scaliger,  a  professor  at  Leyden, 


30  CHAPTER   I. 

and  well  known  by  his  chronological  works.  He  gave  it  the 
name  of  Julian,  because  the  Julian  year  served  as  the  basis  of 
it.  It  is  composed  of  the  several  products  of  the  cycles  of  the 
sun,  the  moon,  and  the  indictions  multiplied  by  each  other. 

The  cycle  of  the  sun  is  a  period,  or  revolution  of  twenty- 
eight  solar  years  ;  at  the  end  of  which  the  same  order  of  years 
returns,  by  a  kind  of  circle  or  cycle.  Its  use  is  to  indicate  the 
days  on  which  each  year  commences,  and  the  Dominical  Let- 
ters. These  are  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c, 
D,  E,  F,  G,  which  are  employed  to  indicate  the  seven  days  of  the 
week,  more  particularly  the  Sabbath  [dies  Dominica.)  At  the 
end  of  twenty-eight  years,  of  which  this  cycle  is  composed, 
there  returns  a  new  order  or  series  of  years,  so  similar  to  the 
preceding,  that  the  dominical  letters  again  answer  exactly  to  the 
same  days. 

The  cijcle  of  the  moon  comprises  nineteen  lunar  years,  twelve 
of  which  are  called  common,  and  the  remaining  seven  interca- 
lary;  these  yield  a  product  of  6939  days  18  hours,  according 
to  the  calculation  of  the  ancients  f  and  are  equal  to  nineteen 
Julian  or  solar  years.  By  means  of  this  cycle  always  re- 
curring, the  new  moons  fall  again  on  the  same  days  and  the 
same  hours  on  which  they  had  happened  nineteen  years  before  ; 
so  that,  for  all  the  new  moons,  the  cycle  which  is  to  come  is 
entirely  similar  to  the  preceding.  The  cipher  which  indicates 
the  year  of  the  cycle,  is  called  i\\Q  golden  7iu??ibe?;  because  they 
used  to  write  it  in  characters  of  gold  in  the  ancient  calendars, 
where  it  was  employed  to  mark  the  times  of  the  new  moons. 

The  cycle  of  indictions  is  a  cycle  which  recurs  every  fifteen 
years  ;  and  which,  like  those  already  mentioned,  was  frequent- 
ly employed  in  charters  and  public  records.  The  origin  of 
these  indictions  is  generally  referred  to  a  contribution  or  cess 
appointed,  for  fifteen  years,  by  the  Romans,  and  afterwards  re- 
newed for  the  same  period.  They  began  in  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantino the  Great,  that  is,  about  the  year  of  Christ  313,  and  are 
distinguished  into  three  kinds  ;  1.  That  of  Constantinople, 
which  was  employed  by  the  Greek  Emperors,  and  began  on 
the  1st  of  September;  2.  That  which  v.^as  termed  the  Imperial. 
or  CsBsarean  indiction,  the  use  of  which  was  limited  to  the 
West,  and  which  began  on  the  2oth  of  September ;  and,  3. 
The  Roman  or  Pontifical  indiction,  which  the  Popes  employed 
in  their  bulls.  This  last  began  on  the  25th  of  December,  or 
the  1st  of  January,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
days  was  reckoned  by  the  Romans  the  first  of  the  new  year. 

'The  cycle  of  the  sun.  comprising  twenty-eight  years,  and 
tliat  of  the  moon  nineteen,  when  multiplied  together,  give  a 


INTEODUCTION.  8} 

product  of  532,  which  is  called  the  Paschal  cycle,  because  it 
serves  to  ascertain  the  feast  of  Easter.  The  product  of  532, 
multiplied  by  15,  the  cycle  of  indictions,  amounts  to  the  num- 
ber 7980,  which  constitutes  the  Julian  period.  Within  the  com- 
pass of  this  period  may  be  placed,  as  it  were,  under  one  view, 
these  different  eras  and  epochs,  in  order  to  compare  and  recon- 
cile them  with  each  other;  adopting,  as  their  comm.on  term,  the 
nativity  of  Christ,  fixed  to  the  year  4714  of  the  Julian  period. 

History  has  been  divided,  according  to  the  different  subjects 
of  which  it  treats,  into  Civil,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Literary. 
Civil  and  political  history  is  occupied  entirely  with  events 
that  relate  to  mankind,  as  distributed  into  societies,  and  united 
tog-ether  by  governments,  laws,  and  manners.  Ecclesiastical 
history  is  confined  to  those  events  that  properly  belong  to  reli- 
gion. Literary  history  treats  more  particularly  of  the  origin, 
progress,  and  vicissitudes  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  His- 
tory of  Philosophy,  which  is  a  subdivision  of  Literary  History, 
illustrates  the  different  systems  of  philosophy  that  have  flou- 
rished in  the  world,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 

Another  division  of  history,  according  to  its  extent,  is  ,nat  ot 
Universal,  General,  and  Particular  History.  Universal  history 
gives  a  kind  of  outline  or  summary  of  the  events  of  all  the  na- 
tions that  have  figured  on  the  earth,  from  the  remotest  ages  to 
the  present  time. 

By  general  history,  is  understood  that  which  treats  of  the 
revolutions  that  have  happened  in  the  world,  whether  of  great 
states  or  confederate  powers,  or  of  several  nations  combined  to- 
gether, by  various  and  complicated  interests.  Thus,  there  may 
be  a  general  history  of  France,  or  of  Great  Britain,  a  general 
history  of  the  United  Provinces,  a  general  history  of  Europe, 
&c.  Particular  history  embraces,  in  detail,  the  events  of  a  par- 
ticular people,  or  province,  or  city,  or  illustrious  individual. 

Finally,  in  regard  to  the  time  of  which  it  treats,  history  is 
distinguished  into  Ancient  and  Modern,  and  that  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Ancient  history  is  that  of  the  nations  who  flourished 
from  the  time  of  the  creation  to  the  fifth  century;  while  the 
history  of  the  middle  ages  has,  for  its  object,  the  revolutions 
that  took  place  from  the  fifth  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
What  is  now  termed  modern  history,  is  that  which  retraces  the 
events  of  the  last  three  centuries. 

This  division,  which  applies  more  particularly  to  the  history 
of  Europe,  is  founded  on  the  great  revolutions  which  this  part 
of  the  world  experienced  in  the  fifth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
The  revolution  of  the  fifth  century  ended  in  the  subversion  of 
the  Roman  empire  in  the  West,  and  gave  birth  to  the  principal 


32  CHAPTER  I. 

states  in  modern  Europe  ;  while  that  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
which  dates  its  commencement  from  the  destruction  of  the 
Eastern  empire,  brought  along-  with  it  the  revival  of  literature 
and  the  fine  arts,  and  the  renovation  of  civil  society  in  Europe. 
Although  ancient  history  does  not  enter  into  the  plan  of  the 
following  work,  nevertheless  it  appeared  necessary  to  give  here 
a  brief  sketch  of  it  to  the  reader,  with  the  view  of  connecting 
the  order  of  time,  and  the  chain  of  the  great  events  that  have 
occurred  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  day.  We  have 
divided  it  into  three  periods,  the  first  of  which  embraces  3000, 
the  second  1000,  and  the  third  500  years. 

The  first  period,  which  comprises  thirty  centuries,  is  almost 
wholly  fabulous.  The  notices  of  it  that  have  been  transmitted 
to  us  are  very  imperfect.  The  order  of  time  cannot  be  estab- 
lished on  any  solid  foundation.  Even  the  authenticity  of  the 
famous  Parian  marbles,  has  been  called  in  question  as  spurious  ; 
and  there  is  no  other  chronology  that  can  guide  our  steps 
through  this  dark  labyrinth  of  profane  history.  The  only  lite- 
rary monuments  that  are  left  us  of  these  remote  and  obscure 
ages,  are  the  books  of  Moses  and  the  Jews.  Herodotus,  the 
earliest  profane  historian,  wrote  more  than  a  thousand  years 
after  Moses,  and  about  450  before  Christ.  He  had  been  prece- 
ded several  centuries  by  Sanchoniathon  the  Phoenician  ;  but 
the  work  of  this  latter  historian  is  lost,  and  there  exists  only  a 
few  scattered  fragments  of  it  in  Porphyry  and  Eusebius. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  of  the  4500  years  that  fall  within 
the  compass  of  ancient  history,  the  first  thirty  centuries  may, 
without  inconvenience,  be  retrenched.  Amidst  the  darkness  of 
those  ages,  we  discover  nothing  but  the  germs  of  societies,  gov- 
ernments, sciences  and  arts.  The  Egyptians,  the  Israelites,  the 
PhcEnicians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians,  or  Chaldeanb% 
made  then  the  most  conspicuous  figure  among  the  nations  of 
Asia  and  Africa. 

The  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans  were  the  first  who  cultivated 
astronomy.  Egypt  was  long  the  nursery  of  arts  and  sciences. 
The  Phoenicians,  without  any  other  guide  than  the  stars,  boldly 
traversed  unknown  seas,  and  gave  a  vast  extent  of  intercourse 
to  their  commerce  and  navigation.  They  founded  many 
celebrated  colonies,  such  as  Carthage  in  Africa,  and  Malaga  and 
Cadiz  on  the  shores  of  Spain. 

The  history  of  Europe,  which  is  utterly  unknown  during  the 
first  two  thousand  years,  begins  to  exhibit  in  the  third  millenary, 
a  few  slight  notices  of  ancient  Greece.  A  multitude  of  petty 
stales  had  then  taken  root ;  most  of  which,  as  Argos,  Athens 
and  Thebes,  had  been  founded  by  colonies  from  Egypt.     The 


INTRODUCTION.  33 

Greeks,  in  imitation  of  the  Phcenicians,  applied  themselves  to 
arts,  navigation,  and  commerce.  They  established  numerous 
colonies,  not  only  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  but  on  those  of 
Italy  and  Sicily.  That  in  lower  Italy  or  Calabria,  was  knowr 
by  the  name  of  Magna  Groecia. 

It  was  during  the  second  period  of  ancient  history,  or  in  the 
fourth  millenary,  that  great  and  powerful  monarchies  arose  ; 
which  contributed  to  the  progress  of  arts  and  civilization,  and 
the  perfection  of  society.  These  are  commonly  reckoned  five, 
viz.  the  Egyptian,  the  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Macedonian, 
and  the  Roman  ;  all  of  which  successively  established  ther>' 
selves  on  the  ruins  of  each  other. 

The  history  of  the  two  first  monarchies  is  enveloped  in 
mystery  and  doubt.  Of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  nothing  now 
remains  but  their  pyramids,  their  temples,  and  obelisks, — monu- 
ments which  can  only  attest  the  power  and  grandeur  of  the 
ancient  sovereigns  of  Egypt. 

As  to  the  Assyrian  antiquities,  the  contradictions  that  we  find 
between  the  narratives  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  cannot  fail  to 
make  us  reject,  as  fabulous,  the  details  of  the  latter,  respecting 
the  magnificence  of  Ninus,  Semiramus,  and  Sardanapalus,  the 
supposed  monarchs  of  Assyria  and  Babylon.  Nothing  certain 
is  known  of  this  empire,  or  the  conquests  of  these  kings, 
beyond  what  we  find  recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  Jews. 
Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria,  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Sama- 
ria or  Israel,  about  the  year  of  the  world  3270  ;  and  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, one  of  his  successors,  conquered  that  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem,  about  the  year  3403. 

The  Persian  monarchy  was  founded  by  Cyrus,  who  put  an 
end  to  the  dominion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  by  taking 
the  city  of  Babylon,  about  the  year  of  the  world  3463.  The 
empire,  when  at  its  greatest  height,  under  Darius  Hystaspes, 
comprehended  all  that  part  of  Asia  which  stretches  from  the 
Indus  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  from  the  Euxine  to  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Egypt  in  Africa,  and  Thrace  in  Europe,  were 
subject  to  its  law^s.  After  a  duration  of  nearly  two  centuries, 
it  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Macedonians  in  the  year  3672. 

Greece,  which  was  at  first  divided,  into  several  petty  king- 
doms, changed  its  condition  towards  the  commencement  of  the 
fourth  millenary;  when  its  principal  cities,  till  then  governed 
by  kings,  formed  themselves  into  detached  republics.  An  en- 
thusiasm for  liberty  spread  over  all  Greece,  and  inspired  every 
bosom  vvith  the  love  of  glory.  Military  bravery,  as  well  as  arts, 
and  talents  of  all  kinds,  were  fostered  and  encouraged  by  public 
games,  the  principal  of  which  were  the  Olympic.     Two  cities. 


34  CHAPTER  I. 

Athens  and  Lacedemon,  fixed  upon  themselves  for  a  time  jt 
eyes  of  all  Greece.  Solon  was  the  legislator  of  the  former,  i^d 
Lycurgns  of  the  latter.  To  these  two  republics  ail  the  rest  suc- 
cumbed, either  as  allies,  or  by  right  of  conquest.  Athens  has 
rendered  herself  immortal  by  the  victories  which  she  gained 
over  the  Persians,  at  the  famous  battles  of  Marathon,  Salamis, 
and  Platffia;  fought  a.  m.  3512,  3522,  and  3523. 

The  ascendency  which  these  victories  procured  the  Atheni- 
ans over  the  rest  of  the  Greek  states,  excited  the  jealousy  of 
the  Lacedemonians,  and  became  the  principal  cause  of  the 
famous  civil  war  which  arose  in  3572,  between  these  two  repub- 
lics, and  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
This  was  followed  by  various  other  civil  wars  ;  and  these  dis- 
asters contributed  to  greatly  exhaust  the  Greeks,  and  to  break 
that  union  which  had  been  the  true  source  of  their  prosperity 
and  their  glory.  Philip,  King  of  Macedon,  had  the  address  to 
turn  these  unhappy  divisions  to  his  own  advantage,  and  soon 
made  himself  master  of  all  Greece.  The  battle  of  Chasronea, 
which  he  gained  over  the  Athenians  about  the  year  of  the 
world  3664,  completed  the  conquest  of  that  country. 

Alexander  the  Great,  son  of  Philip,  afterwards  attacked  the 
Persian  empire,  which  he  utterly  overthrew,  in  consequence  of 
the  three  victories  which  he  gained  over  Darius  Codomannus, 
the  last  of  the  Persian  kings,  at  the  passage  of  the  Granicus  in 
366S,  at  Issus  in  3669,  and  near  Arbela  in  3672. 

The  monarchy  founded  by  Alexander  fell  to  pieces  after  his 
death.  From  its  wreck  were  formed,  among  others,  by  three 
of  his  generals,  the  three  kingdoms  of  Macedon,  Syria  and 
Egypt;  all  of  which  were  conquered  in  succession  by  the  Ro- 
mans, A.  M.  3835,  3936,  and  3972.  Greece  itself  had  been 
reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  after  the  famous  sack  of  Corinth, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Achcean  league,  a.  m.  3856,  or  144 
years  before  Christ. 

The  empire  of  the  Greeks  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the 
Romans,  which  is  distinguished  from  all  its  predecessors,  not 
more  by  its  extent  and  duration,  than  by  the  wisdom  with 
which  it  was  administered,  and  the  fine  monuments  of  all  kinds 
which  it  has  transmitted  to  posterity.  The  greatness  of  this  em- 
pire was  not,  however,  the  achievement  of  a  single  conqueror, 
but  the  work  of  ages.  Its  prosperity  must  be  chiefly  ascribed 
to  the  primitive  constitution  of  the  Republic,  which  inspired  the 
Romans  with  the  love  of  liberty,  and  the  spirit  of  patriotism — 
which  animated  them  to  glory  and  perseverance,  and  taught 
them  to  despise  dangers  and  death.  Their  religion,  likewise, 
served  as  a  powerful  engine  to  restrain  and  direct  the  multitude, 
according  to  the  views  and  designs  of  the  government. 


INTRODUCTION.  35 

The  earlier  part  of  the  Roman  history  may  be  divided  into 
three  periods.  The  first  of  these  represents  Rome  under  the 
government  of  kings  ;  from  the  time  of  its  foundation,  about 
the  year  of  the  world  3249,  to  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin  the 
Pioud,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  in  3193.  The 
second  extends  from  the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  in  the 
year  of  Rome  245,  to  the  first  Punic  war,  in  the  year  of  the 
City  490,  and  of  the  world  3738.  The  third  commences  with 
the  first  Punic  war,  and  terminates  at  the  battle  of  Actium, 
which  put  an  end  to  the  Republican  government,  and  re-estab- 
lished monarchy  under  Augustus,  in  the  year  of  Rome  723. 

During  the  first  of  these  periods,  the  Romans  had  to  sustain 
incessant  wars  with  their  neighbours,  the  petty  states  of  Italy. 
They  subdued  the  whole  of  that  peninsula  in  course  of  the 
second  period;  and  it  was  not  till  the  third,  that  they  carried 
their  arms  beyond  their  own  country,  to  conquer  the  greater 
portion  of  the  then  known  world.  The  first  two  periods  of  the 
Roman  history,  are  full  of  obscure  and  uncertain  traditions.  In 
those  remote  ages,  the  Romans  paid  no  attention  to  the  study  of 
letters.  Immersed  entirely  in  the  business  of  war,  they  had  no 
other  historical  records  than  the  annals  of  their  pontiflTs,  which 
perished  in  the  sack  of  Rome,  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  by  the 
Gauls,  in  the  year  of  the  City  365. 

The  most  ancient  of  their  historians  was  Fabius  Pictor,  who 
wrote  his  Annals  in  the  sixth  century  after  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  or  about  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war.  These 
Annals,  in  which  Fabius  had  consulted  both  tradition  and 
foreign  authors,  are  lost;  and  we  possess  no  information  on 
these  two  periods  of  Roman  history,  except  what  has  been  left 
us  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  and  Titus  Livius,  who  both 
wrote  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  whose  narratives  often  re- 
semble a  romance  rather  than  a  true  history. 

The  cultivation  of  letters  and  arts  among  the  Romans,  did 
not,  properly  speaking,  commence  until  the  third  period;,  and 
after  they  had  had  intercourse  with  civilized  nations,  as  the 
Carthaginians  and  Greeks.  It  was  not  until  4S4  years  after  the 
building  of  the  city,  that  they  struck  their  first  silver  coinage  ; 
and  ten  years  afterwards,  they  equipped  their  first  fleet  against 
the  Carthaginians.  It  is  at  this  period,  also,  that  truth  begins 
to  dawn  upon  their  history,  and  to  occupy  the  place  of  fable 
and  tradition.  Besides  their  native  historians,  Titus  Livius, 
Florus,  and  Velleius  Paterculus,  several  Greek  authors,  as  Po- 
Lybius,  Plutarch,  Appian  of  Alexandria,  Dion  Cassius,  &c.  have 
furnished  useful  memorials-  on  this  period.  The  history  of 
Polybius,  especially,  is  a  work  of  the  highest  merit.      The 


36  CHAPTER    I. 

Statesman  will  there  find  lessons  on  politics  and  governnient» 
and  the  soldier  instructions  in  the  art  of  war. 

A  long  series  of  foreign  wars  put  the  Eomans  in  possession 
of  the  Isles  of  the  Mediterranean,  Spain,  Northern  Africa, 
Egypt,  Gaul,  Ill3^ria,  Macedonia,  Greece,  Thrace,  and  all  Asia, 
as  far  as  the  Euphrates.  The  destruction  of  the  powerful  re- 
public of  Carthage  was  the  grand  cast  of  the  die  that  decided 
the  empire  of  the  world  in  favour  of  the  Romans. 

Carthage  was  a  colony  which  the  ancient  Phenicians  had 
founded  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  the  modern  city  of  Tunis, 
in  the  year  of  the  v/orld  3119,  and  130  before  the  foundmg  of 
Rome.^  In  imitation  of  their  mother  country,  the  Carthaginians 
rendered  themselves  famous  by  their  merchandise  and  their 
marine.  The  extent  to  which  they  carried  their  commerce,  and 
the  force  necessary  for  its  protection,  rendered  their  arms  every 
where  victorious.  They  gradually  extended  their  conquests 
along  the  shores  of  Africa,  in  Spain,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  attempts  which  they  had  made  to  get  possession  of 
Sicily,  was  the  occasion  of  embroiling  them  in  a  war  with  the 
Romans.  For  nearly  two  hundred  years,  Rome  and  Carthage 
disputed  between  them  the  empire  of  the  world;  and  it  wa^ 
not  until  these  two  mighty  rivals  had,  more  than  once,  made 
each  other  tremble  for  their  independence,  that  the  Carthaginians 
yielded  to  the  yoke  of  the  conqueror.  Their  capital,  after  a 
siege  which  lasted  nearly  three  years,  was  completely  laid  iu 
ruins  by  the  famous  Scipio  ^milianus,  the  scholar  of  Polybius. 
No  monument  of  the  Carthaginians  now  remains  to  point  out 
the  ancient  splendour  of  that  republic.  Their  national  archives, 
and  all  the  literary  treasures  they  contained,  perished  with  the 
city,  or  were  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  The  destruction  of 
Carthage  happened  in  the  year  of  Rome  608,  and  of  the  world 
3356,  the  same  year  that  witnessed  the  sack  of  Corinth. 

The  fall  of  Carthage,  and  more  especially  the  conquest  of 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  the  Asiatic  kingdoms,  occasioned  a  wonder- 
ful revolution  in  the  manners  and  government  of  the  Romans 
The  riches  of  the  East,  the  arts  and  institutions  of  the  van* 
(juished  nations,  brought  them  acquainted  with  luxuries  they 
had  never  known,  which  soon  proved  the  fatal  harbingers  of 
vice.  Their  patriotism  and  love  of  liberty  insensibly  declined, 
and  became  extinct :  powerful  and  ambitious  citizens  fomented 
insurrections  and  civil  wars,  which  ended  in  the  subversion  of 
the  republican  government,  and  the  establishment  of  monarchy. 
Two  triumvirates  appeared  in  succession.  The  first  consisted 
of  Pompey,  Ccesar,  and  Crass  us,  and  was  dissolved  in  conse- 


INTRODUCTION.  37 

quence  of  the  civil  war  that  arose  among  the  triumvirs.  Caesar, 
having-  conquered  Pompey  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  in  the 
year  of  Kome  706,  became  master  of  the  empire,  under  the  title 
of  perpetual  dictator.  This  new  elevation  of  fortune  he  did 
not  long  enjoy  ;  he  was  assassinated  in  the  senate  by  a  band  of 
conspirators,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Brutus,  in  the  year  of 
Home  710,  and  42  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

A  second  triumvirate  was  formed  between  Mark  Antony, 
Caesar  Octavianus,  and  Lepidus.  Many  thousands  of  illustri- 
ous Romans,  and  among  others  Cicero,  were  at  this  time  pro- 
scribed, and  put  to  death  b}"  order  of  the  triumvirs.  Jealousy 
having  at  length  disunited  these  new  tyrants,  Octavianus  stripped 
Lepidus  of  his  power,  and  defeated  Mark  Antony  in  the  famous 
naval  battle  which  took  place  near  the  promontory  of  Actium, 
in  the  year  of  Rome  723.  Antony  having  been  assassinated  in 
Egypt,  immediately  after  his  defeat,  Caesar  Octavianus  became 
sole  master  of  the  empire,  which  he  afterwards  ruled  with 
sovereign  authority  under  the  name  of  Augustus. 

At  this  time  the  Roman  empire  comprehended  the  finest 
countries  of  Europe  and  Asia  ;  with  Egypt  and  all  the  northern 
part  of  Africa.  It  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Euphrates.  The  successors 
af  Augustus  added  the  greater  part  of  Britian  to  the  empire. 
Trajan  carried  his  victorioas.»rms  bej'ond  '■:he  Danube  ;  he  con- 
quered the  Ducians,  who  inhabited  those  countries  known  at 
present  under  the  name  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Moldavia, 
Walachia,  and  Besfarabia.  In  the  East  this  prince  extended  the 
limits  of  the  empire  beyond  the  Euphrates,  having  subdued 
Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  Armenia,  Colchis  and  Iberia,  (or  Geor- 
gia;) but  the  conquests  of  Trajan  were  abandoned  by  his  suc- 
cessors, and  the  empire  again  shrunk  within  the  bounds  pro- 
scribed by  Augustus. 

This  empire,  which  extended  from  north  to  south  nearly  six 
hundred  leagues,  and  more  than  a  thousand  from  east  to  west, 
viz.  from  the  24*^  to  the  56*^  of  latitude,  comprised  a  total  of 
180,000  square  leagues.  The  population,  during  its  mjst 
flourishing  state,  may  be  estimated  at  about  120,000,000, — a 
population  which  equals  that  of  modern  Europe,  vv'ith  the  ex- 
ception of  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Russia  and  Turkey, 

The  government  which  had  been  introduced,  was  an  absolute 
monarchy,  only  clothed  with  the  form_  of  the  ancient  republic. 
Under  the  popular  titles  of  consul,  tribune  of  the  people,  gene- 
ral, grand  pontiff,  censor,  &c.  the  prince  united  in  himself  all 
the  various  attributes  of  supreme  power.  The  senate  indeed 
enjoyed  extensive  prerogatives ;  the  legislative  power,  which 

VOL.   [.  4 


38  CHAPTER    I. 

had  been  reserved  at  first  for  the  people,  was  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  this  body  ;  but  as  the  military  were  wholly  subordinate 
to  the  prince,  and  as  he  had  also  at  his  command  a  numerous 
guard,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  authority  of  the  senate  was 
but  precarious,  and  by  no  means  a  counterpoise  to  that  of  the 
prince. 

A  government  so  constructed  could  not  insure  the  welfarp 
and  happiness  of  the  people,  except  under  princes  as  humane  as 
Titus,  as  just  and  enlightened  as  Trajan  and  the  Anlonines  ;  or 
so  long  as  the  forms  introduced  by  Augustus  should  be  respect- 
ed. It  could  not  fa»il  to  degenerate  into  arbitrary  power,  under 
tyrants  such  as  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Nero,  and  Domitian ;  and 
the  senate  must  then  have  been  but  a  servile  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  the  prince,  employed  by  him  to  facilitate  the  means  of 
satiating  his  passions  and  his  tyranny. 

The  maxims  of  absolute  power  soon  became  the  fashionable 
and  favourite  doctrine.  Civilians  began  to  teach  publicly,  that 
all  the  authority  of  the  senate  and  the  people  was  transferred  to 
the  prince ;  that  he  was  superior  to  the  laws ;  that  his  power 
extended  to  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  the  citizens  ;  and  that  he 
might  dispose  of  the  state  as  his  own  patrimony.  These  en- 
croachments of  despotism,  joined  to  the  instability  of  the  imperial 
throne,  the  decay  of  military  discipline,  the  unbridled  license  of 
the  troops,  the  employing  whole  corps  of  barbarians  in  their 
wars,  must  all  be  reckoned  among  the  number  of  causes  that 
hastened  the  dovrnfall  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Con'-'-anline  the  Great,  was  the  first  of  the  emperors  that  em- 
braced Christianity,  and  made  it  the  established  religion  of  the 
state  in  324.  He  quitted  the  city  of  Rome,  the  ancient  residence 
of  the  Coesars,  and  fixed  his  capital  at  Byzantium,  in  330,  which 
took  from  him  the  name  of  Constantinople.  Anxious  to  provide 
for  the  security  of  his  new  capital,  he  stationed  the  flower  of  his 
legions  in  the  East,  dismantled  the  frontiers  on  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube,  and  dispersed  into  the  provinces  and  towns,  the 
troops  who  had  heretofore  encamped  on  the  borders  of  these 
great  rivers.  In  this  way  he  secured  the  peace  and  tranquillity 
of  the  interior,  and  infused,  for  a  time,  a  new  vigour  into  the 
government ;  but  lie  committed  a  great  mistake  in  giving  the 
first  example  of  making  a  formal  division  of  the  state  between 
his  sons,  without  regard  to  the  principle  of  unity  and  indivisi- 
bility which  his  predecessors  had  held  sacred.  It  is  true,  this 
separation  was  not  of  long  continuance ;  but  it  was  renewed 
afterwards  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  finally  divided  the 
empire  between  his  two  sons  in  the  year  395 ;  Arcadius  had  the 
eastern,  and  Honorius  the  western  part  of  the  empire.     This 


INTEODUCTION.  39 

atter  comprehended  Italy,  Gaul,  Britain,  Spain,  Northern  Afri- 
ca, Rhetia,  Vindelicia,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  and  Illyria.  It  was 
during  the  reign  of  Honurius,  and  under  the  administration  of 
his  minister  Stilicho,  that  the  memorable  invasion  of  the  barba- 
rians happened,  which  was  followed  shortly  after,  by  the  de- 
struction of  the  Western  Empire. 

It  is  with  this  great  event,  which  gave  birth  to  a  variety  of 
new  states  and  kingdoms,  that  the  following  History  of  the  Revo- 
lutions of  Europe  commences.  It  is  divided  into  nine  sections 
or  periods  of  time,  according  to  the  successive  changes  which  the 
political  system  of  Europe  experienced  from  the  fifth  to  the 
nineteenth  century. 

In  the  first,  which  extends  to  the  year  SOO,  the  barbarians, 
who  invaded  the  Western  Empire,  formed  new  states  in  Spain, 
Gaul,  and  Italy;  and  produced  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
governments,  laws,  manners,  letters,  and  arts  of  Europe.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  the  Franks  gained  the  ascendency  over 
the  other  European  nations ;  that  the  Popes  laid  the  ground- 
work of  their  secular  power ;  that  Mahomet  founded  a  new  re- 
ligion in  Asia,  and  an  empire  which  extended  through  Africa 
into  Spain. 

In  the  second  period,  which  extends  from  SOO  to  962,  a  vast 
empire  was  erected,  and  again  dismembered,  after  enjoying  a 
short-lived  splendour.  From  its  wreck  were  formed  new  king- 
doms, which  have  served  as  the  basis  for  several  states  of  mo- 
dern times.  Others  were  established  by  the  Normans,  Russians, 
and  Hungarians. 

In  the  third  period,  which  terminates  with  the  year  1072, 
Germany  became  the  preponderating  power,  and  began  to  de- 
cline, through  the  abuse  of  the  feudal  system.  The  House  of 
Capet  mounted  the  throne  of  France  ;  and  the  Normans  achiev- 
ed the  conquest  of  England.  The  Northern  nations,  converted 
to  Christianity,  began  to  make  some  figure  in  history :  the  mo- 
narchy of  Russia  became  great  and  powerful ;  while  the  Greek 
empire,  and  that  of  the  Romans,  fell  into  decay. 

During  the  fourth  period,  which  ends  Vv'ith  the  year  1300,  the 
Roman  Pontiffs  acquired  an  immense  sway.  This  is  also  the 
epoch  of  the  Crusades,  which  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
yocial  and  political  state  of  the  European  nations  :  The  dark- 
ness of  the  middle  ages  began  gradually  to  disappear ;  the  esta- 
blishment of  communities,  and  the  enfranchisement  of  the  serfs, 
gave  birth  to  new  ideas  of  liberty.  The  Roman  jurisprudence 
was  restored  from  the  neglect  and  oblivion  into  which  it  had 
fallen,  and  taught  in  the  universities  :  Italy  was  covered  with  a 
multitude  of  republics,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies,  and 


40 


CHAPTER  I. 


of  Portugal  were  founded :  The  inquisition  was  established  m 
France,  and  Magna  Charta  in  England  :  The  Moguls  in  the  east 
raised,  by  their  conquests,  a  powerful  and  extensive  empire. 

The  fifth  period,  which  ends  at  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks  in  1453,  witnessed  the  decline  of  the  Pontifical 
jurisdiction  :  Learning  and  science  made  some  progress,  and 
various  important  discoveries  prepared  the  way  for  still  greater 
improvements  :  Commerce  began  to  flourish,  and  extend  its  in- 
tercourse more  widely:  The  European  states  assumed  their 
present  form  ;  while  the  Turks,  an  Asiatic  race,  established  their 
dominion  in  Europe. 

The  sixth  period,  from  1453  to  1648,  is  the  epoch  of  the  re- 
vival of  the  belles  lettres,  and  the  fine  arts  ;  and  of  the  discovery 
Ameiica:  It  is  also  that  of  the  Reformation  of  religion  accom- 
j  'ished  in  Germany;  the  influence  of  which  has  extended  over 
ail  the  countries  in  the  world.  It  was  likewise  during  this 
period  that  Europe  was  desolated  by  religious  wars,  which 
eventually  must  have  plunged  it  again  into  a  state  of  barbarism. 
The  peace  of  Westphalia  became  the  basis  of  the  political  sys- 
tem of  Europe. 

In  the  seventh  period,  from  1648  to  1713,  this  federal  system 
was  turned  against  France,  whose  power  threatened  to  overturn 
the  political  balance  of  Europe.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  set 
bounds  to  the  ambition  of  its  aspiring  monarchs,  while  that  of 
Oliva  adjusted  the  contending  claims  of  the  North. 

The  European  states,  delivered  from  the  terror  of  universal 
dominion,  began  to  think  the  establishment  of  it  an  impossibility ; 
and  losing  conceit  of  the  system  of  political  equipoise,  they  sub- 
stituted in  its  place  maxims  of  injustice  and  violence. 

The  eighth  period,  which  comes  down  to  1789,  is  an  epoch 
of  weakness  and  corruption,  during  which  the  doctrines  of  a 
libertine  and  impious  philosophy  led  the  way  to  the  downfall  of 
thrones  and  the  subversion  of  social  order. 

[The  consequences  of  this  new  philosophy  bring  us  to  the 
ni/ith  period,  during  w^hich,  Europe  was  almost  entirely  revolu- 
tionized. The  present  history  terminates  with  the  year  1815, 
which  forms  a  natural  division  in  this  revolutionary  epoch ;  the 
final  results  of  which  can  be  known  only  to  posterity  ] 


VIEW 

OF    THE 

REVOLUTIONS  OF  EUROPE. 


CHAPTER    II 

PERIOD    L 

From  the  Invasion  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West  by  the 
Barbarians,  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,     a.  d.  406 — 800. 

The  Roman  empire  had,  for  many  years,  been  gradually 
tending  towards  its  downfall.  Its  energies  were  exhausted  ; 
and  it  required  no  great  efforts  to  lay  prostrate  that  gigantic 
power  which  had  almost  lost  its  strength  and  activity.  The 
vices  of  the  government,  the  relaxation  of  discipline,  the  ani- 
mosities of  faction,  and  the  miseries  of  the  people,  all  announced 
the  approaching  ruin  of  the  empire.  Divided  by  mutual  jea- 
lousies, enervated  by  luxury,  and  oppressed  by  despotism,  the 
Romans  were  in  no  condition  to  withstand  the  numerous  swarms 
of  barbarians  from  the  North,  who,  unacquainted  with  luxury, 
and  despising  danger  and  death,  had  learned  to  conquer  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Imperial  armies. 

Several  of  the  Emperors,  guided  by  a  short-sighted  policy, 
had  received  into  their  pay  entire  battalions  of  foreigners ;  and 
to  recompense  their  servicies,  had  assigned  them  settlements  in 
the  frontier  provinces  of  the  empire.  Thus  the  Franks  obtained, 
by  way  of  compensation,  territories  in  Belgic  Gaul;  while  smni- 
lar  grants  were  made  in  Pannonia  and  in  Thrace,  to  the  Vandals, 
Alans,  Goths,  and  other  barbarians.  This  liberality  of  the  Ro- 
mans, which  was  a  true  mark  of  weakness,  together  with  the 
vast  numbers  of  these  troops  which  they  employed  in  their  wars, 
at  length  accustomed  the  barbarians  to  regard  the  empire  as  their 
prey.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  406,  the  Vandals,  the 
Suevi,  and  the  Alans,  sounded  the  tocsin  of  that  famous  inva- 
sion which  accelerated  the  downfall  of  the  Western  empire. 
The  example  of  these  nations  was  soon  followed  by  the  Visi- 
goths, the  Burgundians,  the  Alemanns,'  the  Franks,  the  Huns, 
the  Angles,  the  Saxons,  the  Heruls,  the  Ostrogoths,  and  the 
Lombards.  All  these  nations,  with  the  exception  of  the  Huns 
were  of  German  origin. 

4# 


42 


CHAPTER    II. 


The  Vandals,  it  appears,  were  originally  settled  in  that  part 
of  northern  Germany  which  lies  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Vis- 
tula. They  formed  a  branch  of  the  ancient  Suevi,  as  did  also 
the  Burgundians  and  the  Lombards.  After  the  third  century, 
and  under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Probus,  we  find  them,  with 
the  Burgundians,  engaged  in  warring  against  the  Romans  on 
the  Rhine.  In  the  time  of  Aurelian,  (272)  they  established  them- 
selves in  the  western  part  of  Dacia,  that  is,  in  Transylvania,  and 
a  part  of  modern  Hungary.  Oppressed  in  these  districts  by  the 
Goths,  they  obtained  from  Constantino  the  Great,  settlements  in 
Pannonia,  on  condition  of  rendering  military  service  to  the 
Romans.  They  remained  in  Pannonia,  until  the  commencement 
of  the  fifth  century,  when  they  set  out  on  their  emigration  to- 
wards Gaul.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  they  associated  them- 
selves with  the  Alans,  a  people  originally  from  Mount  Caucasus, 
and  ancient  Scythia;  a  branch  of  which,  settled  in  Sarmatia 
near  the  source  of  the  Borysthenes  or  Dnieper,  had  advanced 
as  far  as  the  Danube,  and  there  made  a  formidable  stand  against 
the  Romans.  In  their  passage  through  Germany,  the  Vandals 
and  the  Alans  joined  a  body  of  the  Suevi,  who  also  inhabited 
the  banks  of  the  Danube,  eastward  of  the  powerful  nation  of  the 
Alemanns.  United  in  this  rude  confederacy,  they  entered  Gaul, 
plundering  and  destroying  wherever  they  went.  Mayence, 
Worms,  Spire,  Strasbourg,  and  many  flourishing  cities  of  Gaul, 
were  pillaged  by  these  barbarians. 

The  Goths,^  the  most  powerful  of  these  destructive  nations, 
began  to  rise  into  notice  in  the  third  century,  after  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Caracalla.  They  then  inhabited  the  country  be- 
tween the  Vistula,  the  Dniester,  the  Borysthenes,  and  the  Tanais 
Oi  Don.  It  is  not  certain  whether  they  were  originally  from 
those  regions,  or  whether,  in  more  remote  times,  they  inhabited 
Scandinavia,  from  which,  according  to  Jornandes,  a  Gothic  au- 
t\:?y,  they  emigrated  at  an  early  period.  It  is  however  certain, 
thai  they  were  of  German  extraction  ;  and  that,  in  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries,  they  made  the  Caesars  tremble  on  their  thrones. 
The  Emperor  Aurelian  was  compelled  (274)  to  abandon  the  pro- 
vince of  Dacia  to  their  dominion. 

This  nation,  the  first  of  the  German  tribes  that  embraced  the 
Christian  religion,^  was  divided,  in  their  ancient  settlements 
beyond  the  Danube,  into  two  principal  branches.  They  who 
inhabited  the  districts  towards  the  east  and  the  Euxine  Sea, 
between  the  Dniester,  the  Borysthenes,  and  the  Tanais,  were 
called  Ostrogoths  ;  the  Visigoths  were  the  branch  which  extend- 
ed westward,  and  occupied  ancient  Dacia,  and  the  regions  situ- 
ated between  the  Dniester,  the  Danube  and  the  Vistula.     At- 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  43 

lacked  in  these  vast  countries  by  the  Huns,  (375)  some  were 
•subjugated,  and  others  compelled  to  abandon  their  habitations. 
A  part  of  the  Visigoths  then  fixed  their  abode  in  Thrace,  in 
Msesia,  and  the  frontiers  of  Dacia,  with  consent  of  the  emperors  ; 
who  granted  also  to  the  Ostrogoths  settlements  in  Pannonia. 
At  length  the  Visigoths,  after  having  twice  ravaged  Italy,  sacked 
and  plundered  Rome,  ended  their  conquests  by  establishing 
themselves  in  Gaul  and  in  Spain.  One  branch  of  these  Goths 
appears  to  have  been  the  Thuringians,  whom  we  find  in  the 
fifth  century  established  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  where  they 
erected  a  very  powerful  kingdom. 

The  Fkanks  were  probably  a  confederacy  which  the  German 
tribes,  situated  between  the  Rhine,  the  Maine,  the  Weser,  and 
the  Elbe,  had  formed  among  themselves,  in  order  to  maintain 
their  liberty  and  independence  against  the  Romans.  Tacitus, 
who  wrote  about  the  commencement  of  the  second  century,  did 
not  know  them  under  this  new  name,  which  occurs  for  the  first 
time  in  the  historians  of  the  third  century.  Among  the  German 
tribes  who  composed  this  association,  we  find  the  Chauci,  the 
Sicambri,  the  Chamavi,  the  Cherusci,  the  Bructeri,  the  Catti, 
the  Ampsivarii,  the  Ripuarii,  the  Salii,  &c.*  These  tribes, 
though  combined  for  the  purposes  of  common  defence,  under 
the  general  name  of  Franks,  preserved,  nevertheless,  each  their 
laws  and  form  of  government,  as  well  as  their  particular  chiefs, 
and  the  names  of  their  aboriginal  tribes.  In  the  fourth,  and 
towards  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  the  whole  country 
lying  within  the  Rhine,  the  Weser,  the  Maine,  and  the  Elbe, 
was  called  Francia. 

Another  confederation  of  the  German  tribes,  was  that  of  the 
Alemanns  ;  unknown  also  to  Tacitus.  It  took  its  origin  about 
the  commencement  of  the  third  century.  Their  territories  ex- 
tended between  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  the  Necker,  the  Main, 
and  the  Lahn.  On  the  east,  in  a  part  of  Franconia  and  modern 
Suabia,  they  had  for  their  neighbours  and  allies  the  Suevi, 
who,  after  having  long  formed  a  distinct  nation,  were  at  length 
blended  with  the  Alemanns,  and  gave  their  country  the  name 
of  Suabia.  The  Alemanns  rendered  themselves  formidable  to 
the  Romans,  by  their  frequent  inroads  into  Gaul  and  Italy,  in  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries. 

The  Saxons,  unknown  also  to  Tacitus,  began  to  make  a 
figure  in  history  about  the  second  century,  when  we  find  them 
settled  beyond  the  Elbe,  in  modern  Holstein,  having  for  their 
neighbours  the  Angles,  or  English,  inhabiting  Sleswick  Proper. 
These  nations  were  early  distinguished  as  pirates  and  free- 
booters ;  and,  while  the  Franks  and  the  Alemanns  spread  them- 


44 


CHAPTER   ir. 


selves  over  the  interior  of  Gaul,  the  Saxons  infested  the  coasts, 
and  even  extended  their  incursions  into  Britain.  The  Franks 
having-  penetrated  into  Gaul  with  their  main  forces,  the  Saxons 
passed  the  Elbe,  and  in  course  of  time,  occupied,  or  united  in 
alliance  with  them,  the  greater  part  of  ancient  Francia,  which 
took  from  them  the  name  of  Saxony.  There  they  subdivided 
themselves  into  three  principal  branches ;  the  Ostyhalians  to 
the  east,  the  Westphalians  to  the  west,  and  the  Angrians  or 
Angrivarians,  whose  territories  lay  between  the  other  two, 
along  the  Weser,  and  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Hesse. 

The  Huns,  the  most  fierce  and  sanguinary  of  all  the  nations 
which  overran  the  Eoman  Empire  in  the  fifth  century,  came 
from  the  remote  districts  of  northern  Asia,  which  were  altogether 
unknown  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Eomans.  From  the  de- 
scriptions which  the  historians  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
have  given  us  of  them,  we  are  led  to  believe,  that  they  were 
Kalmucks  or  Monguls  originally.  The  fame  of  their  arms  had 
begun  to  spread  over  Europe  so  early  as  the  year  375  of  the 
Christian  era.  Having  subdued  the  Alans,  and  crossed  the 
Tanais,  they  subverted  the  powerful  monarchy  of  the  Goths,  and 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  great  revolution  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, which  changed  the  face  of  all  Europe.  The  Eastern  empire 
first  felt  the  fury  of  these  barbarians,  who  carried  fire  and  sword 
wherever  they  went,  rendered  the  Emperors  their  tributaries, 
and  then  precipitated  themselves  on  the  West  under  the  conduct 
of  the  famous  Attila.^ 

Several  of  the  nations  we  have  now  enumerated,  divided 
among  themselves  the  territories  of  Gaul.  This  province,  one 
of  the  richest  and  most  important  in  the  Western  empire,  was 
repeatedly  overrun  and  devastated  by  the  barbarous  hordes  of  the 
fifth  century.  The  Visigoths  were  the  first  that  formed  settle- 
ments in  it.  On  their  arrival  under  the  command  of  King  Atulf 
or  Adolphus,  (412,)  they  took  possession  of  the  whole  country 
lying  within  the  Loire,  the  Rhine,  the  Durance,  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  Alps.  Toulouse  became  their  capital,  and  the 
residence  of  their  kings. 

The  Burgundians,  a  people,  it  would  appear,  originally  from 
the  countries  situated  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  fol- 
lowed nearly  in  the  track  of  the  Visigoths  ;  as  we  find  them, 
about  the  year  413,  established  on  the  Upper  Rhine  and  in 
Switzerland.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  they  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  themselves  in  those  parts  of  Gaul,  known 
by  the  names  of  the  Sequanois,  Lyonnois,  Viennois  and  Nar- 
bonnois,  viz.  in  those  districts  which  formed,  in  course  of  time, 
the  two  Burgundies,  the  provinces  of  Lyonnois,  Dauphiny  and 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406 — 800.  45 

Provence  on  this  side  of  the  Durance,  Savoy,  the  Pays  de  Vaud^ 

the  Valais  and  Switzerland.'^  These  couiitries  then  assumed 
the  name  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Burgundians. 

The  Alemanni  and  the  Suevi  became  flourishing  nations  on 
the  banks  of  the  Upper  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  They  invaded 
those  countries  in  Gaul,  or  the  Germania  Prima  of  the  Romans, 
known  since  under  the  names  of  Alsace,  the  Palatinate,  May- 
ence,  &c, ;  and  extended  their  conquests  also  over  a  considerable 
part  of  Rhetia  and  Vindelicia. 

At  length  the  Franks,  having  been  repulsed  in  different  ren- 
counters by  the  Romans,  again  passed  the  Rhine  (430,)  under 
the  conduct  of  Clodion  their  chief;  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  greater  part  of  Belgic  Gaul,  took  possession  of  Tournay, 
Cambray  and  Amiens  ;  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new 
kingdom  of  France  in  Gaul.  The  Romans,  however,  still  main- 
tained their  authority  in  the  interior  of  that  province,  and  the 
brave  jEtius  their  general  made  head  against  all  those  hordes 
of  barbarians  who  disputed  with  him  the  dominion  of  Gaul. 

It  was  at  this  crisis  that  the  Hu]ns  made  their  appearance  on 
the  theatre  of  war.  The  fierce  Attila,  a  man  of  great  military 
talents,  after  having  overthrown  various  states,  conquered  Pan- 
nonia,  and  different  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  undertook  his  famous  expedition  into  Gaul. 
Marching  along  the  Danube  from  Pannonia,  at  the  head  of  an 
innumerable  army,^  he  passed  the  Rhine  near  the  Lake  of  Con- 
stance, pillaged  and  ravaged  several  places,  and  spread  the  terror 
of  his  arms  over  all  Gaul.  The  Franks  and  the  Visigoths  united 
their  forces  with  those  of  the  Roman  General,  to  arrest  the 
progress  of  the  barbarian.  A  bloody  and  obstinate  encounter 
took  place  (451,)  on  the  plains  of  Chalons-sur-Marne,  or  Mery- 
sur-Seine,  according  to  others.  Thierry,  King  of  the  Visigoths, 
and  more  than  a  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  men,  perished  on 
the  field  of  battle.  Night  separated  the  combatants  ;  and  Attila, 
who  found  his  troops  too  much  exhausted  to  renew  the  combat, 
resolved  to  retreat.  The  following  year  he  made  a  descent 
on  Italy,  and  committed  great  devastations.  This  proved  \\\i 
last  expedition  ;  for  he  died  suddenly  on  his  return,  and  the 
monarchy  of  the  Huns  expired  with  him. 

The  defeat  of  the  Huns  did  not  re-establish  the  shattered  and 
ruinous  affairs  of  the  Romans  in  Gaul.  The  Salian  Franks,® 
under  their  kings,  Meroveus  and  Ghilderic  I.,  the  successors  of 
Clodion,  extended  their  conquests  more  and  more  ;  till  at  length 
Clovis,  son  of  Childeric  I.,  put  an  end  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Romans  in  that  country,  by  the  victory  which  he  gained  in  486; 
at  Soissons,  over  Syagrius,  the  last  of  the  Roman  generals,  who 


46  CHAPTER  II. 

died  of  a  broken  heart  in  consequence  of  this  defeat.  The  Ale- 
manns  afterwards  having-  disputed  with  him  the  empire  of  the 
Gauls,  he  routed  them  completely  (496,)  at  the  famous  battle  of 
Tolbiac  or  Zulpich  f  seized  their  estates,  and  soon  after  em- 
braced Christianity.  Emboldened  by  his  new  creed,  and  backed 
by  the  orthodox  bishops,  he  attacked  the  Visigoths,  who  were 
of  the  heretical  sect  of  Arius,  defeated  and  killed  their  king, 
Alaric  II.,  in  the  plains  of  Vougle,  near  Poitiers,  (507,)  and 
stripped  them  of  all  their  possessions  between  the  Loire  and  the 
Pyrenees.'"  Gaul  became  thus,  by  degrees,  the  undisputed 
possession  of  the  Franks.  The  descendants  of  Clovis  added  to 
their  conquests  the  kingdom  of  the  Burgundians  (534,)  which 
they  totally  overthrew. 

'I'hese  same  princes  increased  their  possessions  in  the  interior 
of  Germany,  by  the  destruction  of  the  powerful  kingdom  of  the 
Thuringians  (531,)  comprising  those  vast  countries  between  the 
Werra,  the  Aller,  the  Elbe,  the  Saal,  the  Mulda,  and  the  Danube  ; 
and  which  are  now  known  under  the  names  of  Saxony,  Thu 
ringia,  Franconia,  the  Upper  Palatinate,"  &:c.  This  kingdom 
they  divided  with  their  allies  the  Saxons,  w^ho  obtained  the  nor 
thern  part  of  it,  situated  between  the  Unstrat  and  the  Saal. 

While  the  Visigoths,  the  Burgundians,  the  Franks  and  the 
Alemanns,  were  disputing  with  each  other  the  conquest  of  Gaul, 
the  Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Alans,  turned  their  ambitious 
views  towards  Spain.  After  having  settled  some  years  in  Gaul, 
these  tribes  passed  the  Pyrenees  (409,)  to  establish  themselves 
in  the  most  fertile  regions  of  Spain.  The  Vandals  seized  Bce- 
tica,  and  a  part  of  Gallicia  ;  the  Suevi  seized  the  rest  of  Gal- 
licia ;  while  the  Alans  took  possession  of  Lusitania,  and  the 
province  of  Carthagena.  The  Alans  afterwards  submitted  to 
the  sway  of  Gonderic,  King  of  the  Vandals  (420,)  while  the 
Suevi  preserved  their  native  princes,  who  reigned  in  Gallicia 
and  Lusitania  ;  this  latter  province  having  been  abandoned  by 
the  Vandals,  (427,)  when  they  passed  into  Africa. 

Meanwhile  new  conquerors  began  to  make  their  appearance 
in  Spain.  The  Visigoths,  pressed  by  the  Romans  in  Gaul, 
took  the  resolution  of  carrying  their  arras  beyond  the  Pyrenees. 
Under  the  conduct  of  their  King,  Adolphus,  they  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  city  of  Barcelona  (in  415.)  Euric,  one  of 
the  successors  of  this  prince,  took  from  the  Romans  (472)  all 
that  yet  remained  of  their  possessions  in  Spain  ;  and  Leovigild, 
another  of  their  kings,  completed  the  conquest  of  all  that  coun- 
try (584,)  by  reducing  the  kingdom  of  the  Suevi.  The  mo- 
narchy of  the  Visigoths,  w^hich  in  its  flourishing  state  comprised, 
besides  the  continent  of  Spain,  Septimania  or  Languedoc  in 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  47 

Gaul,  and  Mauritania  Tingitana  in  Africa,  maintained  its  exist- 
ence until  the  commencement  of  the  eighth  century;  when,  as 
we  shall  afterwards  see,  it  was  finally  overthrown  by  the  Arabs. 

Northern  Africa,  one  of  the  finest  possessions  of  the  Romans, 
was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Vandals.  Count  Boniface,  who 
had  the  government  of  that  country,  having  been  falsely  accused 
at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Valentinian  III.,  and  believing  him- 
self ruined  in  the  esteem  of  that  prince,  invited  the  Vandals  over 
to  Africa;  proposing  to  them  the  surrender  of  the  provinces 
intrusted  to  his  command.  Genseric  was  at  that  time  king  of 
the  Vandals.  The  preponderance  which  the  Visigoths  had  ac- 
quired in  Spain,  induced  that  prince  to  accept  the  ofl^er  of  the 
Roman  General;  he  embarked  at  the  port  of  Andalusia,  (427,) 
and  passed  with  the  Vandals  and  the  Alans  into  Africa.  Mean- 
time, Boniface  having  made  up  matters  amicably  with  the  Impe- 
rial court,  wished  to  retract  the  engagements  which  he  had 
made  with  the  Vandals.  Genseric  nevertheless  persisted  in  his 
enterprise.  He  carried  on  a  long  and  obstinate  war  with  the 
Romans ;  the  result  of  which  turned  to  the  advantage  of  the 
barbarians.  Genseric  conquered  in  succession  all  that  part  of 
Africa  pertaining  to  the  Western  empire,  from  the  Straits  of 
Cadiz  as  far  as  Cyrenaica,  which  was  dependent  on  the  empire 
of  the  East.  He  subdued  likewise  the  Balearic  Isles,  with 
Sardinia,  Corsica  and  a  part  of  Sicily. 

The  writers  of  that  age  who  speak  of  this  invasion,  agree  in 
painting,  in  the  most  lively  colours,  the  horrors  with  which  it 
was  accompanied.  It  appears  that  Genseric,  whose  whole  sub- 
jects, including  old  men  and  slaves,  did  not  exceed  eighty  thou- 
sand persons,  being  resolved  to  maintain  his  authority  by  terror, 
caused,  for  this  purpose,  a  general  massacre  to  be  made  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Africa.  To  these  political  severities  were 
added  others  on  the  score  of  religion ;  being  devoted  with  all 
his  subjects  to  the  Arian  heresy,  he  as  well  as  his  successors 
became  the  constant  and  implacable  persecutors  of  the  orthodox 
Christians. 

This  prince  signalized  himself  by  his  maritime  exploits,  and 
by  the  piracies  which  he  committed  on  the  coasts  of  Italy  and 
the  whole  Roman  empire.  Encouraged,  as  is  supposed,  by  the 
Empress  Eudoxia,  who  wished  to  avenge  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band Valentinian  III.,  he  undertook  an  expedition  into  Italy, 
(455,)  in  which  he  made  himself  master  of  Rome.  The  city 
was  pillaged  during  fifteen  days  by  the  Vandals,  spoiled  of  all 
its  riches  and  its  finest  monuments.  Innumerable  statues,  orna- 
ments of  temples,  and  the  gilded  cupola  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus,  were  removed  in  order  to  be  transported  to  Africa; 


48 


eilAPTER    11. 


together  witn  many  thousands  of  illustrious  captives.  A  vessel 
loaded  with  the  most  precious  monuments  of  Kome,  perished 
in  the  passage. 

The  dominion  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa  lasted  about  a  hundred 
years.  Their  kingdom  was  destro^^ed  by  the  Emperor  Justinian, 
who  reunited  Africa  to  the  empire  of  the  East.  Gilimer,  the 
last  king  of  the  Vandals,  was  conquered  by  Belisarius^  (534,) 
and  conducted  by  him  in  triumph  to  Constantinople. 

Britain,  inaccessible  by  its  situation  to  most  of  the  invaders 
that  overran  the  Western  empire,  was  infested,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, by  the  northern  inhabitants  of  that  island, — the  free  Britons, 
known  by  the  name  of  Caledonians  or  Picts,  and  Scots.  The 
Romans  having  withdrawn  their  legions  from  the  island  (446,) 
to  employ  them  in  Gaul,  the  Britons,  abandoned  to  their  own 
strength,  thought  proper  to  elect  a  king  of  their  own  nation, 
named  Vortigern  ;  but  finding  themselves  still  too  weak  to  resist 
the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots,  who,  breaking  over  the 
wall  of  Severus,  pillaged  and  laid  waste  the  Roman  province, 
they  took  the  imprudent  resolution  of  calling  in  to  their  succour 
the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutlanders,  who  were  already  dis- 
tinguished for  their  maritime  incursions.  A  body  of  these  An- 
glo-Saxons arrived  in  Britain  (450,)  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Marcian,  under  the  command  of  Hengist  and 
Horsa.  From  being  friends  and  allies,  they  soon  became  ene- 
mies of  the  Britons  ;  and  ended  by  establishing  their  own  do- 
minion in  the  island.  The  native  islanders,  after  a  protracted 
struggle,  were  driven  into  the  province  of  Wales,  where  they 
succeeded  in  maintaining  their  independence  against  their  new 
conquerors.  A  number  of  these  fugitive  Britons,  to  escape 
from  the  yoke  of  the  invaders,  took  refuge  in  Gaul.  There 
they  were  received  by  the  Franks  into  Armorica  and  part  of  Ly- 
onnois,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Brittany. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  founded  successively  seven  petty  king- 
doms in  Britain,  viz.  Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  Essex,  Northum- 
berland, East  Anglia,  and  Meixia.  Each  of  these  kingdoms 
had  severally  their  own  kings ;  but  they  were  all  united  in  a 
political  association,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Heptarchy. 
One  of  the  seven  kings  was  the  common  chief  of  the  confede- 
racy ;  and  there  was  a  general  convention  of  the  whole,  called 
wittenagemot,  or  the  assembly  of  the  wise  men.  Each  king- 
dom was  likewise  governed  by  its  own  laws,  and  had  its  sepa- 
rate assemblies,  whose  power  limited  the  royal  authority. 
This  federal  system  continued  till  the  ninth  century,  when  Eg- 
bert the  Great  succeeded  in  abolishing  the  Heptarchy  (827,)  and 
raised  himself  to  be  Kins:  over  all  England 


. — — ^ -1 

|B 

•^^^^S 

11 

1 

lb 

^M 

1 

lljlinyiff^^- 

3 

Rome  plundered  by  the  Vandals.     Vol.  ],p.47. 


Jinglo-Saxons  landing  in  England.     Vol.  1^  p.  48. 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  49 

In  the  midst  of  this  general  overthrow,  there  were  still  to  be 
seen  in  Italy  the  phantoms  of  the  Roman  emperors,  feebly  sup- 
porting a  dignity  which  had  long  since  lost  its  splendour.  This 
fine  country  had  been  desolated  by  the  Visigoths,  the  Huns, 
and  the  Vandals,  in  succession,  without  becoming  the  fixed  re- 
sidence of  any  one  of  these  nations.  The  conquest  of  that  an- 
cient seat  of  the  first  empire  in  the  world,  was  reserved  for  the 
Heruls  and  the  Rugians.  For  a  long  time,  these  German  na- 
tions, who  are  generally  supposed  to  have  emigrated  from  the 
coasts  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  had  been  approaching  towards  the 
Danube.  They  served  as  auxiliaries  to  the  Romans  in  Italy, 
after  the  example  of  various  other  tribes  of  their  countrymen. 
Being  resolved  to  usurp  the  dominion  of  that  country,  they 
chose  for  their  king  Odoacer,  under  whose  conduct  they  seized 
Ravenna  and  Rome,  dethroned  Romulus  Momyllus  Augustu* 
lus,  the  last  of  the  Roman  Emperors  (476,)  and  put  an  entire 
end  to  the  empire  of  the  West. 

The  Heruls  did  not  enjoy  these  conquests  more  than  seven- 
teen years,  when  they  were  deprived  of  them  in  their  turn  by 
the  Ostrogoths.  This  nation  then  occupied  those  extensive 
countries  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  Pannonia,  Illy- 
ria,  and  Thrace,  within  the  limits  of  the  Eastern  empire.  They 
had  rendered  thetnselves  formidable  to  the  Romans  in  that 
quarter,  by  their  frequent  incursions  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
empire.  The  Emperor  Zeno,  in  order  to  withdraw  these  dan- 
gerous neighbours  from  his  frontiers,  encouraged  their  king 
Theodoric,  as  is  alleged,  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Italy 
horn  the  Heruls.  This  prince  immediately  penetrated  into  the 
country ;  he  defeated  the  Heruls  in  several  actions  ;  and  at 
length  forced  Odoacer  to  shut  himself  up  in  the  city  of  Ravenna 
(489,)  where,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  conqueror,  who  deprived  him  at  once  of  his  throne  and  his  life. 

Theodoric  deserves  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  other  bar- 
barous kings  of  the  fifth  century.  Educated  at  the  court  of 
Constantinople,  where  he  passed  the  years  of  his  youth,  he  had 
learned  to  establish  his  authority  by  the  equity  of  his  laws, 
and  the  wisdom  of  his  administrations.  He  ruled  an  empire 
which,  besides  Italy,  embraced  a  great  part  of  Pannonia,  Rhetia, 
Noricum,  and  Illyria. 

This  monarchy,  formidable  as  it  was,  did  not  exist  beyond 
the  space  of  sixty  years :  after  a  sanguinary  warfare  of  eigh- 
teen years,  it  was  totally  subverted  by  the  Greeks.  The  Em- 
peror Justinian  employed  his  generals,  Belisarius  '^  and  Nar 
ses,  in  recovermg  Italy  and  Sicily  from  the  hands  of  the  Goths 
This  nation  defended  their  possessions  with  determined  obsti 

VOL.  I.  5 


50  CHAPTER  II. 

nacy.  Encouraged  by  Totila,  one  of  their  last  kings,  they 
maintained  a  protracted  struggle  against  the  Greeks,  and  with 
considerable  success.  It  was  during  this  war  that  the  city  of 
Rome  was  pillaged  afresh,  and  at  length  (517,)  dismantled  by 
the  Goths.  Totila  sustained  a  complete  defeat  at  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines  in  Umbria  (552,)  and  died  of  the  wounds  which 
he  had  received  in  the  action.  His  successor  Teias  was  by  no 
means  so  fortunate  in  military  affairs.  In  a  bloody  battle  which 
he  fought  with  Narses,  in  Campania  (553,)  he  was  vanquished 
and  slain.  His  dominions  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks, 
with  the  exception  of  that  part  of  Rhetia  and  Noricum  which 
the  Alemanns  occupied,  and  which,  during  the  war  between  the 
Greeks  and  the  Goths,  had  become  the  possession  of  the  Franks.  '^ 

A  new  revolution  happened  in  Italy,  (56S,)  by  the  invasion 
of  the  Lombards.  This  people,  who  originally  inhabited  the 
northern  part  of  Germany  on  the  Elbe,  and  formed  a  branch 
of  the  o-reat  nation  of  the  Suevi,  had  at  lenolh  fixed  themselves 
in  Pannonia  (527,)  after  several  times  changing  their  abode. 
They  then  joined  with  the  Avars,  an  Asiatic  people,  against  the 
Crepidas,  who  possessed  a  formidable  dominion  in  ancient  Dacia, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  This  state  was  soon  over- 
turned by  the  combined  forces  of  the  two  nations,  and  the  whole 
territories  of  the  Gepidas  passed  (565)  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Avars.  The  Lombards  also  abandoned  to  them  their  pos- 
sessions in  Pannonia,  and  went  in  quest  of  new  settlements 
into  Italy.  It  was  in  the  spring  of  563  that  they  began  theii 
route,  under  the  conduct  of  their  King  Alloin,  who,  without 
coming  to  regular  combat  with  the  Greeks,  took  from  them,  in 
succession,  a  great  number  of  cities  and  provinces.  Pavia. 
which  the  Goths  had  fortified  with  care,  was  the  only  town 
that  opposed  him  with  vigorous  resistance  ;  and  it  did  not  sur- 
render till  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  in  572.  The  Lombard 
kings  made  this  town  the  capital  of  their  new  dominions,  which, 
besides  Upper  Italy,  known  more  especially  by  the  name  of 
Lombardy,  comprehended  also  a  considerable  part -of  the  middle 
and  lower  districts,  which  the  Lombards  gradually  wrested 
from  the  Greeks. 

The  revolution  of  which  we  have  just  now  given  a  summary 
view,  changed  the  face  of  all  Europe  ;  but  it  had  a  more  par- 
ucuiar  influence  on  the  fate  of  ancient  Germany.  The  Ger- 
manic tribes,  whose  former  boundaries  were  the  Rhine  and  the 
Danube,  now  extended  their  territories  beyond  these  rivers. 
The  primitive  names  of  those  nations,  recorded  by  Tacitus,  fel! 
mto  oblivion,  and  were  replaced  by  those  of  five  or  six  grand 
confederatious,  viz.  the  Franks,  Saxons,  Frisians,  Alemanns, 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  51 

Suabians,  and  Bavarians,^"*  which  embraced  all  the  regions  af- 
terwards comprehended  under  the  name  of  Germany. 

The  Alemanns,  and  their  neighbours  the  Suabians,  occupied, 
along  with  the  Bavarians,  the  greater  part  of  what  is  called 
Upper  Germany,  on  both  sides  of  the  Danube  as  far  as  the  Alps. 
The  Franks,  masters  of  a  powerful  monarchy  in  Gaul,  preserved, 
under  their  immediate  dominion  beyond  the  Rhine,  a  part  of 
ancient  France,  together  with  the  territories  of  which  they  had 
deprived  the  Alemanns'-'  and  the  Thuringians.  In  short,  in 
all  Lower  Germany,  no  other  names  were  to  be  found  than 
those  of  the  Thuringians,  Saxons,  and  Frisians  ;  and  as  to  the 
eastern  part,  situated  beyond  the  Saal  and  the  Elbe,  as  it  had 
been  deserted  of  inhabitants  by  the  frequent  emigrations  of  the 
German  tribes,  and  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Thuringians,  it  was  seized  in  turn  by  the  Slavi,  or  Slavo- 
nians, a  race  distinguished  from  the  Germans  by  their  language 
and  their  manners. 

This  nation,  different  colonies  of  which  still  occupy  a  great 
part  of  Europe,  did  not  begin  to  figure  in  history  until  the 
fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Jornandes,  a  Gothic  writer 
of  the  sixth  century,  is  the  first  author  who  mentions  them. 
He  calls  them  Slavi,  or  Slavina  ;  and  distinguishes  them  into 
three  principal  branches,  the  Venedi,  the  Slavi,  and  the  Antes, 
whose  numerous  tribes  occupied  the  vast  countries  on  the  north 
of  the  Euxine  Sea,  between  the  Vistula,  the  Niester,  the  Nie- 
per,  &c.  It  was  after  the  commencement  of  the  sixth  century 
that  these  nations  emigrated  from  their  ancient  habitations,  and 
spread  themselves  over  the  east  and  south  of  Europe.  On  the 
one  side,  they  extended  their  colonies  as  far  as  the  Elbe  and 
the  Saal ;  on  the  other,  they  crossed  the  Danube,  and  penetra- 
ted into  Noricum,  Pannonia,  and  Illyria;  occupying  all  those 
countries  known  at  this  day  under  the  names  of  Hungary, 
Sclavonia,  Servia,  Bosnia,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  Carniola,  Carin- 
thia,  Stiria,  and  the  march  of  the  Venedi.  The  history  of  the 
sixth  century,  presents  nothing  more  memorable  than  the  bloody 
wars  which  the  emperors  of  the  East  had  to  maintain  against 
the  Slavians  of  the  Danube. 

Those  colonies  of  them  who  first  distinguished  themselves 
on  the  Elbe,  the  Hav^el,  the  Oder,  and  in  the  countries  situated 
to  the  north  of  the  Danube,  were  the  Czechi,  or  Slavi  of  Bo- 
hemia;  the  Sorabians  inhabiting  both  sides  of  the  Elbe,  be- 
tween the  Saal  and  the  Oder,  in  the  countries  now  known  under 
the  names  of  Misnia,  Saxony,  Anhalt  and  Lower  Lusace  ;  the 
Wilzians,  or  Welatabes,  and  the  Abotrites,  spread  over  Bran- 
denburg, Pomerania,  and  Mecklenburg  proper ;  and,  lastly,  the 


S2  CHAPTER   U. 

Moravi,  or  Moravians,  settled  in  Moravia,  and  in  a  part  of  mo- 
dern Hungary.  We  find,  in  the  seventh  century,  a  chief  named 
Samo,  who  ruled  over  many  of  these  nations.  He  fought  suc- 
cessfully against  the  armies  of  King  Dagobert.  It  is  supposed 
that  this  man  was  a  Frank  merchant,  whom  several  of  the  Sla- 
vian  tribes  had  elected  as  their  chief. 

There  is  one  thing  which,  at  this  period,  ought  above  all  to 
fix  our  attention,  and  that  is  the  influence  which  the  revolution 
of  the  fifth  century  had  on  the  governments,  laws,  manners, 
sciences,  and  arts  of  Europe.  The  German  tribes,  in  establish- 
ing themselves  in  the  provinces  of  the  Western  empire,  intro- 
duced along  with  them  the  political  institutions  by  which  they 
had  been  governed  in  their  native  country.  The  governments 
of  ancient  Germany  were  a  kind  of  military  democracies,  under 
generals  or  chiefs,  with  the  prerogatives  of  kings.  All  matters 
of  importance  were  decided  in  their  general  assemblies,  com- 
posed of  freemen,  having  the  privilege  of  carrying  arms,  and 
going  to  war.^*^  The  succession  to  the  throne  was  not  heredi- 
tary ;  and  though  it  became  so  in  fact  in  most  of  the  new  German 
states,  still,  on  the  accession  of  their  princes,  they  were  atten- 
tive to  preserve  the  ancient  forms,  which  evinced  the  primitive 
right  of  election  that  the  nation  had  reserved  to  itself. 

The  political  division  into  cantons  (gaiv,)  long  used  in  ancient 
Germany,  was  introduced  into  all  the  new  conquests  of  the  Ger- 
man tribes,  to  facilitate  the  administration  of  justice.  At  the 
head  of  every  canton  w^as  a  justiciary  officer,  called  G7-av,  in 
Latin  Comes,  who  held  his  court  in  the  open  air,  assisted  by  a 
certain  number  of  assessors  or  sheriffs.  This  new  division 
caused  a  total  change  in  the  geography  of  Europe.  The  ancient 
names  of  the  countries  were  every  where  replaced  by  new  ones  ; 
and  the  alterations  which  the  nomenclature  of  these  divisions 
underwent  in  course  of  time,  created  no  small  embarrassment 
in  the  study  of  the  history  and  geography  of  the  middle  ages 

Among  the  freemen  who  composed  the  armies  of  the  German 
nations,  we  find  the  grandees  and  nobles,  who  were  distinguished 
by  the  number  of  men-at-arms,  or  freemen,  whom  they  carried 
in  their  train. '^  They  all  followed  the  king,  or  common  chief, 
of  the  expedition,  not  as  mercenaries  or  regular  soldiers,  but  as 
volunteers  who  had  come,  of  their  own  accord,  to  accompany 
him.  The  booty  and  the  conquests  which  they  made  in  war, 
they  regarded  as  a  common  property,  to  which  they  had  all  an 
equal  right.  The  kings,  chiefs,  and  grandees,  in  the  division 
of  their  territories,  received  larger  portions  than  the  other  mili- 
tary and  freemen,  on  account  of  the  greater  efforts  they  had 
made,  and  the  greater  number  of  warriors  who  had  followed 


PERIOD  I.    A.  D.  406—800.  53 

them  to  the  field.  These  lands  were  given  them  as  property 
in  every  respect  free  ;  and  although  an  obligation  was  implied 
of  their  concurring  in  defence  of  the  common  cause,  yet  it  was 
rather  a  sort  of  consequence  of  the  territorial  grant,  and  not  im- 
posed upon  them  as  a  clause,  or  essential  condition  of  the  tenure. 

It  is  therefore  wrong  to  regard  this  division  of  lands  as  having 
given  rise  to  fiefs.  War  was  the  favourite  occupation,  the  only 
honourable  rank,  and  the  inalienable  prerogative  of  a  German. 
They  were  soldiers  not  of  necessity  or  constraint,  but  of  their 
own  free  will,  and  because  they  despised  every  other  employ- 
ment, and  every  other  mode  of  life.  Despotism  was,  therefore, 
never  to  be  apprehended  in  a  government  like  this,  where  the 
'leat  body  of  the  nation  were  in  arms,  sat  in  their  general  as- 
semblies, and  marched  to  the  field  of  war.  Their  kings,  how- 
ever, soon  invented  an  expedient  calculated  to  shackle  the 
national  liberty,  and  to  augment  their  own  influence  in  the  pub- 
lic assemblies,  by  the  number  of  retainers  which  they  found 
means  to  support.  This  expedient,  founded  on  the  primitive 
manners  of  the  Germans,  was  the  institution  of  fiefs. 

It  was  long  a  custom  among  the  ancient  Germans,  that  their 
chiefs  should  have,  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war,  a  numerous  suite 
of  the  bravest  youths  attached  to  their  person.  Besides  provi- 
sions, they  supplied  them  with  horses  and  arms,  and  shared  with 
them  the  spoil  which  they  took  in  war.  This  practice  subsisted 
even  after  the  Germans  had  established  themselves  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Western  Empire.  The  kings,  and,  after  their 
example,  the  nobles,  continued  to  entertain  a  vast  number  of 
companions  and  followers  ;  and  the  better  to  secure  their  alle- 
giance, they  granted  them,  instead  of  horses  and  arms,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  certain  portions  of  land,  which  they  dismembered  from 
their  own  territories. 

These  grants,  known  at  first  by  the  name  of  benefices,  and 
afterwards  q^ fiefs,  subjected  those  who  received  them  to  personal 
services,  and  allegiance  to  the  superiors  of  whom  they  held 
them.  As  they  v/ere  bestowed  on  the  individual  possessor,  and 
on  the  express  condition  of  personal  services,  it  is  obvious  that 
originally  fiefs  or  benefices  were  not  hereditary ;  and  that  they 
returned  to  the  superior,  when  the  reason  for  which  they  had 
been  given  no  longer  existed. 

The  laws  and  jurisprudence  of  the  Romans  were  in  full  prac- 
tice through  all  the  provinces  of  the  Western  Empire,  when  the 
German  nations  established  themselves  there.  Far  from  super- 
seding or  abolishing  them,  the  invaders  permitted  the  ancient 
inhabitants,  and  such  of  their  new  subjects  as  desired  it,  to  live 
conformably  to  these  laws,  and  to  retain  them  in  their  courts  of 

6# 


64  CHAPTER  II. 

justice.  Nevertheless,  without  adopting  this  system  of  juris- 
prudence, which  accorded  neither  with  the  rudeness  of  their 
manners,  nor  the  imperfection  of  their  ideas,  they  took  great 
care,  after  their  settlement  in  the  Roman  provinces,  to  have  their 
ancient  customs,  to  which  they  were  so  peculiarly  attached,  di- 
gested and  reduced  to  writing. 

The  Codes  of  the  Salian  and  Ripuarian  Franks,  those  of  the 
Visigoths,  the  Burgundians,  the  Bavarians,  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
the  Frisians,  the  Alemanns,  and  the  Lombards,  were  collected 
into  one  body,  and  liberty  given  to  every  citizen  to  be  governed 
according  to  that  code  of  laws  which  he  himself  might  choose. 
All  these  laws  wore  the  impress  of  the  military  spirit  of  the 
Germans,  as  well  as  of  their  attachment  to  that  personal  liberty 
and  independence,  which  is  the  true  characteristic  of  human 
nature  in  its  primitive  state.  According  to  these  laws,  every 
person  was  judged  by  his  peers;  and  the  right  of  vengeance 
was  reserved  to  the  individuals,  or  the  whole  family,  of  those 
who  had  received  injuries.  Feuds,  which  thus  became  heredi- 
tary, were  not  however  irreconcilable.  Compromise  was  allow- 
ed for  all  private  delinquencies,  which  could  be  expiated,  by 
paying  to  the  injured  party  a  specified  sum,  or  a  certain  number 
of  cattle.  Murder  itself  might  be  expiated  in  this  manner  ;  and 
every  part  of  the  body  had  a  tax  or  equivalent,  which  was  more 
or  less  severe,  according  to  the  different  rank  or  condition  of 
the  offenders. 

Every  freeman  was  exempt  from  corporal  punishment;  and 
in  doubtful  cases,  the  law  obliged  the  judges  to  refer  the  parties 
to  single  combat,  enjoining  them  to  decide  their  quarrel  sword 
in  hand.  Hence,  we  have  the  origin  of  the  Judgments  of  God, 
as  well  as  of  Challenges  and  Diiels}^  These  customs  of  the 
German  nations,  and  their  singular  resolution  in  persisting  in 
them,  could  not  but  interrupt  the  good  order  of  society,  encou- 
rage barbarism,  and  stamp  the  s-ame  character  of  rudeness  on  all 
their  conquests.  New  wants  sprung  from  new  enjoyments 
while  opulence,  and  the  contagion  of  example,  taught  them  to 
contract  vices  of  which  they  had  been  ignorant,  and  which  they 
did  not  redeem  by  new  virtues.  Murders,  oppressions,  and  rob- 
beries, multiplied  every  day  ;  the  sword  was  made  the  standard 
of  honour,  the  rule  of  justice  and  injustice  ;  cruelty  and  perfidy 
became  every  where  the  reigning  character  of  the  court,  the 
nobility  and  the  people. 

Literature,  with  the  arts  and  sciences,  felt  above  all  the  bane- 
ful effects  of  this  revolution.  In  less  than  a  century  3f;e-  the 
first  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  there  scarcely  remained  ct  s.ugle 
trace  of  the  literature  and  fine  arts  of  the  Romans.     Learninsf, 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  5^ 

it  is  true,  had  for  a  long-  time  been  gradually  falling  into  decay, 
and  a  corrupt  taste  had  begun  to  appear  among  the  Romans  in 
works  of  genius  and  imagination  ;  but  no  comparison  can  be 
made  between  the  state  of  literature,  such  as  it  was  in  the  West 
anterior  to  the  revolution  of  the  fifth  century,  and  that  which  we 
find  there  after  the  conquests  of  the  German  nations. 

These  barbarians,  addicted  solely  to  war  and  the  chase,  de- 
spised the  arts  and  sciences.  Under  their  destructive  hands, 
the  finest  monuments  of  the  Romans  were  levelled  to  the  ground  ; 
their  libraries  were  reduced  to  ashes  ;  their  schools  and  semi- 
naries of  instruction  annihilated.  The  feeble  rays  of  learning 
that  remained  to  the  vanquished,  were  unable  to  enlighten  or 
civilize  those  enemies  to  knowledge  and  mental  cultivation. 
The  sciences,  unpatronised  and  unprotected  by  those  ferocious 
conquerors,-soon  fell  into  total  contempt. 

It  is  to  the  Christian  religion  alone,  which  was  embraced,  in 
succession,  by  the  barbarous  destroyers  of  the  empire,  that  we 
owe  the  preservation  of  the  mutilated  and  venerable  remains 
which  we  possess  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature. ^^  The  cler- 
gy, being  the  authorized  teachers  of  religion,  and  the  only  inter- 
preters of  the  sacred  writings,  were  obliged  by  their  office  to 
have  some  tincture  of  letters.  They  thus  became,  over  all  the 
East,  the  sole  depositaries  of  learning ;  and  for  a  long  series  of 
ages,  there  was  nobody  in  any  other  rank  or  profession  of  life, 
that  occupied  themselves  with  science,  or  had  the  slightest  ac- 
quaintance even  with  the  art  of  writing.  These  advantages 
which  the  clergy  enjoyed,  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to 
augment  their  credit  and  their  influence.  Every  where  they 
were  intrusted  with  the  management  of  state  affairs  ;  and  the 
offices  of  chancellor,  ministers,  public  notaries,  and  in  general, 
all  situations  where  knowledge  or  the  art  of  writing  was  indis- 
pensable, were  reserved  for  them;  and  in  this  way  their  very 
name  {clericus)  became  as  it  were  the  synonyme  for  a  man  of 
letters,  or  any  person  capable  of  handling  the  pen.  The  bish 
ops,  moreover,  held  the  first  rank  in  all  political  assemblies,  and 
in  war  marched  to  the  field  in  person,  at  the  head  of  their  vassals. 

Another  circumstance  that  contributed  to  raise  the  credit  and 
the  power  of  the  clergy  Avas,  that  the  Latin  language  continued 
to  be  employed  in  the  Roman  provinces  which  had  been  sub- 
jected to  the  dominion  of  the  German  nations.  Every  thing 
was  written  exclusively  in  the  Roman  tongue,  which  became  the 
language  of  the  church,  and  of  all  public  acts;  and  it  was  long 
before  the  German  dialects,  which  had  become  universally  pre- 
valent, could  be  reduced  to  writing.  The  corrupt  pronunciation 
of  the  Latin,  and  its  mixtur'.;  with  foreign  idioms  and  contsruc 


56  CHAPTER   II. 

tions,  gave  birth,  in  course  of  time,  to  new  languages,  which 
still  retain  evidence  of  their  Roman  origiri,  such  as  the  Italian, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  French  and  English  languages.  In  the 
fifth  and  following  centuries,  the  Teutonic  language,  or  that 
spoken  by  the  conquerors  of  Gaul,  was  called  lingua  Francica; 
this  was  distinguished  from  the  lingua  Romana,  or  the  language 
spoken  by  the  people  ;  and  which  afterwards  gave  rise  to  the 
modern  French.  It  appears,  therefore,  from  what  we  have  just 
stated,  that  the  incursion  of  the  German  tribes  into  the  provinces 
of  the  West,  was  the  true  source  of  all  the  barbarity,  ignorance 
and  superstition,  in  which  that  part  of  Europe  was  so  long  and 
so  universally  buried. 

There  would  have  been,  therefore,  every  reason  to  deplore  a 
revolution,  not  less  sanguinary  in  itself  than  disastrous  in  its 
consequences,  if,  on  the  one  hand,  it  had  not  been  the  instru- 
ment of  delivering  Europe  from  the  terrible  despotism  of  the 
Romans  ;  and,  on  the  other,  if  we  did  not  find,  in  the  rude  in- 
stitutions of  the  German  conquerors,  some  germs  of  liberty, 
which,  sooner  or  later,  were  sure  to  lead  the  nations  of  Europe 
to  wiser  laws,  and  better  organized  governments. 

Among  the  states  which  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, that  of  the  Franks  acquired  the  preponderance  ;  and,  for 
several  ages,  it  sustained  the  character  of  being  the  most  pow- 
erful kingdom  in  Europe.  This  monarchy,  founded  by  Clovis, 
and  extended  still  more  by  his  successors,  embraced  the  whole 
of  Gaul  except  Languedoc,  which  belonged  to  the  Visigoths.^" 
The  greater  p^rt  of  Germany  also  was  subject  to  it,  with  the 
exception  of  Saxony,  and  the  territories  of  the  Slavi.  After  it 
had  fallen  into  decay,  by  the  partitions  and  civil  wars  of  the 
descendants  of  Clovis,  it  rose  again,  solely  however  by  the  wis- 
dom and  ability  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace,  who  restored  it  once 
more  to  its  original  splendour. 

These  mayors,  from  being  originally  merely  grand-masters  of 
the  court,  rose  by  degrees  to  be  prime  ministers,  governors  of 
the  state,  and  ultimately  to  be  kings.  The  founder  of  their 
greatness,  was  Pepin  d'Heristal,  a  cadet  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Carlo vingians,  which  succeeded  that  of  the  Merovingians,  to- 
wards the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.  Under  the  Merovin- 
gian princes,  the  sovereignty  was  divided  between  two  principal 
kingdoms,  viz.  that  of  Austrasia,  which  comprehended  East- 
ern France,  being  all  that  part  of  Gaul  situated  between  the 
Mouse,  the  Scheld,  and  the  Rhine ;  as  well  as  the  German  pro- 
vinces beyond  the  Rhine,  which  also  made  a  part  of  that  mo- 
narchy. The  whole  of  Western  Gaul,  lying  between  the  Scheld, 
the  Meuse  and  the  Loire,  was  called  Neustria.      Burgundy, 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  &t 

Aquitain,  and  Provence,  were  considered  as  dependencies  of  this 
latter  kingdom. 

Dagobert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  having  been  assassinated,  in 
678,  the  King  of  Neustria,  Thierry  III.,  would  in  all  probability- 
have  reunited  the  two  monarchies  ;  but  the  Austrasians,  who 
dreaded  and  detested  Ebroin,  Mayor  of  Neustria,  elected  a 
mayor  of  their  own,  under  the  nominal  authority  of  Thierry. 
This  gave  rise  to  a  sort  of  civil  war  between  the  Austrasians  and 
the  Neustrians,  headed  by  Pepin  Heristal,  Mayor  of  Austrasia, 
and  Bertaire,  Mayor  of  Neustria,  who  succeeded  Ebroin.  The 
battle  which  Pepin  gained  at  Testry,  near  St.  Quentin  (687,) 
decided  the  fate  of  the  empire  ;  Bertaire  was  slain,  and  Thierry 
III.  fell  under  the  power  of  the  conqueror.  Pepin  afterwards 
confirmed  to  Thierry  the  honours  of  royalty,  and  contented  him- 
self with  the  dignity  of  mayor,  and  the  title  of  Duke  and  Prince 
of  the  Franks ;  but  regarding  the  throne  as  his  own  by  right  of 
conquest,  he  vested  in  himself  the  sovereign  authority,  and 
granted  to  the  Merovingian  Prince,  nothing  more  than  the  mere 
externals  of  majesty,  and  the  simple  title  of  king.  Such  was 
the  revolution  that  transferred  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
Franks  to  a  new  dynasty,  viz.  that  of  the  Carlovingians,  who 
with  great  moderation,  still  preserved,  during  a  period  of  sixty- 
five  years,  the  royal  dignity  to  the  Merovingian  princes,  whom 
they  had  stripped  of  all  their  power.^' 

Pepin  d'Heristal  being  dead  (714,)  the  partizans  of  the  ancient 
dynasty  made  a  last  effort  to  liberate  the  Merovingian  kings 
from  that  dependence  under  which  Pepin  had  held  them  so  long. 
This  prince,  in  transferring  the  sovereign  authority  to  his  grand- 
son Theodvvald,  onlj'-  six  years  of  age,  had  devolved  on  his 
widow,  whose  name  was  Plectrude,  the  regency  and  guardian- 
ship of  the  young  mayor. 

A  government  so  extraordinary  emboldened  the  factious  to 
attempt  a  revolution.  The  regent,  as  well  as  her  grandson,  were 
divested  of  the  sovereignty,  and  the  Neustrian  grandees  chose 
a  mayor  of  their  own  party  named  Eainfroy  ;  but  their  triumph 
Avas  only  of  short  durat'on.  Charles  Martel,  natural  son  of 
Pepin  as  is  supposed,  having  escaped  from  the  prison  where  he 
had  been  detained  by  the  regent,  passed  into  Austrasia,  and  then 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  duke,  after  the  example  of  his 
father.  He  engaged  in  a  war  against  Chilperic  II,  and  his  mayor 
Rainfroy ;  three  successive  victories  which  he  gained,  viz.  at 
Stavelo,  Vinci  near  Cambray,  and  Soissons,  in  716-17-18,  made 
him  once  more  master  of  the  throne  and  the  sovereign  authority. 
The  Duke  of  Aquitain  having  delivered  up  King  Chilperic  to 
him,  he  confirmed  anew  the  title  of  royalty  to  that  prince ;  and 


58  CHAPTER   II. 

shortly  after  raised  his  glory  to  its  highest  pitch,  by  the  brilliant 
victories  which  he  gained  over  the  Arabs  (732-737,)  in  the  plains 
of  Poitiers  and  Narbonne. 

Pepin  le  Bref,  (or  the  Short)  son  and  successor  of  Charles 
Martel,  finding  his  authority  established  both  within  and  with- 
out his  dominions,  judged  this  a  favourable  opportunity  for  re- 
uniting the  title  of  royalty  to  the  power  of  the  sovereign.  He 
managed  to  have  himself  elected  King  in  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Franks,  which  was  convened  in  the  Champ-dc-Mars, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Soissons.  Childeric  III.  the  last  ot 
the  Merovingian  kings,  was  there  deposed  (752,)  and  shut  up 
in  a  convent.  Pepin,  with  the  intention  of  rendering  his  person 
sacred  and  inviolable,  had  recourse  to  the  ceremony  of  corona* 
lion  ;  and  he  was  the  first  King  who  caused  himself  to  be 
solemnly  consecrated  and  crowned  in  the  Cathedral  of  Sois- 
sons, by  St.  Boniface,  first  archbishop  of  Mayence.--  Th« 
example  of  Pepin  was  followed  soon  after  by  several  princes  and 
sovereigns  of  Europe.  The  last  conquest  he  added  to  his  do- 
minion was  the  province  of  Languedoc,  which  he  took  (759) 
from  the  Arabs. 

The  origin  of  the  secular  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  com- 
mences with  the  reign  of  Pepin.  This  event,  which  had  so 
peculiar  an  influence  on  the  religion  and  government  of  the  Euro- 
pean nations,  requires  to  be  detailed  at  some  length. 

At  the  period  of  which  we  write,  there  existed  a  violent  con- 
troversy between  the  churches  in  the  East,  and  those  in  the 
"West,  respecting  the  worship  of  images.  The  Emperor  Leo 
the  Isaurian  had  declared  himself  against  this  worship,  and  had 
proscribed  it  by  an  imperial  edict  (726.)  He  and  his  successors 
persisted  in  destroying  these  objects  of  idolatry,  as  well  as  in 
persecuting  those  who  avowed  themselves  devotees  to  this 
heresy.  This  extravagant  zeal,  which  the  Roman  pontifTs 
blamed  as  excessive,  excited  the  indignation  of  the  people 
against  the  Grecian  Emperors.-^  In  Italy,  there  were  frequent 
rebellions  against  the  imperial  officers  that  were  charged  with 
the  execution  of  their  orders.  The  Romans  especially,  took 
occasion,  from  this,  to  expel  the  duke  or  governor,  who  resided 
in  their  city  on  the  part  of  the  emperor  ;  and  they  formally 
erected  themselves  into  a  republic  (730,)  under  the  pontificate 
of  Gregory  II.,  by  usurping  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  reviving  the  ancient  names  of  the  senate  and 
the  Roman  people.  The  Pope  was  recognised  as  chief  or  head 
of  this  new  republic,  and  had  the  general  direction  of  all  affairs, 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  territor}'  of  this  republic,  formed 
of  the  dutchy  of  Rome,  extended,  from  north  to  south,  from 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  59 

Viterbo  as  far  as  Terracina ;  and  from  east  to  west,  from  NarnI 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  Such  was  the  weakness  of  the 
Eastern  empire,  that  all  the  efforts  of  the  emperors  to  reduce 
the  Komans  to  subjection  proved  unavailing.  The  Greek  vice- 
roy— the  Duke  of  Naples,  who  had  marched  to  besiege  Rome, 
was  killed  in  battle,  together  with  his  son  ;  and  the  exarch  him- 
self was  compelled  to  make  peace  with  the  republicans. 

This  state  of  distress  to  which  the  Grecian  empire  was  re- 
duced, afforded  the  Lombards  an  opportunity  of  extending  their 
possessions  in  Italy.  Aistolphus  their  king  attacked  the  city  of 
Ravenna  (751,)  where  the  exarchs  or  governors-general  of  the 
Greeks  had  fixed  their  residence  ;  and  soon  made  himself  master 
of  it,  as  well  as  the  province  of  the  exarchate,-^  and  the  Pen- 
tapolis.  The  exarch  Eutychius  was  obliged  to  ^y,  and  took 
shelter  in  Naples. 

This  surrender  of  the  capital  of  Grecian  Italy,  emboldened 
the  Lombard  King  to  extend  his  views  still  farther  ;  he  demanded 
the  submission  of  the  city  and  dutchy  of  Rome,  which  he  con- 
sidered as  a  dependency  of  the  exarchate.  Pope  Stephen  II. 
became  alarmed,  and  iDegan  to  solicit  an  alliance  with  the 
Greek  empire,  whose  distant  power  seemed  to  him  less  formi- 
dable than  that  of  the  Lombards,  his  neighbours ;  but  being 
cijsely  pressed  by  Aistolphus,  and  finding  that  he  had  no  suc- 
co  ir  to  expect  from  Constantinople,  he  determined  to  apply  for 
protection  to  the  Franks  and  their  King  Pepin. 

The  Franks,  at  that  time,  held  the  first  rank  among  the  na- 
tions of  Europe  ;  their  exploits  against  the  Arabians  had  gained 
them  a  high  reputation  for  valour  over  all  the  West.  Stephen 
repaired  in  person  to  France,  and  in  an  interview  which  he  had 
with  Pepin,  he  found  means  to  interest  that  prince  in  his  cause. 
Pepin  did  not  yet  regard  himself  as  securely  established  on  a 
throne  which  he  had  so  recently  usurped  from  the  Merovingian 
princes  ;  more  especially  as  there  still  existed  a  son  of  Childeric 
III.,  named  Thierry,  and  a  formidable  rivalry  in  the  puissant 
dukes  of  Aquitain,  who  were  cadets  of  the  same  family.  He 
had  no  other  right  to  the  crown  than  that  of  election  ;  and  this 
title,  instead  of  descending  to  his  sons,  might  perhaps  serve  as 
a  pretext  for  depriving  them  of  the  sovereignty.  Anxious  to 
render  the  crown  hereditary,  he  induced  the  Pope  to  renew  the 
ceremony  of  his  coronation  in  the  Church  of  St.  Denis;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  consecrate  his  two  sons,  Charles  and  Car- 
loman.  The  Pope  did  more  ;  he  disengaged  the  King  from  the 
oath  which  he  had  taken  to  Childeric,  and  bound  all  the  nobility 
of  the  Franks,  that  were  present  on  the  occasion,  in  the  name 
of  Jesus  Christ  and  St.  Peter,  to  preserve  the  royal  dignity  in 


60  CHAPTER  n. 

the  right  of  Pepin  and  his  descendants;  and  lastly,  that  be 
might  the  more  effectually  secure  the  attachment  of  Pepin  and 
his  sons,  and  procure  for  himself  the  title  of  being  their  pro- 
tector, he  publicly  conferred  on  them  the  honour  of  being  patri- 
cians of  Rome. 

So  great  condescension  on  the  part  of  the  Pope  could  not  but 
excite  the  gratitude  of  Pepin,  He  not  onl}^  promised  him  suc- 
cour against  the  Lombards  ;  he  engaged  to  recover  the  exarchate 
from  their  hands,  and  make  a  present  of  it  to  the  Holy  See  ; 
he  even  made  him  a  grant  of  it  by  anticipation,  which  he  signed 
at  the  Castle  of  Chiersi-sur-l'Oise,  and  which  he  likewise  caused 
to  be  signed  by  the  princes  his  sons.'-^-^  It  was  in  fulfilment  of 
these  stipulations  that  Pepin  undertook  (755-56)  two  successive 
expeditions  into  Italy.  He  compelled  Aistolphus  to  acknowledge 
himself  his  vassal,  and  deliver  up  to  him  the  exarchate  with 
the  Pentapolis,  of  which  he  immediately  put  his  Holiness  in 
possession.  This  donation  of  Pepin  served  to  confirm  and  to 
extend  the  secular  power  of  the  Popes,  which  had  already  been 
augmented  by  various  grants  of  a  similar  kind.  The  original 
document  of  this  singular  contract  no  longer  exists;  but  the 
names  of  the  places  are  preserved  which  were  ceded  to  the 
pontifical  hierarchy. ^^ 

In  the  conclusion  of  this  period,  it  may  be  proper  to  take  some 
notice  of  the  Arabs,  commonly  called  Saracens,^^  and  of  their 
irruption  into  Europe.  Mahomet,  an  Arab  of  noble  birth,  and 
a  native  of  Mecca,  had  constituted  himself  a  prophet,  a  legisla- 
tor, and  a  conqueror,  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  He  had  been  expelled  from  Mecca  (622) 
on  account  of  his  predictions,  but  afterwards  returned  at  the 
head  of  an  army;  and  having  made  himself  master  of  the  city, 
he  succeeded  by  degrees,  in  subjecting  to  his  yoke  the  numerous 
tribes  of  Arabia.  His  successors,  known  by  the  name  of  Ca- 
liphs, or  vicars  spiritual  and  temporal  of  the  prophet,  followed 
the  same  triumphant  career.  They  propagated  their  religion 
wherever  they  extended  their  empire,  and  overran  with  their 
conquests  the  vast  regions  both  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Syria, 
Palestine,  Egypt,  Barca,  Tripoli,  and  the  whole  northern  coasts 
of  Africa,  were  won  from  the  Greek  empire  by  the  Caliphs ; 
who  at  the  same  time  (651)  overthrew  the  powerful  monarchy 
of  the  Persians;  conquered  Charasm,  Transoxiana,  and  the  In- 
dies, and  founded  an  empire  more  extensive  than  that  of  the 
Romans  had  been.  The  capital  of  the  Caliphs,  which  had  ori- 
ginally been  at  Medina,  and  afterwards  at  Cufa,  was  transferred 
(661)  by  the  Caliph  Moavia  I.  to  Damascus  in  Syria  ;  and  by 
the  Caliph  Almanzor,  to  Bagdad  in  Irak-Arabia,  (766)  whicfi 
was  founded  bv  that  prince. 


Flight  of  Mahomet.     Vol.  1 ,  p.  60. 


Cruxn-n  ng  of  Charlemagne.     Vol.  1 ,  p.  65. 


PERIOD  I.     A.  D.  406—800.  61 

It  was  under  the  Caliphate  of  Walid  (711,)  that  the  Arabs 
first  invaded  Europe,  and  attacked  the  monarchy  of  ihe  Visigoths 
in  Spain.  This  monarchy  had  ah'eady  sunk  under  the  feeble- 
ness of  its  kings,  and  the  despotic  prerogatives  which  the  gran- 
dees, and  especially  the  bishops,  had  arrogated  to  themselves. 
These  latter  disposed  of  the  throne  at  their  pleasure,  having 
declared  it  to  be  elective.  They  decided  with  supreme  authority 
in  the  councils  of  the  nation,  and  in  all  affairs  of  state.  Muza 
at  that  time  commanded  in  northern  Africa,  in  name  of  the  Ca- 
liph Walid.  By  the  authority  of  that  sovereign,  he  sent  into 
Spain  one  of  his  generals,  named  Taric  or  Tarec-Abenzara, 
who,  having  made  a  descent  on  the  coasts  of  Andalusia,  took 
his  station  on  the  hill  which  the  ancients  called  Calpe,  and  which 
has  since  been  known  by  the  name  of  Gibraltar  (Gibel-Taric,) 
or  the  hill  of  Taric,  in  commemoration  of  the  Arabian  general. 

It  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  Xeres  de  la  Frontera, 
in  Andalusia,  that  Taric  encountered  the  army  of  the  Visigoths, 
commanded  by  their  King  Roderic.  The  battle  was  decisive, 
as  the  Visigoths  sustained  a  total  defeat.  Roderic  perished  in 
the  flight;  and  Muza,  the  Arabian  governor,  having  arrived  to 
second  the  efforts  of  Taric,  the  conquest  of  all  Spain  followed 
as  a  consequence  of  this  victory.^  Septimania,  or  Languedoc, 
which  then  made  a  part  of  the  Visigothic  monarch}^,  passed  ?,* 
the  same  time  under  the  dominion  of  the  Arabs. 

These  fierce  invaders  did  not  limit  their  conquests  in  Europe 
to  Spain  and  Languedoc  ;  the  Balearic  Isles,  Sardinia,  Corsica, 
part  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  fell  likewise  under  their  dominion  : 
they  infested  the  sea  with  their  fleets,  and  more  than  once  car- 
ried terror  and  desolation  to  the  very  gates  of  Rome.  It  is  pro- 
bable even  that  all  Europe  would  have  submitted  to  their  yoke, 
if  Charles  Martel  had  not  arrested  the  career  of  their  victories. 
He  defeated  their  numerous  and  warlike  armies  in  the  bloody- 
battles  which  were  fought  near  Poitiers  and  Narbonne  (732- 
737,)  and  at  length  compelled  them  to  shut  themselves  up 
within  the  province  of  Languedoc. 

The  unity  of  the  empire  and  the  religion  of  Mahomet,  did 
not  long  remain  undivided.  The  first  dynasty  of  the  Caliphs, 
that  of  the  Ommiades,  was  subverted;  and  all  the  princes  of 
that  family  massacred  by  the  Abassides  (749,)  who  seized  the 
caliphate. '^^  A  solitary  descendant  of  the  Ommiades,  named  Ab- 
dalraham,  grandson  of  the  fifteenth  Caliph  Huscham,  was 
saved  in  Spain,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Cordova;  and  being 
acknowledged  as  Caliph  by  the  Mussulmans  there,  he  detached 
that  province  from  the  great  empire  of  the  Arabians.     (756.) 

This  revolution,  and  the  confusion  with  which  it  was  accom- 

VOL.  I.  6 


62  CHAPTER  II. 

panied,  gave  fresh  courage  to  the  small  number  oi  Visigoths, 
who,  to  escape  the  Mahometan  yoke,  had  retired  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Asturias.  Issuing  from  their  retreats,  they  retaliated 
on  the  Infidels;  and  towards  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  Christian  state,  called  after- 
wards the  kingdom  of  Oviedo  or  Leon.  Alphonso  I.,  sur- 
named  the  Catholic,  must  be  regarded  as  the  first  founder  of 
this  new  monarchy.^" 

The  Franks,  likewise,  took  advantage  of  these  events,  to  ex- 
pel the  Arabs  from  Languedoc.  Pepin  took  possession  of  the 
cities  of  Nismes,  Maguelonne,  Agde,  and  Beziers  (752,)  which 
were  delivered  up  to  him  by  a  noble  Goth,  named  Osmond. 
The  reduction  of  Narbonne  was  by  no  means  so  easy  a  task. 
For  seven  years  he  continued  to  blockade  it;  and  it  was  not 
until  759  that  he  became  master  of  the  city,  and  the  whole  of 
Languedoc. 

The  loss  of  Spain,  on  the  part  of  the  Abassides,  was  soon 
after  followed  by  that  of  Northern  Africa.  Ibrahim  Ben-Aglab, 
having  been  sent  thither  as  governor  by  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad, 
Haroun  Alrashid  (SOO,)  he  found  means  to  constitute  himself 
sovereign  prince  over  the  countries,  then  properly  termed  Afri- 
ca ;  of  which  Tripoli,  Cairoan,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,  formed  a 
part.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Aglabites  ;^^ 
while  another  usurper,  named  Edris,  having  conquered  Numi- 
dia  and  Mauritania,  called  by  the  Arabs  Mogreb,  founded  that 
of  the  Edrissites.  These  two  dynasties  were  overturned  (about 
908)  by  Aboul  Cassem  Mohammed,  son  of  Obeidallah,  who 
claimed  to  be  descended  from  Ali,  by  Fatima,  daughter  of  ihe 
prophet;  he  subjected  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa  to  his 
yoke,  and  took  the  titles  of  Mahadi  and  Caliph.  From  him 
were  descended  the  Caliphs,  called  Fatimites,  who  extended 
their  conquests  to  Egypt,  and  laid  there  the  foundation  of  Ka- 
herah,  or  Grand  Cairo  (968,)  Vv^here  they  established  the  seat 
of  their  caliphate,  which,  in  the  twelfth  century,  was  destroyed 
by  the  Ayoubides. 

The  irruption  of  the  Arabs  into  Spain,  disastrous  as  it  was, 
did  not  fail  to  produce  effects  beneficial  to  Europe,  which  owes 
its  civilization  partly  to  this  circumstance.  The  Abassidian 
Caliphs,  aspiring  to  he  the  protectors  of  letters  and  arts,  began 
to  found  schools,  and  to  encourage  translations  of  the  most 
eminent  Greek  authors  into  the  Arabic  language.  Their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  Caliphs  of  Cordova,  and  even  by 
the  Faiimiles,  who  held  the  sovereignty  of  Egypt  and  Northern 
Africa.  In  this  manner  a  taste  for  learning  was  communicated 
to  ail  the  Mahometan  states.     From  Bagdad  it  passed  to  Cairo ; 


PERIOD  II.     A.  D.  800—962.  '63 

and  from  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile,  it  spread 
itself  as  far  as  the  Tagus.  Mathematics,  ^^  Astronomy,  Che- 
mistry, Medicine,  Botany,  and  Materia  Medica,  were  the  sci- 
ences which  the  Arabians  affected  chiefly  to  cuhivate.  They 
excelled  also  in  poetry,  and  in  the  art  of  embodying  the  fictions 
of  imagination  in  the  most  agreeable  narratives.  Rhazes,  Aver- 
roes,  Avicenna,  are  among  the  number  of  their  celebrated  phi- 
losophers and  physicians.  Elmacin,  Abuifeda,  Abulpharagius, 
and  Bohadin,  as  historians,  have  become  famous  to  all  posterity. 
Thus  Spain,  under  the  Mahometans,  by  cultivaiing  many 
sciences  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  became  the  semi- 
nary of  the  Christians  in  the  West,  who  resorted  thither  in 
crowds,  to  prosecute  in  the  schools  of  Cordova  the  study  of 
learning  and  the  liberal  arts.^^  The  use  of  the  numerical  cha- 
racters, the  manufacture  of  paper,  cotton,  and  gun-powder, 
were  derived  to  us  from  the  Arabians,  and  especially  from  the 
Arabians  of  Spain.  Agriculture,  manufactures,  and  naviga- 
tion, are  all  equally  indebted  to  the  Arabians.  They  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  the  commerce  of  the  Indies  ;  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  they  extended  their  trade  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  to  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea.  Their  carpets, 
and  embroideries  in  gold  and  silver,  their  cloths  of  silk,  and  their 
manufactures  in  steel  and  leather,  maintained  for  years  a  ce- 
lebrity and  a  perfection  unknown  to  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 


CHAPTER    III. 

PERIOD    II. 

From  Charlemagne  to  Otho  the  Great,     a.  d.  SOO — 962. 

The  reign  of  Charles  the  Great  forms  a  remarkable  epoch  in 
the  history  of  Europe.  That  prince,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Pepin  (76S,)  eclipsed  all  his  predecessors,  by  the  superiority  of 
his  genius,  as  well  as  by  the  wisdom  and  vigour  of  his  admin- 
istration. Under  him  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks  was  raised 
to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  glory.  He  would  have  been  an  ac- 
complished prince,  and  worthy  of  being  commemorated  as  the 
benefactor  of  mankind,  had  he  known  how  to  restrain  his  im- 
moderate thirst  for  conquest. 

He  carried  his  victorious  arms  into  the  centre  of  Germany; 
and  subdued  the  warlike  nation  of  the  Saxons,  whose  territories 
extended  from  the  Lower  Rhine,  to  the  Elbe  and  the  Baltic 
sea.  After  a  bloody  war  of  thirty-three  years,  he  compelled 
them  to  receive  his  yoke,  and  to  embrace  Christianity,  by  the 


64  CHAPTER   III.  f 

peace  which  he  concluded  with  them  (803)  at  Sahz  on  the 
Saal.  The  bishoprics  of  Munster,  Osnaburg,  Minden,  Pader- 
born,  Verden,  Bremen,  Hildesheim,  and  Halberstadt,  owe  their 
origin  to  this  prince.  Several  of  the  Slavonian  nations,  the 
Abotrites  (789,)  the  Wilzians  (805,)  the  Sorabians  (806,)  the 
Bohemians  (811,)  &;c.,  acknowledged  themselves  his  tributaries; 
and  by  a  treaty  of  peace  which  he  concluded  with  Hemming, 
King  of  Jutland,  he  fixed  the  river  Eyder,  as  the  northern 
limit  of  his  empire  against  the  Danes.  Besides  these,  the 
powerful  monarchy  of  the  Avars,'  which  comprehended  all  the 
countries  known  in  modern  times  by  the  names  of  Austria, 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  Sclavonia,  Dalmatia  and  Croatia,  was 
completely  subverted  by  him  (791  ;)  and  he  likewise  despoiled 
the  Arabians  of  all  that  part  of  Spain  which  is  situated  between 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro  (796,)  as  also  of  Corsica,  Sardinia, 
and  the  Balearic  Isles.  In  Spain  he  established  military  com- 
manders under  the  title  of  Margraves. 

Of  these  conquests,  the  one  that  deserves  the  most  particu- 
lar attention  is  that  of  Italy,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards. 
At  the  solicitation  of  Pope  Adrian  I.,  Charles  undertook  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  last  of  the  Lombard  kings.  He  besieged 
that  prince  in  his  capital  at  Pavia;  and  having  made  him  pri- 
soner, after  a  long  siege,  he  shut  him  up  in  confinement  for  the 
rest  of  his  days,  and  incorporated  his  dominions  with  the  mo- 
narchy of  the  Franks.  Tl.z  Dukes  of  Benevento,  who,  as 
vassals  of  the  Lombard  kings,  then  occupied  the  greater  part  of 
Lower  Italy,  were  at  the  same  time  compelled  to  acknowledge 
the  sovereignty  of  the  conquerors,  who  allowed  them  to  exer- 
cise their  hereditary  rights,  on  condition  of  their  paying  an 
annual  tribute.  The  only  places  in  this  part  of  Italy  that  re 
mained  unsubdued,  were  the  maritime  towns,  of  which  the 
Greeks  still  found  means  to  maintain  the  possession. 

In  order  to  secure  the  conquest  of  this  country,  as  well  as  to 
protect  it  against  the  incursions  of  the  Arabians,  Charles  estab- 
lished several  marches  and  military  stations,  such  as  the 
marches  of  Friuli,  Tarento,  Turin,  Liguira,  Teti,  &c.  The 
dov/nfall  of  the  Lombards,  put  an  end  to  the  republican  govern- 
ment of  the  Eomans.  During  the  blockade  of  Pavia,  Charles 
having  gone  to  Rome  to  be  present  at  the  feast  of  Easter  (774,) 
was  received  there  with  all  the  honours  due  to  an  Exarch 
and  a  Patrician;  and  there  is  incontestable  proof  that  he  after- 
wards received,  under  that  title,  the  rights  of  sovereignty  over 
Kome  and  the  Ecclesiastical  States. 

The  Patrician  dignity,  instituted  by  Constantine  the  Great; 
ranked;  in  the  Greek  empire,  next  after  that  of  emperor.     It  was 


PERIOD  II.     A.  D.  800 — 962.  65 

of  such  consideration,  that  even  barbarian  kings,  the  destroyers 
of  the  ancient  Roman  empire  in  the  West,  became  candidates 
for  this  honour  at  the  Court  of  Constantinople.  The  exarchs 
^  of  Ravenna  were  generally  invested  with  it,  and  exercised  under 
this  title,  rather  than  that  of  exarch  or  governor,  the  authority 
which  they  enjoyed  at  Rome.  Pope  Stephen  II.  had,  twenty 
years  before,  conferred  the  patriciate  on  Pepin  and  his  sons  ; 
although  these  princes  appear  never  to  have  exercised  the  right, 
regarding  it  merely  as  an  honorary  title,  so  long  at  least  as^'the 
kingdom  of  the  Lombards  separated  them  from  Rome  and  the 
States  of  the  Church.  Charles  no  sooner  saw  himself  master 
of  that  kingdom,  than  he  affected  to  add  to  his  titles  of  King  of 
the  Franks  and  Lombards  that  of' Patrician  of  the  Romans  ;  and 
oegan  to  exercise  over  Rome  and  the  Ecclesiastical  States  those 
rig-hts  of  supremacy  which  the  Greek  emperors  and  exarchs  had 
enjoyed  before  him. 

This  prince  returned  to  Rome  towards  the  end  of  the  year 
800?«in  order  to  inquire  into  a  conspiracy  which  some  of  the 
Roman  nobility  had  concerted  against  the  life  of  Pope  Leo  III. 
The  whole  affair  having  been  discussed  in  his  presence,  and 
the  innocence  of  the  Pope  clearly  established,  Charles  went  to 
assist  at  the  solemn  mass  which  was  celebrated  in  St.  Peter's 
Church  on  Christmas  day  (SCO.)  The  Pope,  anxious  to  show 
him  some  public  testimony  of  his  gratitude,  chose  the  moment 
when  the  prince  was  on  his  knees  at  the  foot  of  the  grand  altar, 
to  put  the  imperial  crown  on  his  head,  and  cause  him  to  be  pro- 
claimed to  the  people  Emperor  of  the  Romans. 

^  From  this  affair  must  be  dated  the  revival  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire in  the  West,— a  title  which  had  been  extinct  for  three  hun- 
dred 3^ears.  The  emperors  of  the  East  who,  during  that  inter- 
val, had  continued  exclusively  in  the  enjoyment  of  that  title, 
appeared  to  have  some  reason' for  opposing  an  innovation  which 
might  eventually  become  prejudicial  to  them.  The  contest 
which  arose  on  this  subject  between  the  two  emperors,  was  at 
length  (803)  terminated  by  treaty.  The  Greek  emperors  recog- 
nised the  new  dignity  of  Charles  (812  ;)  and  on  these  conditions 
they  were  allowed  to  retain  those  possessions,  which  they  still 
held  by  a  feeble  tenure  in  Italy. 

In  thus  maintaining  the  imperial  dignity  against  the  Greek 
emperors,  Charles  added  nothing  to  his  real  power  ;  he  acquired 
from  it  no  new  right  over  the  dismembered  provinces  of  the 
Western  empire,  the  state  of  which  had,  for  a  long  time  past, 
been  fixed  by  specific  regulations.  He  did  not  even  augment 
his  authority  over  Rome,  where  he  continued  to  exercise  the 

6^ 


<•• 


DO  CHAPTER  III. 

same  rights  of  superiority  under  the  title  of  emperor,  which  he 
had  formerly  done  under  that  of  patrician. 

This  prince,  whose  genius  soared  beyond  his  age,  did  not 
figure  merely  as  a  warrior  and  a  conqueror;  he  was  also  a  le-  . 
gislator,  and  a  zealous  patron  of  letters.  By  the  laws  which  he 
published  under  the  title  of  Capitularies,  he  reformed  several 
abuses,  and  introduced  new  ideas  of  order  and  justice.  Com- 
missioners nominated  by  himself,  were  charged  to  travel  through 
the  provinces,  to  superintend  the  execution  of  the  laws,  listen 
to  the  complaints  of  the  people,  and  render  justice  to  each 
without  distinction  and  without  partiality.  He  conceived  like- 
wise the  idea  of  establishing  a  uniformity  of  weights  and  mea- 
sures throughout  the  empire.  Some  of  the  laws  of  that  great 
man,  however,  indicate  a  disposition  tinctured  with  ^he  barba- 
rism and  superstition  of  his  age.  The  Judgments  of  God  are 
expressly  held  by  him  to  be  legal  tests  of  right  and  wrong,  and 
the  greater  part  of  crimes  expiable  by  money.  By  a  general 
law,  which  he  passed  in  779,  introducing  the  payment  of  ^cle- 
siastical  tithes,  and  which  he  extended  to  the  vanquished  Saxons 
(791,)  he  alienated  the  affections  of  that  people;  and  the  code 
which  he  dictated  on  this  occasion,  is  remarkable  for  its  atrocity ; 
which  their  repeated  revolts,  and  frequent  returns  to  paganism, 
cannot  justify. 

As  to  his  patronage  and  love  of  letters,  this  is  attested  by  the 
numerous  schools  which  he  founded,  and  the  encouragements 
he  held  out  to  them ;  as  well  as  the  attention  he  showed  in  in- 
vitmg  to  his  court,  the  most  celebrated  learned  men  from  every 
country  in  Europe.  He  formed  them  into  a  kind  of  academy, 
or  literary  society,  of  which  he  was  himself  a  member.  When 
at  an  advanced  age,  he  received  instruction  in  rhetoric,  logic 
and  astronomy,  from  the  famous  Alcuin,  an  Englishman,  to 
whom  he  was  much  attached.  He  endeavoured  also  to  improve 
his  vernacular  tongue,  which  was  the  Teutonic,  or  lingua 
Francica,  by  drawing  up  a  grammar  of  that  language,  giving 
German  names  to  the  months  and  the  winds,  which  had  not  yet 
received  them  ;  and  in  making  a  collection  of  the  military  songs 
of  the  ancient  Germans.  He  extended  an  equal  protection  to 
the  arts,  more  especially  architecture,  a  taste  for  which  he  had 
imbibed  in  Italy  and  Rome.  Writers  of  those  times  speak 
with  admiration  of  the  palaces  and  edifices  constructed  by  his 
orders,  at  Ingelheim,  near  Mentz,  atNimeguen,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Waal,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  These  buildings  were 
adorned  with  numerous  paintings,  as  well  as  marble  and  mosaic 
work,  which  he  had  brought  from  Rome  and  Ravenna. 

The  empire  of  Charlemagne,  which  may  bear  a  comparison 


•  PERIOD  II.     A.  D.  800—962.  67 

as  to  its  extent  with  the  ancient  empire  of  the  West,  embraced 
the  principal  part  of  Europe.  All  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Spain 
as  far  as  the  Ebro,  Italy  to  Benevento,  several  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean,  with  a  considerable  part  of  Pannonia,  composed 
this  vast  empire,  which,  from  west  to  east,  extended  from  the 
Ebro  to  the.  Elbe  and  the  Raab  ;  and  from  south  to  north,  from 
the  dutchy  of  Benevento  and  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the  River  Ey- 
der,  which  formed  the  boundary  between  Germany  and  Denmark. 

In  defining  the  limits  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  confound  the  provinces  and  states  incor- 
porated with  the  empire  with  those  that  were  merely  tributary. 
The  former  were  governed  by  officers  who  might  be  recalled  at 
the  will  of  the  prince  ;  while  the  latter  were  free  states,  whose 
only  tenure  on  the  empire  was  by  alliance,  and  the  contributions 
they  engaged  to  pay.  Such  was  the  policy  of  this  prince,  that, 
besides  the  marches  or  military  stations  which  he  had  established 
on  the  frontiers  of  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy,  he  chose  to  retain 
on  different  points  of  his  dominions,  nations  who,  under  the 
name  of  tributaries,  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  Franks,  and 
might  act  as  a  guard  or  barrier  against  the  barbarous  tribes  of 
the  east  and  north,  who  had  long  been  in  the  habit  of  making 
incursions  into  the  western  and  southern  countries  of  Europe. 

Thus  the  dukes  of  Benevento  in  Italy,  who  were  simply  vas- 
sals and  tributaries  of  the  empire,  supplied  as  it  were  a  rampart 
or  bulwark  against  the  Greeks  and  Arabians;  while  the  Scla- 
vonian  nations  of  Germany,  Pannonia,  Dalmatia,  and  Croatia, 
though  feudatories  or  vassals  of  France,  were  governed,  never- 
'theless,  by  their  own  laws,  and  in  general  did  not  even  profess 
the  Christian  religion. 

From  this  brief  sketch  of  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  it  is  easy 
to  perceive,  that  there  was  then  no  single  power  in  Europe  for- 
midable enough  to  enter  into  competition  with  the  empire  of  the 
Franks.  The  monarchies  of  the  north,  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden,  and  those  of  Poland  and  Russia,  were  not  then  in  ex- 
istence ;  or  had  not  emerged  from  the  thick  darkness  that  still 
covered  those  parts  of  continental  Europe,  England  then  pre- 
sented a  heptarchy  of  seven  confederate  governments,  the  union 
of  which  was  far  from  being  well  consolidated.  The  kings  of 
this  confederacy  were  incessantly  engaged  in  war  with  each 
other  ;  and  it  was  not  until  several  years  after  Charlemagne, 
that  Egbert  the  Great,  king  of  Wessex,  prevailing  in  the  contest 
constituted  himself  King  of  all  England,  in  827. 

The  Mahometan  part  of  Spain,  after  it  was  separated  from 
the  great  empire  of  the  Caliph's,  was  engaged  in  perpetual  war- 
fare with  the  East.     The  Ommiades,  sovereigns  of  Cordova, 


bo  CHAPTER    III. 

far  from  provoking-  their  western  neighbours,  whose  valour  they 
had  ah'eady  experienced,  showed  themselves,  on  the  contrary, 
attentive  to  preserve  peace  and  good  understanding  with  ihem. 
The  Greek  emperors,  who  were  continually  quarrelling  with  the 
Arabs  and  Bulgarians,  and  agitated  by  factions  and  intestine 
commotions,  could  no  longer  be  an  object  of  suspicion  or  rivalry 
to  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks. 

Thus  did  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  enjoy  the  glory  tDf  being 
the  ascendant  power  in  Europe  ;  but  it  did  not  long  sustain  its 
original  splendor.  It  would  have  required  a  man  of  extraordi- 
nary talents,  to  manage  the  reins  of  a  government  so  extensive 
and  so  complicated.  Louis-le-Debonnaire,  or  the  Gentle,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Charles,  did  not  possess  a  single  qualifi- 
cation proper  to  govern  the  vast  dominions  which  his  father  had 
bequeathed  to  him.  As  impolitic  as  he  was  weak  and  super- 
stitious, he  had  not  the  art  of  making  himself  either  loved  or 
feared  by  his  subjects.  By  the  imprudent  partition  of  his  domi- 
nions between  his  sons,  which  he  made  even  in  his  lifetime,  he 
planted  with  his  own  hand  those  seeds  of  discord  in  his  family, 
which  accelerated  the  downfall  of  the  empire.  The  civil  wars 
which  had  commenced  in  his  reign  continued  after  his  death. 
Louis,  surnamed  the  German,  and  Charles  the  Bald,  combined 
against  their  elder  brother  Lothaire,  and  defeated  him  at  the  fa- 
mous battle  of  Fontenay  in  Burgundy  (841,)  where  all  the  flower 
of  the  ancient  nobility  perished  Louis  and  Charles,  victorious  in 
this  engagement,  obliged  their  brother  to  take  refuge  in  Italy. 
They  next  marched  to  Strasbourg,  wnere  they  renewed  their  alli- 
ance (842,)  and  confirmed  it  by  oath  at  the  head  of  their  troops.* 

These  princes  were  en  the  point  of  dividing  the  whole  mo- 
narchy between  them,  when,  by  the  interference  of  the  nobility, 
they  became  reconciled  to  their  elder  brother,  and  concluded  a 
treaty  with  him  at  Verdun  (843,)  which  finally  completed  the 
division  of  the  empire.  By  this  formal  distribution  Lothaire 
retained  die  imperial  dignity,  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  the 
provinces  situated  between  the  Rhone,  the  Saone,  the  Meuse, 
the  ScLeld,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Alps.  Louis  had  all  Germany 
beyond  the  Rhine,  and  on  this  side  of  the  river,  the  cantons  of 
May^nce,  Spire,  and  Worms;  and,  lastly,  all  that  part  of  Gau] 
whicu  extends  from  the  Scheld,  the  Meuse,  the  Saone,  and  the 
Rhone,  to  the  Pyrenees,  fell  to  the  lot  of  Charles,  whose  division 
also  comprehended  the  March  of  Spain,  consisting  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Barcelona,  and  the  territories  which  Charlemagne  had 
conquered,  beyond  the  Pyrenees. 

It  is  with  this  treaty,  properly  speaking,  that  modern  France 
commences,  which  is  but  a  department  of  the  ancient  empire  of 


PERIOD  II.     A.  D.  800—962.  69 

the  Franks,  or  monarchy  of  Charlemagne.  For  a  long  time  it 
retained  the  boundaries  which  the  conference  at  Verdun  had 
assigned  it ;  and  whatever  it  now  possesses  beyond  these  limits, 
was  the  acquisition  of  conquests  which  it  has  made  since  the  four- 
teenth century.  Charles  the  Bald  was  in  fact  then  the  first  King 
of  France,  and  it  his  from  him  that  the  series  of  her  kings  com- 
mences. It  was  moreover  under  this  prince  that  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Neustrians  or  Western  Franks  assumed  a  new 
aspect.  Before  his  time  it  was  entirely  of  a  Frankish  or  German 
constitution;  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  conquerors  of 
Gaul  every  where  predominated  ;  their  language  (the  lingua 
Fromcica)  was  that  of  the  court  and  the  government.  But  after 
the  dismemberment  of  which  we  have  spoken,  the  Gauls  im- 
ported it  into  Neustria  or  Western  France ;  the  customs  and 
popular  language  were  adopted  by  the  court,  and  had  no  small 
influence  on  the  government.  This  language,  which  was  then 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Roman  or  Romance,  polished  by  the 
refinements  of  the  court,  assumed  by  degrees  a  new  and  purer 
form,  and  in  course  of  time  became  the  parent  of  the  modern 
French.  It  was  therefore  at  this  period,  viz.  the  reign  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  that  the  Western  Franks  began,  properly 
speaking,  to  be  a  distinct  nation,  and  exchanged  their  more 
ancient  appellation  for  that  of  French;  the  name  by  which  they 
are  still  known. 

At  this  same  period  Germany  was,  for  the  first  time,  embo- 
died into  a  monarchy,  having  its  own  particular  kings.  Louis 
the  German,  was  the  first  monarch  of  Germany,  as  Charles  the 
Bald  was  of  France.  The  kingdom  of  Louis  for  a  long  time 
was  called  Eastern  France,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Western 
kingdom  of  that  name,  which  henceforth  exclusively  retained 
the  name  of  France. 

The  empire  of  Charlemagne,  which  the  treaty  of  Verdun  had 
divided,  was  for  a  short  space  reunited  (884)  under  Charlea 
surnamed  the  Fat,  younger  son  of  Louis  the  German,  and  King 
of  Germany  ;  but  that  prince,  too  feeble  to  support  so  great  a 
weight,  was  deposed  by  his  German  subjects  (887,)  and  their 
example  was  speedily  followed  by  the  French  and  the  Italians 
The  vast  empire  of  the  Franks  was  thus  dismembered  for  eve 
(888,)  and  besides  the  kingdoms  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy, 
it  gave  birth  to  three  new  States — the  kingdoms  of  Lorraine, 
Burgundy,  and  Navarre. 

The  kingdom  of  Lorraine  took  its  name  from  Lothaire  II., 
younger  son  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire  I.,  who,  in  the  division 
which  he  made  of  his  estates  among  his  sons  (8oo,)  gave  to  this 
Lothaire  the  provinces  situated  between  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse 


70  CHAPTER  m. 

and  the  Scheld,  known  since  under  the  name  of  Lorraine,  Al- 
sace, Treves,  Cologne,  Juliers,  Liege,  and  the  Low  Countries.. 
At  the  death  of  Lothaire  II.,  who  left  no  male  or  legitimate 
heirs,  his  kingdom  was  divided  by  the  treaty  of  Procaspis  (870,) 
into  two  equal  portions,  one  of  which  was  assigned  to  Louis 
the  German,  and  the  other  to  Charles  the  Bald.^  By  a  subse- 
quent treaty,  concluded  (879)  between  the  sons  of  Louis,  &ur- 
named  the  Stamnrierer,  King  of  France,  and  Louis  the  Young, 
King  of  Germany,  the  French  division  of  Lorraine  was  ceded 
to  this  latter  prince,  who  thus  reunited  the  whole  of  that  king- 
dom. It  remained  incorporated  with  Germany,  at  the  time  when 
the  last  dismemberment  of  that  monarchy  took  place,  (895,)  on 
the  deposition  of  Charles  the  Fat.  Arnulph,  King  of  Germany, 
and  successor  of  Charles,  bestowed  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine  on 
Swentibald  his  natural  son,  who  after  a  reign  of  five  years,  was 
deposed  by  Louis,  surnamed  the  Infant,  son  and  successor  of 
Arnulph.  Louis  dying  without  issue,  (912,)  Charles  the  Sim- 
ple, King  of  France,  took  advantage  of  the  commotions  in  Ger- 
many, to  put  himself  in  possession  of  that  kingdom,  which  was 
at  length  finally  reunited  to  the  Germanic  crown  by  Henry, 
surnamed  the  Fowler. 

Two  new  kingdoms  appeared  under  the  name  of  Burgundy, 
viz.  Provence  or  Cisjurane  Burgundy,  and  Transjurane  Bur 
gundy.  The  founder  of  the  former  was  a  nobleman  named 
Boson,  whose  sister  Charles  the  Bald  had  espoused.  Elevated 
by  the  king,  his  brother-in-law,  to  the  highest  dignities  in  the 
state,  he  was  created,  in  succession.  Count  of  Vienna,  Duke  of 
Provence,  Duke  of  Italy,  and  Prime  Minister,  and  even  obtained 
in  marriage  the  Princess  Irmengarde,  daughter  of  Louis  II., 
Emperor  and  King  of  Italy.  Instigated  by  this  princess,  he  did 
not  scruple  to  raise  his  ambitious  views  to  the  throne.  The 
death  of  Louis  the  Stammerer,  and  the  troubles  that  ensued, 
afforded  him  an  opportunity  of  attaching  to  his  interest  most  of 
the  bishops  in  those  countries,  intrusted  to  his  government.  In 
an  assembly  which  he  held  at  Mantaille  in  Dauphin<?,  (879,)  he 
engaged  them  by  oath  to  confer  on  him  the  royal  dignity.  The 
schedule  of  this  election,  with  the  signatures  of  the  bishops  affix- 
ed, informs  us  distinctly  of  the  extent  of  this  new  kingdom, 
which  comprehended  Franche-Comte,  Ma9on,  Chalons-sur-Sa- 
one,  Lyons,  Vienne  and  its  dependencies,  Agde,  Viviers,  Usez, 
with  their  dependencies  in  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  a  part  of 
Savoy.  Boson  caused  himself  to  be  anointed  king  at  Lyons, 
by  the  archbishop  of  that  city.  He  maintained  possession  of 
his  usurped  dominions,  in  spite  of  the  combined  efforts  which 
were  made  by  the  kings  of  France  and  Germany  to  reduce  him 
to  subjection. 


PERIOD  II.      A.  D.  800—962.  71 

The  example  of  Boson  was  followed  soon  after  by  Rodolph, 
governor  of  Transjurane  Burgundy,  and  related  by  the  female 
side  to  the  Carlo vingians.  He  was  proclaimed  king,  and  crown- 
ed at  St.  Maurice  in  the  Valais  ;  and  his  new  kingdom,  situa- 
ted between  Mount  Jura  and  the  Penine  Alps,  contained  Swit- 
zerland, as  far  as  the  River  Reuss,  the  Valais,  and  a  part  of 
Savoy.  The  death  of  Boson,  happening  about  this  time,  fur- 
nished Rodolph  with  a  favourable  opportunity  of  extending  his 
frontiers,  and  seizing  a  part  of  the  country  of  Burgundy. 

These  two  kingdoms  were  afterwards  (930)  united  into  one. 
Hugo,  king  of  Italy,  exercised  at  that  time  the  guardianship  of 
the  young  Constantine,  his  relation,  the  son  of  Louis,  and  grand- 
son of  Boson.  The  Italians,  discontented  under  the  government 
of  Hugo,  and  having  devolved  their  crown  on  Rodolph  II.,  king 
of  Transjurane  Burgundy,  Hugo,  in  order  to  maintain  himself 
on  the  throne  of  Italy,  and  exclude  Rodolph,  ceded  to  him  the 
district  of  Provence,  and  the  kingdom  of  his  royal  ward.  Thus 
united  in  the  person  of  Rodolph,  these  two  kingdoms  passed  to 
his  descendants,  viz.  Conrad,  his  son,  and  Rodolph  III.,  his 
grandson.  These  princes  are  styled,  in  their  titles,  sometimes 
Kings  of  Burgundy ;  sometimes  Kings  of  Vienne  or  Aries; 
sometimes  Kings  of  Provence  and  Allemania.  They  lost,  in 
course  of  time,  their  possessions  beyond  the  Rhone  and  the 
Saone;  and  in  the  time  of  Rodolph  III.,  this  kingdom  had  for 
its  boundaries  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Saone,  the  Reuss,  and 
the  Alps. 

Navarre,  the.  kingdom  next  to  be  mentioned,  known  among 
the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Vasconia,  was  one  of  the  pro- 
vinces beyond  the  Pyrenees,  which  Charlemagne  had  conquered 
from  the  Arabs.  Among  the  counts  or  wardens  of  the  Marches, 
called  by  the  Germans  Margraves,  which  he  established,  the 
most  remarkable  were  those  of  Barcelona  in  Catalonia,  Jacca 
in  Arragon,  and  Pampeluna  in  Navarre.  All  these  Spanish 
Marches  were  comprised  within  Western  France,  and  within 
the  division  which  fell  to  the  share  of  Charles  the  Bald,  on  the 
dismemberment  of  that  monarchy  among  the  sons  of  Louis  the 
Gentle.  The  extreme  imbecility  of  that  prince,  and  the  calami- 
ties of  his  reign,  were  the  causes  why  the  Navarrese  revolted 
from  France,  and  erected  themselves  into  a  free  and  indepen- 
dent state.  It  appears  also,  that  they  were  implicated  in  the 
defection  of  Aquitain  (853,)  when  it  threw  off  the  yoke  of 
Charles  the  Bald.  Don  Garcias,  son  of  the  Count  Don  Gar- 
cias,  and  grandson  of  Don  Sancho,  is  generally  reckoned  the 
first  of  their  monarchs,  that  usurped  the  title  of  King  of  Pa?n- 
peluna,  (858.)     He  and  his  successors  in  the  kingdom  of  Na 


7P-  CHAPTER   111. 

varre,  possessed,  at  the  same  time,  the  province  of  Jacca  in 
Arragon.  The  Counts  of  Barcelona  were  the  only  Spanish 
dependencies  tha»t,  for  many  centuries,  continued  to  acknowledge 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Kings  of  France. 

On  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  point  out 
the  causes  that  conspired  to  accelerate  the  downfall  of  the  em- 
pire of  the  Franks.  Among  these  we  may  reckon  the  inconve- 
niences of  the  feudal  system, — a  system  as  unfitted  for  the  pur- 
poses of  internal  administration,  as  it  was  incompatible  with  the 
maxims  that  ought  to  rule  a  great  empire.  The  abuse  of  fiefs 
was  carried  so  far  by  the  Franks,  that  almost  all  property  had 
become  feudal ;  and  not  only  grants  of  land,  and  portions  of 
large  estates,  but  governments,  dukedoms,  and  counties,  were 
conferred  and  held  under  the  title  of  fiefs.  The  consequence 
of  this  was,  that  the  great,  by  the  allurement  of  fiefs  or  benefices, 
became  devoted  followers  of  the  kings,  while  the  body  of  the 
nation  sold  themselves  as  retainers  of  the  great.  Whoever  re- 
fused this  vassalage  was  despised,  and  had  neither  favour  nor 
honour  to  expect.*  By  this  practice,  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
was  abridged  without  augmenting  the  royal  authority.  The 
nobles  soon  became  so  powerful,  by  the  liberality  of  their  kings, 
and  the  number  of  their  vassals  they  found  means  to  procure, 
that  they  had  at  length  the  presumption  to  dictate  laws  to  the 
sovereign  himself.  By  degrees,  the  obligations  which  they 
owed  to  the  state  were  forgotten,  and  those  only  recognised 
which  the  feudal  contract  imposed.  This  new  bond  of  alliance 
was  not  long  in  opening  a  door  to  licentiousness,  as  by  a  natural 
consequence,  it  was  imagined,  that  the  feudal  superior  might  be 
changed,  whenever  there  was  a  possibility  of  charging  him  with 
a  violation  of  his  engagements,  or  of  that  reciprocal  fidelity  which 
he  owed  to  his  vassals. 

A  system  like  this,  not  only  overturned  public  order,  by  plant- 
ing the  germs  of  corruption  in  every  part  of  the  internal  admi- 
nistration ;  it  was  still  more  defective  with  regard  to  the  external 
operations  of  government,  and  directly  at  variance  with  all  plans 
of  aggrandizement  or  of  conquest.  As  war  was  carried  on  by 
means  of  slaves  or  vassals  only,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  such 
armies  not  being  kept  constantly  on  foot,  were  with  difficulty  put 
in  motion;  that  they  could  neither  prevent  intestine  rebellion, 
nor  be  a  protection  against  hostile  invasion ;  and  that  conquests, 
made  by  means  of  such  trcops,  must  be  lost  with  the  same  faci- 
lity that  they  are  won.  A  permanent  military,  fortresses  and 
garrisons,  sue!)  as  we  find  ^n  modern  tactics,  were  altogether 
unknown  among  the  Franks.  These  politic  institutions,  indis- 
pensable in  great  empires,  were  totally  repugnant  to  the  genius 


PERIOD  II.     A.  D.  800—962.  73 

of  the  German  nations.  They  did  not  even  know  what  is  meant 
by  finances,  or  regular  systems  of  taxation.  Their  kings  had 
no  other  pecuniary  resource  than  the  simple  revenues  of  their 
demesnes,  which  served  for  the  maintenance  of  their  court. 
Gratuitous  donations,  the  perquisites  of  bed  and  lodging,  fines, 
the  third  of  which  belonged  to  the  king,  rights  of  custom  and 
toll,  added  but  little  to  their  wealth,  and  could  not  be  reckoned 
among  the  number  of  state  resources.  None  but  tributaries,  or 
conquered  nations,  were  subjected  to  the  payment  of  certain  im- 
posts or  assessments  ;  from  these  the  Franks  were  exempted  ; 
they  would  have  even  regarded  it  as  an  insult  and  a  blow  struck 
at  their  national  liberty,  had  they  been  burdened  with  a  single 
imposition. 

It  is  obvious,  that  a  government  like  this,  so  disjointed  and 
incoherent  in  all  its  parts,  in  spite  of  the  advantages  which  ac- 
crued to  it  from  nourishing  a  spirit  of  liberty,  and  opposing  a 
sort  of  barrier  against  despotism,  was  nevertheless  far  from  being 
suitable  to  an  empire  of  such  prodigious  extent  as  that  of  the 
Franks.  Charlemagne  had  tried  to  infuse  a  new  vigour  into 
the  state  by  the  wise  laws  which  he  published,  and  the  military 
stations  which  he  planted  on  the  frontiers  of  his  empire.  Eaised, 
by  the  innate  force  of  his  genius  above  the  prejudices  of  the  age 
in  which  he  lived,  that  prince  had  formed  a  system  capable  of 
giving  unity  and  consistency  to  the  state,  had  it  been  of  longer 
duration.  But  this  system  fell  to  pieces  and  vanished,  when 
no  longer  animated  and  put  in  execution  by  its  author.  Disorder 
and  anarchy  speedily  paralyzed  every  branch  of  the  government 
and  ultimately  brought  on  the  dismemberment  of  the  em.pire. 

Another  cause  which  accelerated  the  fall  of  this  vast  empire, 
was  the  territorial  divisions,  practised  by  the  kings,  both  of  the 
Merovingian,  and  the  Carlo vingian  race.  Charlemagne  and 
Louis  the  Gentle,  when  they  ordered  the  empire  to  be  divided 
among  their  sons,  never  imagined  this  partition  would  terminate 
in  a  formal  dismemberment  of  the  monarchy.  Their  intention 
was  rather  to  preserve  union  and  amity,  by  means  of  certain 
rights  of  superiority,  which  they  granted  to  their  eldest  sons, 
whom  they  had  invested  with  the  Imperial  dignity.  But  this 
subordination  of  the  younger  to  their  elder  brothers  was  not  of 
long  continuance;  and  these  di^visions,  besides  naturaily  weak- 
ening the  state,  became  a  source  of  perpetual  discord;  arid 
reduced  the  Carlovingian  princes  to  the  necessity  of  courtrng- 
the  grandees,  on  every  emergency  ,  and  gaining  their  interest 
by  new  gifts,  or  by  concessions  which  went  to  sap  the  founda- 
tion of  the  throne. 

This  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles,  must  also  be  reckoned 

VOL.  I.  7 


74  CHAPTER    in. 

among-  the  number  of  causes  that  hastened  the  decline  of  the 
empire.  Dukes  and  Counts,  besides  being  intrusted  with  the 
justice  and  police  of  their  respective  g-overnments,  exercised,  at 
the  same  time,  a  military  power,  and  collected  the  revenues  of 
the  Exchequer.  So  many  and  so  different  jurisdictions,  united 
in  one  and  the  same  power,  could  not  but  become  dangerous  to 
the  royal  authority  ;  while  it  facilitated  to  the  nobles  the  means 
of  fortifying  themselves  in  their  governments,  and  breaking,  by 
degrees,  the  unity  of  the  state.  Charlemagne  had  felt  this  in- 
convenience ;  and  he  thought  to  remedy  the  evil,  by  succes- 
sively abolishing  the  great  dutchies,  and  dividing  them  into 
several  counties.  Unfortunately  this  policy  was  not  followed 
out  by  his  successors,  who  returned  to  the  ancient  practice  of 
creating  dukes  ;  and  besides,  being  educate'  and  nurtured  in 
superstition  by  the  priests,  they  put  themselves  wholly  under 
dependence  to  bishops  and  ecclesiastics,  who  thus  disposed  of 
the  state  at  their  pleasure.  The  consequence  was,  that  govern- 
ments, at  first  alterable  only  by  the  Vv'ill  of  the  King,  passed 
eventually  to  the  children,  or  heirs,  of  those  who  were  merely 
administrators,  or  superintendents,  of  them. 

Charles  the  Bald,  first  King  of  France,  had  the  weakness  to 
constitute  this  dangerous  principle  into  a  standing  law,  in  the 
parliament  which  he  held  at  Chiersi  (877,)  towards  the  close  of 
his  reign.  He  even  extended  this  principle  generally  to  all 
fiefs  ;  to  those  that  held  immediately  of  the  crowii,  as  well  as  to 
those  which  held  of  laic,  or  ecclesiastical  superiors. 

This  new  and  exorbitant  power  of  the  nobles,  joined  to  the 
injudicious  partitions  already  mentioned,  tended  to  sow  fresh 
discord  among  the  different  members  of  the  state,  by  exciting  a 
multitude  of  civil  wars  and  domestic  feuds,  which,  by  a  neces- 
sary consequence,  brought  the  whole  body-politic  into  a  state  of 
decay  and  dissolution.  The  history  of  the  successors  of  Charle- 
magne presents  a  sad  picture,  humiliating  and  distressing  to 
humanity.  Every  page  of  it  is  filled  with  insurrections,  devas- 
tations, and  carnage  :  princes,  sprung  from  the  same  blood, 
armed  against  each  other,  breathing  unnatural  vengeance,  and 
bent  on  mutual  destruction  :  the  royal  authority  insulted  and 
despised  by  the  nobles,  who  were  perpetually  at  war  with  each 
other,  either  to  decide  their  private  quarrels,  or  aggrandize  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  their  neighbours  ;  and,  finally,  the  citi- 
zens exposed  to  all  kinds  of  oppression,  reduced  to  misery  and 
servitude,  without  the  hope  or  possibility  of  redress  from  the 
government.  Such  was  the  melancholy  situation  of  the  States 
that  composed  the  Empire  of  Charlemagne,  when  the  irruption 
of  new  barbarians,   the  Normans  from  the  extremities  of  the 


PERIOD  11.     A.  D.  800—962.  75 

North,  and  the  Hungarians  from  the  back  settlements  of  Asia, 
exposed  it  afresh  to  the  terrible  scourge  of  foreign  invasion. 

The  Normans,  of  German  origin,  and  inhabiting  ancient 
Scandinavia,  that  is  to  say,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  modern 
Norway,  began,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  to  cover 
the  sea  with  their  ships,  and  to  infest  successively  all  the  mari- 
time coasts  of  Europe.^  During  the  space  of  two  hundred  years, 
they  continued  their  incursions  and  devastations,  with  a  fierce- 
ness and  perseverance  that  surpasses  all  imagination.  This  phe- 
nomenon, however,  is  easily  explained,  if  we  attend  to  the  state 
of  barbarism  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia,  in  general, 
were  at  that  time  plunged.  Despising  agriculture  and  the  arts, 
they  found  themselves  unable  to  draw  from  fishing  and  the 
chase,  the  necessary  means  even  for  their  scanty  subsistence. 
The  comfortable  circumstances  of  their  neighbours  who  culti- 
vated their  lands,  excited  their  cupidity,  and  invited  them  U 
acquire  by  force,  piracy,  or  plunder,  what  they  had  not  sufficient 
skill  to  procure  by  their  own  industry.  They  were,  moreover 
animated  by  a  sort  of  religious  fmaticism,  which  inspired  them 
with  courage  for  the  most  perilous  enterprise.  This  reckless 
superstition  they  drew  from  the  doctrines  of  Odin,  who  was  tha 
god  of  their  armies,  the  rewarder  of  valour  and  intrepidity  in 
war,  receiving  into  his  paradise  of  Valhalla^  the  brave  who  feL 
beneath  the  swords  of  the  enemy ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  abode  of  the  wretched,  called  by  them  Helvete,  was  pre- 
pared for  those  who,  abandoned  to  ease  and  effeminacy,  prefer- 
red a  life  of  tranquillity  to  the  glory  of  arms,  and  the  perils  of 
warlike  adventure. 

This  doctrine,  generally  difflised  over  all  the  north,  inspired 
the  Scandinavian  youth  with  an  intrepid  and  ferocious  courage, 
which  made  them  brave  all  dangers,  and  consider  the  sangui- 
nary death  of  warriors  as  the  surest  path  to  immortality.  Often 
did  it  happen  that  the  sons  of  kings,  even  those  who  were 
already  destined  as  successors  to  their  father's  throne,  volun- 
teered as  chiefs  of  pirates  and  brigands,  under  the  name  of  Sea 
Kings,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  name,  and  signaliz- 
ing themselves  by  their  maritim?  exploits. 

These  piracies  of  the  Normans,  which  at  first  w^ere  limited 
to  the  seas  and  countries  bordering  on  Scandinavia,  soon  ex- 
tended over  all  the  western  and  southern  coasts  of  Europe. 
Germany,  the  kingdoms  of  Lorraine,  France,  England,  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  Spain,  the  Balearic  Isles,  Italy,  Greece,  and  even 
the  shores  of  Africa,  were  exposed  in  their  turn  to  the  insults 
and  the  ravages  of  these  barbarians.*^ 

France  more  es^oecially  suffered  f'^^m  their  incursions,  under 


76  CHAPTER  III. 

the  feeble  reigns  of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  Charles  the  Fat. 
Not  content  with  the  havoc  which  the}-^  made  on  the  coasts, 
they  ascended  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  the  Garonne,  and  the  Rhone, 
carrying  fire  and  sword  to  the  very  centre  oi  the  kino-dom. 
Nantes,  Angers,  Tours,  Blois,  Orleans,  Mons,  Poitiers,  Bour- 
deaux,  Rouen,  Paris,  Sens,  Laon,  Soissons,  and  various  other 
cities,  experienced  the  fury  of  these  invaders.  Paris  was  three 
times  sacked  and  pillaged  by  them.  Robert  the  Strong,  a  scion 
of  the  royal  House  of  Capet,  whom  Charles  the  Bald  had  created 
(S61,)  Duke  or  Governor  of  Neustria,  was  killed  in  battle  (866,) 
while  combating  with  success  against  the  Normans.  At  length, 
the  terror  which  they  had  spread  every  where  was  such,  that  the 
French,  who  trembled  at  the  very  name  of  the  Normans,  had 
no  longer  courage  to  encounter  them  in  arms  ;  and  in  order  to 
rid  themselves  of  such  formidable  enemies,  they  consented  to 
purchase  their  retreat  by  a  sum  of  money;  a  wretched  and 
feeble  remedy,  which  only  aggravated  the  evil,  b}'-  inciting  the 
invaders,  by  the  hope  of  gain,  to  return  to  the  charge. 

It  is  not  how^ever  at  all  astonishing,  that  France  should  have 
been  exposed  so  long  to  these  incursions,  since,  besides  the  in- 
efficient state  of  that  monarchy,  she  had  no  vessels  of  her  own 
to  protect  her  coasts.  The  nobles,  occupied  solely  with  the 
care  of  augmenting  or  confirming  their  growling  power,  offered 
but  a  feeble  opposition  to  the  Normans,  w^hose  presence  in  the 
kingdom  caused  a  diversion  favourable  to  their  views.  Some 
of  them  even  had  no  hesitation  in  joining  the  barbarians,  when 
they  happened  to  be  in  disgrace,  or  when  they  thought  they  had 
reason  to  complain  of  the  government. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  these  numerous  expeditions  overall 
the  seas  of  Europe,  that  the  monarchies  of  the  North  were 
formed,  and  that  the  Normans  succeeded  also  in  founding  several 
other  states.  It  is  to  them  that  the  powerful  monarchy  of  the 
Russians  ow^es  its  origin  ;  Ruric  the  Norman  is  allowed  to  have 
been  its  founder,  towards  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century."^  He 
and  the  grand  dukes  his  successors,  extended  their  conquests 
from  the  Baltic  and  the  White  Sea,  to  the  Euxine  ;  and  during 
the  tenth  century  they  made  the  emperors  of  the  East  to  trem- 
ble on  their  thrones.  In  their  native  style  of  piratical  warfare, 
they  embarked  on  the  Dnieper  or  Borysthenes,  infested  with 
their  fleets  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  carried  terror  and  dismay 
to  the  gates  of  Constantinople,  and  obliged  the  Greek  emperors 
to  pay  them  large  sums  to  redeem  their  capital  from  pillage. 

Ireland  was  more  than  once  on  the  point  of  being  subdued  by 
the  Normans,  during  these  piratical  excursions.  Their  first  in- 
vasion of  this  island  is  stated  to  have  been  in  the  year  795 


PERIOD  II.     A.  D.  800—962.  77 

Great  ravages  were  committed  by  the  barbarians,  who  conquer- 
ed or  founded  the  cities  of  Waterford,  Dublin,  and  Limerick, 
which  they  formed  into  separate  petty  kingdoms.  Christianity 
was  introduced  among  them  towards  the  middle  of  the  tenth 
century  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  twelfth,  the  time  of  its  invasion 
by  the  English,  that  they  succeeded  in  expelling  them  from  the 
island,  when  they  were  dispossessed  of  the  cities  of  Waterford 
and  Dublin  (1170)  by  Henry  11.  of  England. 

Orkney,  the  Hebrides,  the  Shetland  and  Faroe  Islands,  and 
the  Isle  of  Man,  were  also  discovered  and  peopled  by  the  Nor- 
mans.^ Another  colony  of  these  Normans  peopled  Iceland, 
where  they  founded  a  republic  (S74,)  which  preserved  its  inde- 
pendence till  nearly  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when 
that  island  was  conquered  by  the  Kings  of  Norway.^  Norman- 
dy, in  France,  also  received  its  name  from  this  people.  Charles 
the  Sim.ple,  wishing  to  put  a  check  on  their  continual  incur- 
sions, concluded,  at  St.  Clair-sur-Epte  (892,)  a  treaty  with  Rollo 
or  Rolf,  chief  of  the  Normans,  by  which  he  abandoned  to  them 
all  that  part  of  Neustria  which  reaches  froip  the  rivers  Andelle 
and  Aure  to  the  ocean.  To  this  he  added  a  part  of  Vexin, 
liituated  between  the  rivers  Andelle  and  Epte  ;  as  also  the  ter- 
ritory of  Bretagne.  Rollo  embraced  Christianity,  and  received 
the  baptismal  name  of  Robert.  He  submitted  to  become  a  vas- 
sal of  the  crown  of  France,  under  the  title  of  Duke  of  Norman- 
dy ;  and  obtained  in  marriage  the  princess  Gisele,  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Simple.  In  the  following  century,  we  shall  meet 
with  these  Normans  of  France  as  the  conquerors  of  England, 
and  the  founders  of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies. 

The  Hungarians,  a  people  of  Turkish  or  Finnish  origin, 
emigrated,  as  is  generally  supposed,  from  Baschiria,  a  country 
lying  to  the  north  of  the. Caspian  Sea,  between  the  Wolga,  the 
Kama,  and  Mount  Ural,  near  the  source  of  the  Tobol  and  the 
Jaik,  or  modern  Ural.  The  Orientals  designate  them  by  the 
generic  name  of  Turks,  while  they  denominate  themselves 
Magiars,  from  the  name  of  one  of  their  tribes.  After  having 
been  long  dependent  on  the  Chazars,^*^  a  Turkish  tribe  to  the 
north  of  the  Palus  Masolis^  they  retired  towards  the  Danube,  to 
avoid  the  oppressions  of  the  Patzinacites  ;^^  and  established 
themselves  (887)  in  ancient  Dacia,  under  the  auspices  of  a  chief 
named  Arpad,  from  whom  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  Hungary 
derive  their  origin.  Arnulph,  King  of  Germany,  employed 
these  Hungarians  (892)  against  the  Slavo-Moravians,  who  pos- 
sessed a  flourishing  state  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  the 
Morau,  and  the  Elbe.^-  While  engaged  in  this  expedition,  they 
were  attacked  again  in  their  Dacian  possessions  byihe  Patzina- 


78 


CHAPTER  III. 


cites,  who  succeeded  at  length  in  expelling  them  from  these 
territories.^^  Taking  advantage  afterwards  of  the  death  of 
Swiatopolk,  king  of  the  Moravians,  and  the  troubles  conse- 
quent on  that  event,  they  dissevered  from  Moravia  all  the  coun- 
try which  extends  from  the  frontiers  of  Moldavia,  Wallachia 
and  Transylvania,  to  the  Danube  and  the  Morau.  They  con- 
quered, about  the  same  time,  Pannor*",  \vkh  a  part  of  Noricum, 
which  they  had  wrested  from  the  Lrermans  ;  and  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  new  state,  known  since  by  the  name  of  Hungary. 

No  sooner  had  the  Hungarians  established  themselves  in 
Pannonia,  than  they  commenced  their  incursions  into  the  prin- 
cipal states  of  Europe.  Germany,  Italy,  and  Gaul,  agitated  by 
faction  and  anarchy,  and  even  the  Grecian  empire  in  the  East, 
became,  all  in  their  turn,  the  bloody  scene  of  their  ravages  and 
devastations.  Germany,  in  particular,  for  a  long  time  felt  the 
effects  of  their  fury.  All  its  provinces  in  succession  were  laid 
waste  by  these  barbarians,  and  compelled  to  pay  them  tribute. 
Henry  I.,  King  of  Germany,  and  his  son  Otho  the  Great,  at 
length  succeeded  in  arresting  their  destructive  career,  and  de- 
livered Europe  from  this  new  yoke  which  threatened  its  in- 
dependence. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  these  incursions  of  the  Hungarians 
and  Normans,  to  which  may  be  added  those  of  the  Arabs  and 
Slavonians,  that  the  kingdoms  which  sprang  from  the  empire  of 
the  Franks  lost  once  more  the  advantages  which  the  political 
mstitutions  of  Charlemagne  had  procured  them.  Learning, 
which  that  prince  had  encouraged,  fell  into  a  state  of  absolute 
languor;  an  end  was  put  both  to  civil  and  literary  improvement, 
by  the  destruction  of  convents,  schools,  and  libraries  ;  the  po- 
lity and  internal  security  of  the  states  were  destroyed,  and 
commerce  reduced  to  nothing.  England  was  the  only  excep- 
tion, which  then  enjoyed  a  transient  glory  under  the  memora- 
ble reign  of  Alfred  the  Great.  That  prince,  grandson  of  Egbert 
who  was  the  first  king  of  all  England,  succeeded  in  expelling 
the  Normans  from  the  island  (S87,)  and  restored  peace  and  tran- 
quillity to  his  kingdom.  After  the  example  of  Charlemagne, 
he  cultivated  and  protected  learning  and  the  arts,  by  restoring 
the  convents  and  schools  which  the  barbarians  had  destroyed; 
inviting  philosophers  and  artists  to  his  court,  and  civilizing  his 
subjects  by  literary  institutions  and  wise  regulations.^^  It  is 
10  be  regretted,  that  a  reign  so  glorious  was  so  soon  followed 
by  new  misfortunes.  After  the  Normans,  the  Danes  reappeared 
w  England,  and  overspread  it  once  more  with  turbulence  and 
desolation. 

During  these  unenlightened  and  calamitous  times,  we  hnd 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  79 

the  art  of  navigation  making  considerable  progress.  The  Nor- 
mans, traversing  the  seas  perpetually  with  their  fleets,  learned 
to  construct  their  vessels  with  greater  perfection,  to  become 
better  skilled  in  wind  and  weather,  and  to  use  their  oars  and 
sails  with  more  address.  It  was,  moreover,  in  consequence  of 
these  invasions,  that  more  correct  information  w^as  obtained  re- 
garding Scandinavia,  and  the  remote  regions  of  the  North. 
Two  Normans,  Wolfstane  and  Other,  the  one  from  Jutland, 
and  the  other  from  Norway,  undertook  separate  voyages,  in 
course  of  the  ninth  century,  principally  with  the  view  of  mak- 
ing maritime  discoveries.  Wolfstane  proceeded  to  visit  that 
part  of  Prussia,  or  the  Esthoiiia  of  the  ancients,  which  was  re- 
nowned for  its  produce  of  yellow  amber.  Other  did  not  con- 
fine his  adventures  to  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  ;  setting  out  from 
the  port  of  Heligoland,  his  native  country,  he  doubled  Cape 
North,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Biarmia,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Dwina,  in  the  province  of  Archangel.  Both  he  and  Wolfstane 
communicated  the  details  of  their  voyages  to  Alfred  the  Great, 
who  made  use  of  them  in  his  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of  Orosius. 
Besides  Iceland  and  the  Northern  Isles,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken,  we  find,  in  the  tenth  century,  some  of  the  fugi- 
tive Normans  peopling  Greenland  ;  and  others  forming  settle- 
ments in  Finland,  w^hich  some  suppose  to  be  the  island  of 
Newfoundland,  in  North  America.^^ 


CHAPTER    IV. 

PERIOD    III. 


From  Otho  the  Great  to  Gregory  the  Great,     a.  d.  962 — 1074. 

While  most  of  the  states  that  sprang  from  the  dismembered 
empire  of  the  Franks,  continued  to  be  the  prey  of  disorder  and 
anarchy,  the  kingdom  of  Germany  assumed  a  new  form,  and 
for  several  ages  maintained  the  character  of  being  the  ruling 
power  in  Europe.  It  was  erected  into  a  monarchy  at  the 
peace  of  Verdun  (843,)  and  had  for  its  first  king  Louis  the 
German,  second  son  of  Louis  the  Gentle.  At  that  time  it 
comprised,  besides  the  three  cantons  of  Spire,  Worms,  and 
Mayence,  on  this  side  the  Rhine,  all  the  countries  and  pro- 
vinces beyond  that  river,  which  had  belonged  to  the  empire  of 
the  Franks,  from  the  Eyder  and  the  Baltic,  to  the  Alps  and 
the  confines  of  Pannonia.  Several  of  the  Slavian  tribes,  also, 
were  its  tributaries. 

From  the  first  formation  of  this  kingdom,  the  royal  authority 


80  CHAPTER    IV. 

was  limited  ;  and  Louis  the  German,  in  an  assembly  held  at 
Marsen  (S51,)had  formally  engaged  to  maintain  the  states  i7i  their 
rights  and  privileges  ;  to  follow  their  counsel  and  advice  ;  and 
to  consider  tliem  as  his  true  colleagues  and  coadjutors  in  all  the 
affairs  of  government.  The  states,  however,  soon  found  means 
to  vest  in  themselves  ihe  rig-ht  of  choosing  their  kings.  The 
first  Carlovingian  monarchs  of  Germany  were  hereditary. 
Louis  the  German  even  divided  his  kingdom  among  his  three 
sons,  viz.  Carloman,  Louis  the  Young,  and  Charles  the  Fat  • 
but  Charles  having  been  deposed  in  an  assembly  held  at  Frank- 
fort (887,)  the  states  of  Germany  elected  in  his  place  Arnulph,  a 
natural  son  of  Carloman.  This  prince  added  to  his  crown  both 
Italy  and  the  Imperial  dignity. 

The  custom  of  election  has  continued  in  Germany  down  to 
modern  times.  Louis  I'Enfant,  or  the  Infant,  son  of  Arliulph, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  by  election  ;  and  that  prince  having  died 
very  young  (911,)  the  states  bestowed  the  crown  on  a  French 
nobleman,  named  Conrad,  who  was  duke  or  governor  of  France 
on  the  Rhine,  and  related  by  the  female  side  to  the  Carlovin- 
gian line.  Conrad  mounted  the  throne,  to  the  exclusion  o. 
Charles  the  Simple,  King  of  France,  the  only  male  and  legiti- 
mate heir  of  the  Carlovingian  line.  This  latter  prince,  how- 
ever, found  means  to  seize  the  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  which 
Louis  the  Young  had  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Germany.  On 
the  death  of  Conrad  I.  (919,)  the  choice  of  the  states  fell  on 
Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  a  scion  of  the  Saxon  dynasty 
of  the  kings  and  emperors  of  Germany. 

It  was  to  the  valour  and  the  wisdom  of  Henry  L,  and  to  his 
institutions,  civil  and  military,  that  Germany  was  indebted  foi 
its  renewed  grandeur.  That  monarch,  taking  advantage  of  the 
iniestine  troubles  which  had  arisen  in  France  under  Charles  the 
Simple,  recovered  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  the 
nobility  of  w'hich  made  their  submission  to  him  in  the  years 
923  and  925.  By  this  union  he  extended  the  limits  of  Germa 
ny  tow^ards  the  west,  as  far  as  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheld.  Th 
kings  of  Germany  afterwards  divided  the  territory  of  Lorraii 
into  two  governments  or  dutchies,  called  Upper  and"  Lower  Loi' 
rain.  The  former,  situated  on  the  Moselle,  was  called  the 
dutchy  of  the  Moselle  ;  the  other,  bounded  by  the  Rhine,  the 
Meuse,  and  the  Scheld,  w^as  knowm  by  the  name  of  Lothiers  or 
Brabant.  These  two  dutchies  comprised  all  the  provinces  of 
the  kingdom  of  Lorrain,  except  those  which  the  emperors 
judged  proper  to  exempt  from  the  authority  and  jurisdiction  of 
the  dukes.  The  dutchy  of  the  Moselle,  alone,  finally  retained 
the  name  of  Lorrain;  and  passed  (1048)   to  Gerard  of  Alsace, 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  81 

from  whom  descended  the  dukes  of  that  naiTie,  who  in  the  eigh. 
teenth  century,  succeeded  to  the  Imperial  throne.  As  to  the 
dutchy  of  Lower  Lonain,  the  Emperor  Henry  V.  conferred  it  on 
Godfrey,  Count  of  Louvain  (1106),  whose  male  attendants  kept 
possession  of  it,  under  the  title  of  Dukes  of  Brabant,  till  1355, 
when  it  passed  by  female  succession  to  the  Dukes  of  Burgun- 
dy, who  found  means  also  to  acquire,  by  degrees,  the  greater 
part  of  Lower  Lorrain,  commonly  called  the  Low  Countries. 

Henry  L,  a  prince  of  extraordinary  genius,  proved  himself 
the  true  restorer  of  the  German  kingdom/  The  Slavonian 
tribes  who  inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Saal,  and  the  country  be- 
tween the  Elbe  and  the  Baltic,  committed  incessant  ravages  on 
the  frontier  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  With  these  he  waged 
a  successful  war,  and  reduced  them  once  miore  to  the  condition 
of  tributaries.  But  his  policy  was  turned  chiefly  against  the 
Hungarians,  who,  since  the  reign  of  Louis  IL,  had  repeatedly 
renewed  their  incursions,  and  threatened  to  subject  all  Germa- 
ny to  their  yoke.  Desirous  to  repress  effectually  that  ferocious 
nation,  he  took  the  opportunity  of  a  nine  3'ears  truce,  which  he 
had  obtained  with  them,  to  construct  new  towns,  and  fortify 
places  of  strength.  He  instructed  his  troops  in  a  new  kind 
of  tactics,  accustomed  them  to  military  evolutions,  and  above 
all,  he  formed  and  equipped  a  cavalry  sufficient  to  cope  with 
those  of  the  Hungarians,  who  particularly  excelled  in  the  art 
of  managing  horses.  These  depredators  having  returned  with 
fresh  forces  at  the  expiry  of  the  truce,  he  completely  defeated 
them  in  two  bloody  battles,  which  he  fought  with  them  (933) 
near  Sondershausen  and  Merseburg;  and  thus  exonerated  Ger- 
many from  the  tribute  which  it  had  formerly  paid  them.^ 

This  victorious  prince  extended  his  conquests  beyond  the 
Eyder,  the  ancient  frontier  of  Denmark.  After  a  prosperous 
war  with  the  Danes  (931,)  he  founded  the  margravate  of  Sles- 
v^^ick,  which  the  Emperor  Conrad  II.  afterwards  ceded  back 
(1033)  to  Canute  the  Great,  King  of  Denmark. 

Otho  the  Great,  "on  and  successor  of  Henry  I.,  added  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  to  ihe  conquests  of  his  father,  and  procured 
also  the  Imperial  dignity  for  himself,  and  his  successors  in  Ger- 
many. Ital)  had  become  a  distinct  kingdom  since  the  revolu- 
tion, which  happened  (888)  at  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
the  Fat.  Ten  princes  in  succession  occupied  the  throne  during 
the  space  of  seventy-three  years.  Several  of  these  princes,  such 
as  Guy,  Lambert,  Arnulf,  Louis  of  Burgundy,  and  Berenger  I., 
were  invested,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  Imperial  dignity.  Be- 
renger I.  having  been  assassinated  (924,)  this  latter  dignity 
ceased  entirely,  and  the  city  of  Rome  was  even  dismembered 
Irom  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 


82  CHAPTER   IV. 

The  sovereignty  of  that  city  was  seized  by  the  famous  Maro- 
zia,  widow  of  a  nobleman  named  Alberic.  She  raised  her  son 
to  the  pontificate  by  the  title  of  John  XI. ;  and  the  better  to  es- 
tablish her  dominion,  she  espoused  Hugo  King  of  Italy  (932,) 
who  became,  in  consequence  of  this  marriage,  master  of  Rome. 
But  Alberic,  another  son  of  Marozia,  soon  stirred  up  the  people 
against  this  aspiring  princess  and  her  husband  Hugo.  Having 
driven  Hugo  from  the  throne,  and  shut  up  his  mother  in  prison, 
he  assumed  to  himself  the  sovereign  authority,  under  the  title 
of  Patrician  of  the  Komans.  At  his  death  (954,)  he  transmit- 
ted the  sovereignty  to  his  son  Octavian,  who,  though  only  nine- 
teen years  of  age,  caused  himself  to  be  elected  pope,  by  the  title 
of  John  XII. 

This  epoch  was  one  most  disastrous  for  Italy.  The  weak- 
ness of  the  government  excited  factions  among  the  nobility, 
gave  birth  to  anarchy,  and  fresh  opportunity  for  the  depredations 
of  the  Hungarians  and  Arabs,  who,  at  this  period,  were  the 
scourge  of  Italy,  which  they  ravaged  with  impunity.  Pavia, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  was  taken  and  burnt  by  the  Hunga- 
rians. These  troubles  increased  on  the  accession  of  Berenger 
II.  (950,)  grandson  of  Berenger  I.  That  prince  associated  his 
son  Adelbert  with  him  in  the  royal  dignity;  and  the  public 
voice  accused  them  of  having  caused  the  death  of  King  Lothaire, 
son  and  successor  of  Hugo. 

Lothaire  left  a  young  widow,  named  Adelaide,  daughter  of 
Rodolph  II.,  King  of  Burgundy  and  Italy.  To  avoid  the  impor- 
tunities of  Berenger  II.,  who  wished  to  compel  her  to  marry  his 
son  Adelbert,  this  princess  called  in  the  King  of  Germany  to 
her  aid.  Oiho  complied  with  the  solicitations  of  the  distressed 
queen  ;  and,  on  this  occasion,  undertook  his  first  expedition  into 
Italy  (941.)  The  cityof  Pa\ia,  and  several  other  places,  having 
fallen  into  his  hands,  he  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  King 
of  Italy,  and  married  the  young  queen,  his  protegee.  Berenger 
and  his  son,  being  driven  for  shelter  to  their  strongholds,  had 
recourse  to  negotiation.  They  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  them- 
selves a  confirmation  of  the  royal  title  of  Italy,  on  condition  of 
doing  homage  for  it  to  the  King  of  Germany  ;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose, they  repaired  in  person  to  the  diet  assembled  at  Augsburg 
(952,)  where  they  took  the  oath  of  vassalage  under  the  hands 
of  Otho,  who  solemnly  invested  them  with  the  royalty  of  Italy  : 
reserving  to  himself  the  towns  and  marches  of  Aquileia  and 
Verona,  the  command  of  which  he  bestowed  on  his  brother  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria. 

In  examining  more  nearly  all  that  passed  in  this  affair,  it  ap- 
pears that  it  was  not  without  the  regret,  and  even  contrarv  to 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  83 

the  wish  of  Adelaide,  that  Otho  agreed  to  enter  into  terms  of 
accommodation  with  Berenger,  and  to  ratify  the  compact  which 
Conrad,  Duke  of  Lorrain,  and  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor,  had 
made  with  that  prince.  Afterwards,  however,  he  lent  a  favour- 
able ear  to  the  complaints  which  Pope  John  XII.,  and  some 
Italian  noblemen  had  addressed  to  him  against  Berenger  and 
his  son  ;  and  took  occasion,  on  their  account,  to  conduct  a  new 
army  into  Italy  (961.)  Berenger,  too  feeble  to  oppose  him,  re- 
tired a  second  time  within  his  fortifications.  Olho  marched 
from  Pavia  to  Milan,  and  there  caused  himself  to  be  crowned 
King  of  Italy  ;  from  thence  he  passed  to  Rome,  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  following  year.  Pope  John  XII.,  who  had 
himself  invited  him,  and  again  implored  his  protection  against 
Berenger,  gave  him,  at  first,  a  very  brilliant  reception  ;  and  re- 
vived ihe  Imperial  dignity  in  his  favour,  which  had  been  dor- 
mant for  thirty-eight  years. 

It  was  on  the  2d  of  February  962,  that  the  Pope  consecrated 
and  crowned  him  Emperor  ;  but  he  had  soon  cause  to  repent  of 
this  proceeding.  Otho,  immediately  after  his  coronation  at 
Rome,  undertook  the  siege  of  St.  Leon,  a  fortress  in  Umbria, 
where  Berenger  and  his  Queen  had  taken  refuge.  While  en- 
gaged in  the  siege,  he  received  frequent  intimations  from  Rome 
of  the  misconduct  and  immoralities  of  the  Pope.  The  remon- 
strances which  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  make  on  this  subject, 
oflfended  the  young  Pontiff,  who  resolved,  in  consequence,  to 
break  off  union  with  the  Emperor.  Hurried  on  by  the  impe- 
tuosity of  his  character,  he  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Adel- 
bert;  and  even  persuaded  him  to  come  to  Rome,  in  order  to 
concert  with  him  measures  of  defence.  On  the  first  news  of 
this  event,  Otho  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large  detachment, 
with  which  he  marched  directlj^to  Rome.  The  Pope,  however, 
did  not  think  it  advisable  to  wait  his  approach,  but  fled  with  the 
King,  his  new  ally.  Otho,  on  arriving  at  the  capital,  exacted  a 
solemn  oath  from  the  clergy  and  the  people,  that  henceforth 
they  would  elect  no  pope  without  his  counsel,  and  that  of  the 
Emperor  and  his  successors.-  Having  then  assembled  a  coun- 
cil, he  caused  Pope  John  XII.  to  be  deposed  ;  and  Leo  VIII. 
was  elected  in  his  place.  This  latter  Pontiff  was  maintained 
in  the  papacy,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  which  his  adversary 
made  to  regain  it.  Berenger  II.,  after  having  sustained  a  long 
siege  at  St.  Leon,  fell  at  length  (964)  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror, who  sent  him  into  exile  at  Bamberg,  and  compelled  his 
son,  iVdelbert,  to  take  refuge  in  the  court  of  Constantinople. 

All  Italy,  to  the  extent  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Lom- 
bards, fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Germans ;  only  a  few 


84  CHAPTER   IV. 

maritime  towns  in  Lower  Italy,  with  the  greater  part  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria,  still  remained  in  the  power  of  the  Greeks.  This 
kingdom,  together  with  the  Imperial  dignity,  Olho  transniiltod. 
to  his  successors  on  the  throne  of  Germany.  From  this  time 
the  Germans  held  it  to  be  an  inviolable  principle,  that  as  the  im- 
perial dignity  was  strictly  united  with  the  royalty  of  Italy,  kings 
elected  by  the  German  nation  should,  at  the  same  time,  in  virtue 
of  that  election,  become  kings  of  Italy  and  Emperors.  The 
practice  of  this  triple  coronation,  viz,  of  Germany,  Italy,  and 
Eome,  continued  for  many  centuries  ;  and  from  Otho  the  Great, 
till  Maximilian  I.  (1503,)  no  king  of  Germany  took  the  title  of 
Emperor,  until  after  he  had  been  formally  crowned  by  the  Pope. 

The  kings  and  emperors  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  did  not 
terminate  their  conquests  with  the  dominions  of  Lorrain  and 
Italy.  Towards  the  east  and  the  north,  they  extended  them  be- 
yond the  Saal  and  the  Elbe.  AH  the  Slavonian  tribes  between 
the  Havel  and  the  Oder ;  the  Abotrites,  the  Rhedarians,  the 
Wilzians,  the  Slavonians  on  the  Havel,  ihe  Sorabians,  the  Dale- 
mlncians,  the  Lusitzians,  the  Milzians,  and  various  others  ;  the 
dukes  also  of  Bohemia  and  Poland,  although  they  often  took  up 
arms  in  defence  of  their  liberty  and  independence,  were  all  re- 
duced to  subjection,  and  again  compelled  to  pay  tribute.  In  order 
to  secure  their  submission,  the  Saxon  kings  introduced  German 
colonies  into  the  conquered  countries;  and  founded  there  several 
margravates,  such  as  that  of  the  North,  on  this  side  of  the  Elbe, 
afterwards  called  Brandenburg  ;  and  in  the  East,  those  of  Misnia 
and  Lusatia.  Otho  the  Great  adopted  m.easures  for  promulga- 
ting Christianity  among  them.  The  bishopric  of  Oldenburg 
in  Wagria,  of  Havelberg,  Brandenburg,  Meissen,  Mer^eburg, 
Zeitz;  those  of  Posnania  or  Posen,  in  Poland,  oT  Prague  in  Bo- 
hemia; and  lastly,  the  metropolis  of  Magdeburg,  all  owe  their 
origin  to  this  monarch.  His  grandson,  the  Emperor  Otho  III., 
founded  (in  1000)  the  Archbi.shopric  of  Gnesna,  in  Poland,  to 
which  he  subjected  the  bishoprics  of  Colberg,  Cracow,  and 
Breslau,  reserving  Posen  to  the  metropolitan  See  of  Magdeburg. 

The  Saxon  dynasty  became  extinct  (1024)  with  th©  Emperor 
Henry  II.  Tt  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Franconia,  commonly 
called  the  Salic.  Conrad  II..  the  first  emperor  of  this  house, 
united  to  the  German  crown,  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy;  or,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  the  kingdom  of  Aries.  This  monarchy, 
situate  between  the  Rhine,  the  Reuss,  Mount  Jura,  the  Soane, 
the  R-hone,  and  the  Alps,  had  been  divided  among  a  certain 
number  of  counts,  or  governors  of  provinces,  who,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  weakness  of  their  last  kings,  Conrad  and  Rodolph 
III.,  had  converted  their  temporary  jurisdictions  into  hereditary 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  85 

and  patrimonial  offices,  after  the  example  of  the  French  nobility, 
who  had  already  usurped  the  same  power.  The  principal  and 
most  puissant  of  these  Burgundian  nobles,  were  the  Counts  of 
Provence,  Vienne,  (afterwards  called  Dauphins  of  Vienne,)  Sa- 
voy, Burgundy,  and  Montbelliard ;  the  Archbishop  of  Lyons, 
Besancon,  and  Aries,  and  the  Bishop  of  Basle,  &c.  The  con- 
tempt in  which  these  powerful  vassals  held  the  royal  authority, 
induced  Rodolph  to  apply  for  protection  to  his  kinsmen  the 
Emperors  Henry  11.  and  Conrad  II.,  and  to  acknowledge  them, 
by  several  treaties,  his  heirs  and  successors  to  the  crown.  It 
was  in  virtue  of  these  treaties,  that  Conrad  II.  took  possession 
of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  (1032)  on  the  death  of  Rodolph  III. 
He  maintained  his  rights  by  force  of  arms  against  Eudes, 
Count  of  Champagne,  who  claimed  to  be  the  legitimate  suc- 
cessor, as  being  nephew  to  the  last  king. 

This  reunion  was  but  a  feeble  addition  to  the  power  of  the 
German  emperors.  The  bishops,  counts,  and  great  vassals  of 
the  kingdom  they  had  newly  acquired,  still  retained  the  au- 
thority which  they  had  usurped  in  their  several  departments ; 
and  nothing  was  left  to  the  emperors,  but  the  exercise  of  their 
feudal  and  proprietory  rights,  together  with  the  slender  remains 
of  the  demesne  lands  belonging  to  the  last  kings.  It  is  even 
probable,  that  the  high  rank  which  the  Burgundian  nobles  en- 
joyed, excited  the  ambition  of  those  in  Germany,  and  emboldened 
them  to  usurp  the  same  prerogatives. 

The  emperors  Conrad  II.  (i033)  and  Henry  III.  (1038,)  were 
both  crowned  Kings  of  Burgundy.  The  Emperor  Lothaire 
conferred  the  viceroyalty  or  regency  on  Conrad  Duke  of  Zah- 
ringen,  Vv^ho  then  took  the  title  of  Governor  or  Regent  of  Bur- 
gundy. Berihold  IV.,  son  of  Conrad,  resigned  (1156,)  in  favour 
of  the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  his  rights  of  viceroyalty  over  that  part 
of  the  kingdom  situate  beyond  Mount  Jura.  Switzerland,  at 
that  time,  was  subject  to  the  Dukes  of  Zahringen,  who,  in  order 
to  retain  it  in  vassalage  to  their  government,  fortified  Morges, 
Mouden,  Yverdun,  and  Berthoud ;  and  built  the  cities  of  Fri- 
bourg  and  Berne.  On  the  extinction  of  the  Zahringian  dukes. 
(1191,)  Switzerland  became  an  immediate  province  of  the  empire. 
It  was  afterwards  (1218)  formed  into  a  republic;  and  the  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  or  Aries  were  gradually 
united  to  France,  as  we  shall  see  in  course  of  our  narrative. 

The  Hungarians,  since  their  first  invasion  under  Louis  I'En- 
fant,  had  wTested  from  the  German  crown  all  its  possessions  in 
Pannonia,  with  a  part  of  ancient  Noricum ;  and  the  boundaries 
of  Germany  had  been  contracted  within  the  river  Ens  in  Bava- 
ria. Their  growing  preponderance  afterwards  enabled  the  Ger- 
VOL.  I.  8 


86  CHAPTER  fV. 

mans  to  recover  from  the  Hungarians  a  part  of  their  conquests. 
They  succeeded  in  expelling  them,  not  only  from  Noricum,  but 
even  from  that  part  of  Upper  Pannonia  which  lies  between 
Mount  Cetius,  or  Kahlenberg  as  it  is  called,  and  the  river  Leita, 
Henry  III.  secured  the  possession  of  these  territories  by  the 
treaty  of  peace  which  he  concluded  (1043)  with  Samuel,  sur- 
riamed  Aba,  King  of  Hungary.  This  part  of  Hungary  was 
annexed  to  the  eastern  Margravate,  or  Austria,  which  then  be- 
gan to  assume  nearly  its  present  form. 

Such  then  was  the  progressive  aggrandizement  of  the  German 
empire,  from  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  to  the  year  1043.  Under 
its  most  flourishing  state,  that  is,  under  the  Emperor  Henry  III., 
it  embraced  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  monarchy  of  Charlemagne. 
All  Germany  between  the  Rhine,  the  Eyder,  the.Oder,  the  Leita, 
and  the  Alps  ;  all  Italy,  as  far  as  the  confines  of  the  Greeks  in 
Apulia  and  Calabria;  Gaul,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Scheldt,  the 
Meuse,  and  the  Rhone,  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the 
emperors.  The  Dukes  of  Bohemia  and  Poland,  were  their  tri- 
butaries ;  a  dependence  which  continued  until  the  commotions 
which  agitated  Germany  put  nn  end  to  it  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Germany,  at  this  period,  ranked  as  the  ruling  power  in  Europe  ; 
and  this  preponderance  was  not  owing  aj  much  to  the  extent  of 
her  possessions,  as  to  the  vigour  of  h  r  government,  which  still 
maintained  a  kind  of  system  of  political  unity.  The  emperors 
may  be  regarded  as  true  monarchs,  dispensing,  at  their  pleasure, 
all  dignities,  civil  and  ecclesiastical — possessing  very  large  do- 
mains in  all  pai.  ?  of  the  empire — and  exercising,  individually, 
various  branches  of  the  sovereign  power  ; — only,  in  affairs  of 
great  importance,  asking  the  advice  or  consent  of  the  grandees. 
This  greatness  of  the  German  emperors  gave  rise  to  a  system 
of  polity  which  the  Popes  took  great  care  to  support  with  all 
their  credit  and  authority.  According  to  this  system,  the  whole 
of  Christendom  composed,  as  it  were,  a  single  and  individual 
republic,  of  which  the  Pope  was  the  spiritual  head,  and  the 
Emperor  the  secular.  The  duty  of  the  latter,  as  head  and  patron 
of  the  Church,  was  to  take  cognizance  that  nothing  should  be 
done  contrary  to  the  general  welfare  of  Christianity.  It  was 
his  part  to  protect  the  Catholic  Church,  to  be  the  guardian  of  its 
preservation,  to  convocate  its  general  councils,  and  exercise  such 
rights  as  the  nature  of  his  ofiice  and  the  interests  of  Christianity 
s<^emed  to  demand. 

It  was  in  virtue  of  this  ideal  system  that  the  emperors  enjoyed  a 
precedency  over  other  monarchs,  with  the  exclusive  right  of  elect- 
ing kings  ;"  and  that  they  had  bestowed  on  them  the  title  of  mas- 
ters of  the  world,  and  sovereign  of  sovereigns.     A  more  irapor- 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  S7 

tant  prerogative  was  that  which  they  possessed  in  the  election  of 
the  Popes.  From  Olho  the  Great  to  Henry  IV.,  all  the  Roman 
pontiffs  were  chosen,  or  at  least  confirmed,  by  the  emperors. 
Henry  III.  deposed  three  schismatical  popes  (1046,)  and  sub- 
stituted in  their  place  a  German,  who  took  the  name  of  Clement 
II.  The  same  emperor  afterwards  nominated  various  other  popes 
of  his  own  nation. 

However  vast  and  formidable  the  power  of  these  monarchs 
seemed  to  be,  it  was  nevertheless  far  from  being  a  solid  and 
durable  fabric ;  and  it  was  easy  to  foresee  that,  in  a  short  time, 
it  would  crumble  and  disappear.  Various  causes  conspired  to 
accelerate  its  downfall ;  the  first  and  principal  of  which  necessa- 
rily sprang  from  the  constitution  of  the  empire,  which  was  faulty 
in  itself,  and  incompatible  with  any  scheme  of  aggrandizement 
or  conquest.  A  great  em.pire,  to  prolong  its  durability,  requires 
a  perfect  unity  of  power,  which  can  act  with  despatch,  and  com- 
municate with  facility  from  one  extremity  to  the  other  ;  an 
armed  force  constantly  on  foot,  and  capable  of  maintaining  the 
public  tranquillity;  frontiers  well  defended  against  hostile  inva- 
sion; and  revenues  proportioned  to  the  exigencies  of  the  state. 
All  these  characteristics  of  political  greatness  were  wanting  in 
the  Geman  empire. 

That  empire  was  elective;  the  states  co-operated  jointly  with 
the  emperors  in  the  exercise  of  the  legislative  power.  There 
were  neither  permanent  armiies,  nor  fortresses,  nor  taxation,  nor 
any  regular  system  of  finance.  The  government  was  without 
vigour,  incapable  of  protecting  or  punishing,  or  even  keeping 
m  subjection,  its  remote  provinces,  consisting  of  nations  who 
differed  in  language,  manners,  and  legislation.  One  insurrec- 
tion, though  quelled,  was  only  the  forerunner  of  others  ;  and 
the  conquered  nations  shook  off  the  3'oke  with  the  same  facility 
as  they  received  it.  The  perpetual  wars  of  the  emperors  in 
Italy,  from  the  first  conquest  of  that  country  by  Otho  the  Great, 
prove,  in  a  manner  most  evident,  the  strange  imbecility  of  the 
government.  At  every  change  of  reign,  and  every  little  revo- 
lution which  happened  in  Germany,  the  Italians  rose  in  arms, 
and  put  the  emperors  again  to  the  necessity  of  reconquering 
that  kingdom ;  which  undoubtedly  it  was  their  interest  to  have 
abandoned  entirely,  rather  than  to  lavish  for  so  many  centuries 
their  treasures  and  the  blood  of  their  people  to  no  purpose.  The 
climate  of  Italy  was  also  disastrous  to  the  Imperial  armies; 
and  many  successions  of  noble  German  families  found  there  a 
foreign  grave. 

An  inevitable  consequence  of  this  vitiated  constitution,  was 
he  decline  of  the  royal  authority,  and  the  gradual  increase  of 


88  CHAPTER   IV. 

the  power  of  the  nobility.  It  is  important,  however,  to  remark 
that  in  Germany  the  progress  of  the  feuck\l  system  had  been 
much  less  rapid  than  in  France.  The  dukes,  counts,  and  mar- 
graves, that  is,  the  governors  of  provinces,  and  wardens  of  the 
marches,  continued  for  long  to  be  regarded  merely  as  imperial 
officers,  without  any  pretensions  to  consider  their  governments 
as  hereditary,  or  exercise  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  Even  fiefs 
remained  for  many  ages  in  their  primitive  state,  without  being 
perpetuated  in  the  families  of  those  to  whom  they  had  been 
originally  granted. 

A  total  change,  however,  took  place  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  dukes  and  counts,  become  formidable 
by  the  extent  of  their  power  and  their  vast  possessions,  by  de- 
grees, constituted  themselves  hereditary  officers;  and  not  content 
with  the  appropriation  of  their  dutchies  and  counties,  they  took 
idvantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  emperors,  and  their  quarrels 
with  the  popes,  to  extort  from  them  new  privileges,  or  usurp  the 
orerogatives  of  royalty,  formerly  reserved  for  the  emperors 
alone.  The  aristocracy,  or  landed  proprietors,  foUov/ed  ika 
example  of  the  dukes  and  counts,  and  after  the  eleventh  century, 
they  all  began  to  play  the  part  of  sovereigns,  styling  them- 
selves, in  their  public  acts.  By  the  Grace  of  God.  At  length  fiefs 
became  also  hereditary.  Conrad  II.  was  the  first  emperor  that 
permitted  the  transmission  of  fiefs  to  sons  and  grandsons ;  the 
succession  of  collateral  branches  was  subsequently  introduced. 
The  system  of  hereditary  feudalism  became  thus  firmly  esta- 
blished in  Germany,  and  bj^  a  natural  consequence,  it  brought 
on  the  destruction  of  the  imperial  authority,  and  the  ruin  of 
the  empire. 

Nothing,  however,  was  more  injurious  to  this  authority  than 
the  extravagant  power  of  the  clergy,  whom  the  emperors  of  the 
Saxon  line  had  loaded  with  honours  and  benefactions,  either 
from  a  zeal  {pv  religion,  or  with  the  intention  of  using  them  as 
a  counterpoise  to  the  ambition  of  the  dukes  and  secular  nobility. 
It  was  chiefly  to  Otho  the  Great  that  the  bishops  of  Germany 
were  indebted  for  their  temporal  power.  That  prince  bestowed 
on  them  large  grants  of  land  from  the  imperial  domains ;  he 
gave  ihem  towns,  counties,  and  entire  dukedoms,  with  the  pre- 
rogatives of  royalty,  such  as  justiciary  powers,  the  right  of  coin- 
ing money,  of  levying  tolls  and  other  public  revenues,  &c. 
These  rights  and  privileges  he  granted  them  under  the  feudal 
law,  and  on  condition  of  rendering  him  military  servitude. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  disposal  of  ecclesiastical  dignities  belonged 
then  to  the  crown,  and  fiefs  had  not,  in  general,  become  heredi- 
tary, the  Emperor  still  retained  possession  of  those  which  he 


PERIOD  111.     A.  D.  962—1074.  89 

conferred  on  the  clergy ;  these  he  bestowed  on  whomsoever  he 
judged  proper ;  using  them,  however,  always  in  conformity  with 
his  own  views  and  interests. 

The  same  policy  that  induced  Otho  to  transfer  to  the  bishops 
a  large  portion  of  his  domains,  led  him  also  to  intrust  them  with 
the  government  of  cities.  At  that  time,  there  was  a  distinction 
of  towns  into  royal  and  prefectorlal.  The  latter  were  dependent 
on  the  dukes,  while  the  former,  subject  immediately  to  the  king, 
gave  rise  to  what  has  since  been  called  imperial  cities.  It  was 
in  these  royal  cities  that  the  German  kings  were  in  the  practice 
of  establishing  counts  and  burgomasters  or  magistrates,  to  ex- 
'NTcise  in  their  name  the  rights  of  justice,  civil  and  criminal,  the 
.evying  of  money,  customs,  &c.  as  well  as  other  prerogatives 
usually  reserved  to  the  King.  Otho  conferred  the  counties,  or 
governorships  of  cities  where  a  bishop  resided,  on  th  3  bishops 
themselves,  who,  in  process  of  time,  made  use' of  this  d  bw  power 
to  subject  these  cities  to  their  own  authority,  and  render  them 
mediate  and  episcopal,  instead  of  being  immediate  and  royal  as 
they  were  originally. 

The  successors  of  Otho,  as  impolitic  as  himself,  imitated  his 
example.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  possessions  of  the  crown 
were,  by  degrees,  reduced  to  nothing,  and  the  authority  of  the 
emperors  declined  with  the  diminution  of  their  wealth.  The 
bishops,  at  first  devoted  to  the  emperor.^ ,  both  from  necessity 
and  gratitude,  no  sooner  perceived  their  own  strength,  than  they 
were  tempted  to  make  use  of  it,  and  to  join  the  secular  princes, 
in  order  to  sap  the  imperial  authority,  as  well  as  to  consolidate 
their  own  power.  To  these  several  causes  of  the  downfall  of 
the  empire  must  be  added  the  new  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
the  origin  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Pope  Gregory  VII.  In  the 
following  Period,  this  matter  will  be  treated  more  in  detail ; 
meantime,  we  shall  proceed  to  give  a  succinct  view  of  the  other 
states  that  figured  during  this  epoch  on  the  theatre  of  Europe. 

The  dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  in  Spain,  founded  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  was  overturned  in  the  eleventh. 
An  insurrection  having  happened  at  Cordova  against  the  Ca- 
liph Hescham,  that  prince  was  dethroned  (1030,)  and  the  caliph- 
ate ended  with  him.  The  governors  of  cities  and  provinces, 
and  the  principal  nobility  of  the  Arabs,  formed  themseh^es  into 
independent  sovereigns,  under  the  title  of  kings  ;  and  as  many 
petty  Mahometan  States  rose  in  Spain  as  there  had  been  prin- 
cipal cities.  The  most  considerable  of  these,  were  the  king- 
doms of  Cordova,  Seville,  Toledo,  Lisbon,  Saragossa,  Tortosa, 
Valencia,  Murcia,  &:c.  This  partition  of  the  caliphate  of  Cor- 
dovc;,  enabled  the  princes   of  Christendom  to  aggrandize  their 

8^ 


90  CHAPTER  IV. 

power  at  the  expense  of  the  Mahometans.  Besides  the  king- 
doms of  Leon  and  Navarre,  there  existed  in  Spain  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eleventh  century,  the  county  of  Castille,  which 
had  been  dismembered  from  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  and  the 
county  of  Barcelona,  which-  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Kings  of  France. 

Sancho  the  Great,  King  of  Navarre,  had  the  fortune  to  unite 
in  his  own  family  all  these  different  sovereignties,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Barcelona  ;  and  as  this  occurred  nearly  at  the  same 
lime  with  the  destruction  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova,  it  would 
have  been  easy  for  the  Christians  to  obtain  a  complete  ascen- 
dency over  the  Mahometans,  if  they  had  kept  their  forces  united. 
But  the  King  of  Navarre  fell  into  the  same  mistake  that  had 
been  so  fatal  to  the  Mahometans ;  he  divided  his  dominions 
among  h  s  sons  (1035.)  Don  Garcias,  the  eldest,  had  Navarre, 
and  was  the  ancestor  of  a  long  line  of'Navarrese  kings  ;  the 
last  of  whom,  John  d'Albert  was  deposed  (1512)  by  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic.  From  Ferdinand,  the  younger  son.  King  of  Leon 
and  Castille,  were  descended  all  the  sovereigns  of  Castille  and 
Leon  down  to  Queen  Isabella,  who  transferred  these  kingdoms 
(1474,)  by  marriage,  to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  Lastly,  Don 
Ramira,  natural  son  of  Sancho,  was  the  stem  from  whom  sprung 
all  the  kings  of  Arra^'on,  down  to  Ferdinand,  who  by  his  mar- 
riage with  Isabella,  he  ppened  to  unite  all  the  different  Christian 
States  in  Spain ;  and  put  an  end  also  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Arabs  and  Moors  in  'hat  peninsula. 

In  France  the  royal  authority  declined  more  and  more,  from 
the  rapid  progress  which  the  feudal  system  made  in  that  king- 
dom, after  the  feeble  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  Dukes 
and  the  Counts,  usurping  the  rights  of  royalty,  made  war  on 
each  other,  and  raised  on  every  occasion  the  standard  of  revolt. 
The  kings,  in  order  to  gain  over  some,  and  maintain  others  in 
their  allegiance,  were  obliged  to  give  up  to  them  in  succession 
every  branch  of  the  royal  revenue  ;  so  that  the  last  Carlovin- 
gian  princes  were  reduced  to  such  a  state  of  distress,  that,  far 
from  being  able  to  counterbalance  the  power  of  the  nobility,  they 
had  hardly  left  wherewithal  to  furnish  a  scanty  subsistence  for 
their  court.  A  change  of  dynasty  became  then  indispensable  ; 
and  the  throne,  it  was  evident,  must  fall  to  the  share  of  the  most 
powerful  and  daring  of  its  vassals.  This  event,  which  had  long 
been  foreseen,  happened  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  surnamed  the 
Slothful  (9S7,)  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians,  who  died  childless 
at  the  age  of  twenty. 

Hugh  Capet,  great-grandson  of  Robert  the  Strong,  possessed 
at  that  time  the  central  parts  of  the  kingdom.     He  was  Count 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  91 

of  Paris,  Duke  of  France  and  Neustria;  and  his  brother  Henry 
wasjnaster  of  the  datchy  of  Burgundy.  It  was  not  difficult  for 
Hugh  to  form  a  party  ;  and  under  their  auspices  he  got  himselt 
proclaimed  king  at  Noyon,  and  crowned  at  Rheims.  Charles 
Duke  of  Lorrain,  paternal  uncle  of  the  last  king,  and  sole  legiti- 
mate heir  to  the  Carlovingian  line,-^  advanced  his  claims  to  Uic 
crown;  he  seized,  by  force  of  arms,  on  Laon  and  Rheims  ;  but 
being  betrayed  by  the  Bishop  of  Laon,  and  delivered  up  to  his 
rival,  he  was  confined  in  a  prison  at  Orleans,  where  he  ended 
his  days  (991.) 

Hugh,  on  mounting  the  throne,  restored  to  the  possession  of 
<he  crown,  the  lands  and  dominions  which  had  belonged  to  it 
between  the  Loire,  the  Seine,  and  the  Meuse.  His  power  gave 
a  new  lustre  to  the  royal  dignity,  which  he  found  means  to  ren- 
der hereditary  in  his  family  ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  per- 
mitted the  grandees  to  transmit  to  their  descendants,  male  and 
female,  the  dutchies  and  counties  which  they  held  of  the  crovv^n, 
reserving  to  it  merely  the  feudal  superiority.  Thus  the  feudal 
government  was  firmly  established  in  France,  by  the  hereditary 
tenure  of  the  great  fiefs  ;  and  that  kingdom  was  in  consequence 
divided  among  a  certain  number  of  powerful  vassals,  who  ren- 
dered fealty  and  homage  to  their  kings,  and  marched  at  their 
command  on  military  expeditions  ;  but  who  nevertheless  were 
nearly  absolute  masters  in  their  own  dominions,  and  often  dic- 
tated the  law  to  the  sovereign  himself.  Hugh  was  the  progeni- 
tor of  the  Capetian  dynasty  of  French  kings,  so  called  from  his 
own  surname  of  Capet. 

England,  during  the  feeble  reigns  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  princes, 
successors  to  Alfred  the  Great,  had  sunk  under  the  dominion  of 
priests  and  monks.  The  consequence  was,  the  utter  ruin  of  its 
finances,  and  its  naval  and  military  power.  This  exposed  the 
kingdom  afresh  to  the  attacks  of  the  Danes  (991,)  who  imposed 
on  the  English  a  tribute  or  tax,  known  by  the  name  of  Danegelt. 
Under  the  command  of  their  kings  Sueno  or  Sweyn  I.,  and  Ca- 
nute the  Great,  they  at  length  drove  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  from 
their  thrones,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  all  England 
(1017.)  But  the  domitjion  of  the  Danes  was  only  of  short  con- 
tinuance. The  English  shook  offtheir  yoke,  and  conferred  their 
crown  on  Edward  the  Confessor  (1042)  a  prince  of  the  royal 
blood  of  tiheir  ancient  kings.  On  the  death  of  Edward,  .Harold, 
Earl  of  Kent,  was  acknowledged  King  of  England  (1066  ;)  but 
he  met  with  a  formidable  competitor  in  the  person  of  William 
Duke  of  Normandy. 

This  prince  had  no  other  right  to  the  crown,  than  that  founded 
on  a  verbal  promise  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  confirmed  by  an 


92  CHAPTER  IV. 

oath  which  Harold  had  given  him  while  Earl  of  Kent,  s  "William 
landed  in  England  (October  14th  1066,)  at  the  head  of  a  conside- 
rable army,  and  having  offered  battle  to  Harold,  near  Hastings  in 
Sussex,  he  gained  a  complete  victory.  Harold  was  killed  in 
the  action,  and  the  conquest  of  all  England  was  the  reward  of 
the  victor.  To  secure  himself  in  his  new  dominions,  William 
constructed  a  vast  number  of  castles  and  fortresses  throughout 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  which  he  took  care  to  fill  with  Nor- 
man garrisons.  The  lands  and  places  of  trust  of  which  he  had 
deprived  the  English,  were  distributed  among  the  Normans, and 
other  foreigners  who  were  attached  to  his  fortunes.  He  intro- 
duced the  feudal  law,  and  rendered  fiefs  hereditary  ;  he  ordered 
the  English  to  be  disarmed,  and  forbade  them  to  hav^e  light  in 
their  houses  after  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening.  He  even  at- 
tempted to  abolish  the  language  of  the  country,  by  establishing 
numerous  schools  for  teaching  the  Norman-French;  by  pub- 
lishing the  laws,  and  ordering  the  pleadings  in  the  courts  of 
justice  to  be  made  in  that  language  ;  hence  it  happened  that  the 
ancient  British,  combined  with  the  Norman,  formed  a  new  sort 
of  language,  which  still  exists  in  the  modern  English.  William 
thus  became  the  common  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  England, 
whose  right  to  the  crown  is  derived  from  him,  and  founded  on 
the  Conquest. 

About  the  time  that  William  conquered  England,  another  co- 
lony of  the  same  Normans  founded  the  kingdom  of  the  two 
Sicilies.  The  several  provinces  of  which  this  kingdom  was 
composed,  vvere,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century, 
divided  among  the  Germans,  Greeks,  and  Arabians,^  who  were 
incessantly  waging  war  with  each  other.  A  band  of  nearly  a 
hundred  Normans,  equally  desirous  of  war  and  glory,  landed  in 
that  country  (1016,)  and  tendered  their  services  to  the  Lombard 
princes,  vassals  of  the  German  empire.  The  bravery  which 
•  hey  displayed  on  various  occasions,  made  these  princes  desirous 
of  retaining  them  in  their  pay,  to  serv^e  as  guardians  of  their 
frontiers  against  the  Greeks  and  Arabians.  The  Greek  princes 
very  .loon  were  no  less  eager  to  gain  their  services  ;  and  the 
Duke  of  Naples,  with  the  view  of  attaching  them  to  his  interest, 
ceded  to  them  a  large  territory,  where  they  built  the  city  of 
Aversa,  three  leagues  from  Capua.  The  emperor  Conrad  II. 
erected  it  into  a  county  (1038,)  the  investiture  of  which  he 
granted  to  Eainulph,  one  of  their  chiefs. 

At  this  same  period  the  sons  of  Tancred  conducted  a  new 
colony  from  Normandy  into  Low^er  Italy.  Their  arrival  is  gen- 
erally referred  to  the  year  1033  ;  and  tradition  has  assigned  to 
Tancred  a  descent  from  Rollo  or  Robert  I.  Duke  of  Normandy 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  93 

These  new  adventurers  undertook  the  conquest  of  Apulia  (1041,) 
which  they  formed  into  a  county,  the  investiture  of  which  they 
obtained  from  Henry  III.  Kobert  Guiscard,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Tancred,  afterwards  (1047)  completed  the  conquest  of  that  pro- 
vince ;  he  added  to  it  that  of  Calabria,  of  which  he  had  also 
deprived  the  Greeks  (1059,)  and  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Apulia  and  Calabria. 

To  secure  himself  in  his  new  conquests,  as  well  as  in  those 
which  he  yet  meditated  from  the  two  empires,  Eobert  concluded 
a  treaty  the  same  year  with  Pope  Nicholas  II.,  by  which  that 
Pontiff  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  the  dutchies  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria  ;  granting  him  not  only  the  investiture  of  these,  but 
promising  him  also  that  of  Sicily,  whenever  he  should  expel 
the  Greeks  and  Arabians  from  it.  Robert,  in  his  turn,  acknow- 
ledged himself  a  vassal  of  the  Pope,  and  engaged  to  pay  him 
an  annual  tribute  of  twelve  pence,  money  of  Pavia,  for  every 
pair  of  oxen  in  the  two  dutchies.^  Immediately  after  this  treaty, 
Robert  called  in  the  assistance  of  his  brother  Roger,  to  rescue 
Sicily  from  the  hands  of  the  Greeks  and  Arabs.^  No  sooner  had 
he  accomplished  this  object,  than  he  conquered  in  succession 
the  principalities  of  Bari,  Salerno,  Amalfi,  Sorrento,  and  Bene- 
vento;  this  latter  city  he  surrendered  to  the  Pope. 

Such  is  the  origin  of  the  dutchies  of  Apulia  and  Calabria ; 
which,  after  a  lapse  of  some  years,  were  formed  into  a  kingdom 
under  the  name  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

As  to  the  kingdoms  of  the  North,  the  light  of  history  scarcely 
began  to  dawn  there  until  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  which 
happened  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  or  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century.^  The  promulgation  of  the  Gospel  opened  a  way  into 
the  North  for  the  diffusion  of  arts  and  letters.  The  Scandina- 
vian states,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  which  before  that 
time  were  parcelled  out  among  independent  chiefs,  began  then 
to  form  plans  of  civil  government,  and  to  combine  into  settled 
monarchies.  Their  new  religion,  however,  did  not  inspire  these 
nations  with  its  meek  and  peaceable  virtues,  nor  overcome  their 
invincible  propensity  to  wars  and  rapine.  Their  heroism  was 
a  wild  and  savage  bravery,  which  emboldened  them  to  face  all 
dangers,  to  undertake  desperate  adventures,  and  to  achieve  sud- 
den conquests,  which  were  lost  and  won  with  the  same  rapidity. 

Harold,  surnamed  Blaatand,  or  Blue  teeth,  was  the  first  sole 
monarch  of  the  Danes,  who  with  his  son  Sweyn  received  bap- 
tism, after  being  vanquished  by  Otho  the  Great  (965.)  Sweyn 
relapsed  to  paganism  ;  but  his  son  Canute  the  Great,  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne  (1014,)  made  Christianity  the  established 
religion  of  his  kingdom.     He  sent  for  monks  from  other  coan- 


94 


CHAPTER   IV. 


tries,  founded  churches,  and  divided  the  kingdom  into  diocesses. 
Ambitious  to  distinguish  himself  as  a  conqueror,  he  afterwards 
subdued  England  and  Norway  (1028.)  To  these  he  added  a 
part  of  Scotland  and  Sweden  ;  and  conferred  in  his  own  life- 
time on  one  of  his  sons,  named  Sweyn,  the  kingdom  of  Nor- 
way, and  on  another,  named  Hardicanute,  that  of  Denmark. 
These  acquisitions,  however,  were  merely  temporary.  Sweyn 
was  driven  from  Norway  {1035;)  while  England  and  Scotland 
also  shook  off  the  Danish  yoke  (1042,)  on  the  death  of  Hardi- 
canute ;  and  Magnus  King  of  Norway,  even  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  Denmark,  which  did  not  recover  its  entire  independence 
until  the  death  of  that  prince  (1047.) 

The  ancient  dynasty  of  Kings  who  occupied  the  throne  of 
Denmark  from  the  most  remote  ages,  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Skioldungs,  because,  according  to  a  fabulous  tradition,  they 
were  descended  from  Skiold,  a  pretended  son  of  the  famous 
Odin  who,  from  being  the  conqueror,  was  exalted  into  the  deity 
of  the  North.  The  kings  who  reigned  after  Sweyn  II.  were 
called  EstrithJdes,  from  that  monarch,  who  was  the  son  of  Ulf 
a  Danish  nobleman,  and  Esti^itk,  sister  to  Canute  the  Great.  It 
was  this  Sweyn  that  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against  Mag- 
nus King  of  Norway  (1044,)  and  kept  possession  of  the  throne 
until  his  death. 

In  Sweden,  the  kings  of  the  reigning  family,  descended,  as  is 
alleged,  from  Eegner  Lodbrok,  took  the  title  of  Kings  of  Upsal, 
the  place  of  their  residence.  Olaus  Skotkonung  changed  this 
title  into  that  of  King  of  Sweden.  He  was  the  first  monarch  of 
his  nation  that  embraced  Christianity,  and  exerted  himself  to 
propagate  it  in  his  kingdom.  Sigefroy,  Archbishop  of  York, 
who  was  sent  into  Sweden  by  Ethelred  King  of  England,  bap- 
tized Olaus  and  his  whole  family  (1001.)  The  conversion  cf 
the  Swedes  would  have  been  more  expeditious,  had  not  the  zeal 
of  Olaus  been  restrained  by  the  Swedish  Diet  who  decided  for 
full  liberty  of  conscience.  Hence  the  strange  mixture,  both  of 
doctrine  and  worship,  that  long  prevailed  in  Sweden,  where  Je- 
sus Christ  was  profanely  associated  with  Odin,  and  the  Pagan 
goddess  Freya  confounded  with  the  Virgin.  Anund  Jacques, 
son  of  Olaus,  contributed  much  to  the  progress  of  Christianity; 
and  his  zeal  procured  him  the  title  o(  Most  Christian  King. 

In  Norway,  Olaus  I.,  surnamed  Tryggueson,  towards  the  end 
of  the  tenth  century,  constituted  himself  the  apostle  and  mis- 
sionary of  his  people,  and  undertook  to  convert  them  to  Chris- 
tianity by  torture  and  punishment.  Iceland  and  Greenland  ^ 
were  likewise  converted  by  his  efforts,  and  afterwards  became 
nis  tributaries  (1029.)     One  of  his  successors,  Olaus  II.,  called 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  95 

tte  Fat,  and  also  the  Saint,  succeeded  in  extirpating  paganism 
trorn  Norway  (1020  ;)  but  he  used  the  cloak  of  religion  to  «?- 
lyblish  his  own  authority,  by  destroying  several  petty  kings 
wUo  before  this  time  possessed  each  their  own  dominions. 

Christianity  was  likewise  instrumental  in  throAving  some  ray^ 
of  light  on  the  history  of  the  Sclavonian  nations,  by  imparting: 
to  them  the  knowledge  of  letters,  and  raising  them  in  the  scule 
of  importance  among  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  The 
Sclavonians  who  were  settled  north  of  the  Elbe,  had  been  sub- 
dued by  the  Germans,  and  compelled  to  embrace  Christianity. 
The  haughtiness  and  rigour  of  Thierry,  Margrave  of  the  North, 
induced  them  to  shake  off  the  yoke,  and  to  concert  a  general 
insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  the  reign  of  Otho  II.  (982., 
The  episcopal  palaces,  churches  and  convents,  were  destroyed; 
and  the  people  returned  onco  more  to  the  superstitions  of  pagan- 
ism. Those  tribes  that  inhabited  Brandenburg,  part  of  Pome- 
rania  and  Mecklenburg,  known  formerly  under  the  name  of 
Wilzians  and  Welatabes,  formed  themselves  into  a  republican 
or  federal  body,  and  took  the  name  of  Luitizians.  The  Abo- 
trites,  on  the  contrary,  the  Polabes,  and  the  Wagrians,^  were 
decidedly  for  a  monarchical  government,  the  capital  of  which 
was  fixed  at  Mecklenburg.  Some  of  the  princes  or  sovereigns 
of  these  latter  people  were  styled  Kings  of  the  Venedi.  The 
result  of  this  general  revolt  was  a  series  of  long  and  bloody  wars 
between  the  Germans  and  Sclavonians.  The  latter  defended 
their  civil  and  religious  liberties  with  a  remarkable  courage  and 
perseverance  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  twelfth  century,  that 
they  were  subdued  and  reduced  to  Christianity  by  the  continued 
efforts  of  the  Dukes  of  Saxony,  and  the  Margraves  of  the  North, 
and  by  means  of  the  crusades  and  colonies  which  the  Germans 
despatched  into  their  country. ^^ 

The  first  duke  of  Bohemia  that  received  baptism  from  the 
hands,  as  is  supposed,  of  Methodius,  bishop  of  Moravia  (S94,) 
was  Borzivoy.  His  successors,  how^ever,  returned  to  idolatry  ; 
and  it  was  not  till  near  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  properly 
speaking,  and  in  the  reign  of  Boleslaus  II.,  surnamed  the  Pious, 
that  Christianity  became  the  established  religion  of  Bohemia 
(999.)  These  dukes  were  vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  German 
empire  ;  and  their  tribute  consisted  of  500  silver  marks,  and  120 
oxen.  They  exercised,  however,  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty 
over  the  people  ;  their  reign  was  a  system  of  terror,  and  thej^ 
seldom  took  the  opinion  or  advice  of  their  nobles  and  grandees. 
The  succession  was  hereditary  in  the  reigning  dynasty  ;  and 
the  system  of  partition  was  in  use,  otherwise  the  order  of  suc- 
cession would  have  been  fixed  and  permanent.     Over  a  number 


96  CHAPTER   IV. 

of  these  partitionary  princes,  one  was  vested  with  certain  rights 
of  superiority,  under  the  title  of  Grand  Prince,  according  to  a 
cut;toni  found  very  prevalent  among  the  lialf  civilized  nations 
of  the  nortli  and  east  of  Europe. ^^  The  greater  proportion  at 
the  inhabitants,  the  labouring  classes,  artisans,  and  domestics, 
were  serfs,  and  oppressed  by  the  tyrannical  yoke  of  their  mas- 
ters. The  public  sale  of  men  was  even  practised  in  Bohemia; 
the  tithe,  or  tenth  part  of  which,  belonged  to  the  sovereign.  The 
descendants  of  Borzivoy  possessed  the  throne  of  Bohemia  until 
1306,  when  the  male  line  became  extinct. 

The  Poles  were  a  nation  whose  name  does  not  occur  in  his- 
tory before  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  ;  and  we  owe  to 
Christianity  the  first  intimations  that  we  have  regarding  this 
people.  Mieczislaus  I.,  the  first  duke  or  prince  of  the  Poles  of 
whom  we  posse««  any  authentic  accounts,  embraced  Christianity 
(966,)  at  the  solicitation  of  his  spouse  Dambrowka,  sister  ot 
Boleslaus  II.,  duke  of  Bohemia.  Shortly  after,  the  first  bish- 
opric in  Poland,  that  of  Posen,  was  founded  by  Otho  the  Great. 
Christianity  did  not,  hovvever,  tame  the  ferocious  habits  of  the 
Poles,  who  remained  for  a  long  lime  without  the  least  progress 
in  mental  cultivation.^-  Their  government,  as  wretched  as  that 
of  Bohemia,  subjected  the  great  body  of  the  nation  to  the  most 
debasing  servitude.  The  ancient  sovereigns  of  Poland  were 
hereditary.  They  ruled  most  despotically,  and  with  a  rod  ot 
iron;  and,  although  they  acknowledged  themselves  vassals  and 
tributaries  of  the  German  emperors,  they  repeatedly  broke  out 
into  open  rebellion,  asserted  their  absolute  independence,  and 
waged  a  successful  war  against  their  masters.  Boleslaus,  son 
of  Mieczislaus  I.,  took  advantage  of  the  troubles  which  rose  in 
Germany  on  the  death  of  Otho  III.,  to  possess  himself  of  the 
Marches  of  Lusatia  and  Budissin,  or  Bautzen,  which  the  Em- 
peror Henry  II.  afterwards  granted  him  as  fiefs.  This  same 
prince,  in  despite  of  the  Germans,  on  the  death  of  Henry  II. 
(1025,)  assumed  the  royal  dignity.  Mieczislaus  II.,  son  of  Bo- 
leslaus, after  having  cruelly  ravaged  the  country  situate  between 
the  Oder,  the  Elbe,  and  the  Saal,  was  compelled  to  abdicate  the 
throne,  and  also  to  restore  those  provinces  which  his  father  had 
wrested  from  the  Empire.  The  male  descendants  of  Mieczis- 
laus I.  reigned  in  Poland  until  the  death  of  Casimir  the  Great 
(1370.)  This  dynasty  of  kings  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Piasis,  or  Piasses,  so  called  from  one  Piast,  alleged  to  have 
been  its  founder. 

Silesia,  which  was  then  a  province  of  Poland,  received  the 
light  of  the  Gospel  when  it  first  visited  that  kingdom  ;  and  had 
for  its  apostle,  as  is  supposed,  a  ,Romish  priest  named  GeofTry, 
who  is  reckoned  the  first  bishop  of  Smogra  (966.) 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  97 

In  Russia,  Vladimir  the  Great,  great-grandson  of  Ruric,  was 
the  first  grand  duke  that  embraced  Christianity,  (9SS.)  He  was 
baptized  at  Cherson  in  Taurida,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  Anna  Romanowna,  sister  of  Basil  II.  and  Constantino  VIII., 
Emperors  of  Constantinople.  It  was  this  prince  that  introduced 
the  Greek  ritual  into  Russia,  and  founded  several  schools  and 
convents.  The  alphabet  of  the  Greeks  was  imported  into  Rus- 
sia along  with  their  religion  ;  and  from  the  reign  of  Vladimir, 
that  nation,  more  powerful  and  united  than  most  of  the  other 
European  states,  carried  on  a  lucrative  commerce  with  the  Greek 
empire,  of  which  it  became  at  length  a  formidable  rival. 

At  the  death  of  that  prince  (1015,)  Russia  comprehended 
those  vast  regions  which,  from  east  to  west,  extend  from  the  Icy- 
Sea  and  the  mouth  of  the  Dwina,  to  the  Niernen,  the  Dniester, 
and  the  Bug  ;  and  southwp<-d  of  this  last  river,  to  the  Carpathian 
Mountains,  and  the  connnes  of  Hungary  and  Moldavia.  The 
city  of  Kiow  on  the  Dnieper,  was  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and 
the  residence  of  the  Grand  Dukes.  This  period  also  gave  rise 
to  those  unfortunate  territorial  partitions  which,  by  dividing  the 
Russian  monarchy,  exposed  it  to  the  insults  and  ravages  of  ihe 
neighbouring  nations.  Jaroslaus,  one  of  the  sons  of  Vladimir, 
made  himself  famous  as  a  legislator,  and  supplied  the  Novogo- 
rodians  with  laws  to  regulate  their  courts  of  justice.  No  less 
the  friend  and  protector  of  letters,  he  employed  himself  in  trans- 
lating Greek  books  into  the  Sclavonian  language.  He  founded 
a  public  school  at  Novogorod,  in  which  three  hundred  children 
were  educated  at  his  sole  expense.  His  daughter  Anna  married 
Henry  I.,  King  of  France  ;  and  this  princess  was  the  common 
mother  of  all  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  Capetian  dynasty. 

Hungary  was  divided,  in  the  tenth  century,  among  several 
petty  princes,  .who  acknowledged  a  common  chief,  styled  the 
Grand  Prince,  whose  limited  authority  was  reduced  to  a  simple 
pre-eminence  in  rank  and  dignity.  Each  of  these  princes  as* 
sembled  armies,  and  made  predatory  excursions,  plundering  and 
ravaging  the  neighbouring  countries  at  their  pleasure.  The 
East  and  the  West  suffered  long  under  the  scourge  of  these  atro- 
cious pillagers.  Christianity,  which  was  introduced  among  them 
about  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  was  alone  capable  of  soft- 
ening the  manners,  and  tempering  the  ferocity  of  this  nation 
Peregrine,  bishop  of  Passau,  encouraged  by  Otho  the  Grea?., 
and  patronized  by  the  Grand  Prince  Geisa,  sent  the  first  mis- 
sionaries into  Hungary  (973.)  St.  Adelbert,  bishop  of  Praguo, 
had  the  honour  to  baptize  the  son  of  Geisa,  called  Waic  (994,) 
but  who  received  then  the  baptismal  name  of  Stephen. 

This  latter  prince,  having  succeeded  his  father  (997,)  changea 

VOL.  I.  9 


98  CHAPTER  IV. 

entirely  the  aspect  of  Hungary.  He  assumed  the  royal  dignity, 
with  the  consent  of  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  who  sent  him  on  this 
occasion  the  Angelic  Crown,^'-^  as  it  is  called;  the  same,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  which  the  Hungarians  use  to  this  day  in  the 
coronation  of  their  kings.  At  once  the  apostle  and  the  law- 
giver of  his  country,  Stephen  I.  combined  politics  with  justice, 
and  employed  both  severity  and  clemency  in  reforming  his  sub- 
jects. He  founded  several  bishoprics,  extirpated  idolatry,  banish- 
ed anarchy,  and  gave  to  the  authority  of  the  sovereign,  a  vigour 
and  efficiency  which  it  never  before  possessed.  To  him  like- 
wise is  generally  ascribed  the  political  division  of  Hungary  into 
counties,  as  also  the  institution  of  palatines,  and  great  officers 
of  the  crown.  He  conquered  Transylvania,  about  1002-3,  ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  most  modern  Hungarian  authors,  and 
formed  it  into  a  distinct  government,  the  chiefs  of  which,  called 
Vaivodes,  held  immediately  of  his  crown. 

The  history  of  the  Greek  empire  presents,  at  this  time,  nothing 
but  a  tissue  of  corruption,  fanaticism  and  perfidy.  The  throne, 
as  insecure  as  that  of  the  Western  empire  had  been,  was  filled 
alternately  by  a  succession  of  usurpers  ;  most  of  whom  rose 
from  the  lowest  conditions  of  life,  and  owed  their  elevation 
solely  to  the  perpetration  of  crime  and  parricide.  A  supersti- 
tion gross  in  its  nature,  bound  as  with  a  spell  the  minds  of  the 
Greeks,  and  paralyzed  their  courage.  It  was  carefully  cherished 
by  the  monks,  who  had  found  means  to  possess  themselves  of 
the  government,  by  procuring  the  exclusion  of  the  secular  clergy 
from  the  episcopate ;  and  directing  the  attention  of  princes  to 
those  theological  controversies,  often  exceedingly  frivolous, 
which  were  produced  and  re-produced  almost  without  inter- 
mission.^^ Hence  originated  those  internal  commotions  and 
distractions,  those  schisms  and  sects,  which  more  than  once 
divided  the  empire,  and  shook  the  throne  itself. 

These  theological  disputes,  the  rivalry  between  the  two  pa- 
triarchs of  Rome  and  Constantinople,^-^  and  the  contests  respect- 
ing the  Bulgarian  converts,  kd  to  an  irreparable  schism  between 
the  churches  of  the  East  and  the  West.  This  controversy  w^as 
most  keenly  agitated  under  the  pontificate  of  John  VIII.,  and 
when  the  celebrated  Photius  was  patriarch  of  Constantinople; 
and  in  spite  of  the  efforts  which  several  of  the  Greek  emperors 
and  patriarchs  afterwards  made  to  effect  a  union  with  the  Romish 
See,  the  animosity  of  both  only  grew  more  implacable,  and 
ended  at  last  in  a  final  rupture  between  the  two  churches.  A 
government  so  weak  and  so  capricious  as  that  of  Constantinople 
could  not  but  be  perpetually  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  foreign 
enemies.     The  Huns,  Ostrogoths,  Avars,  Bulgarians,  Russians? 


PERIOD  III.     A.  D.  962—1074.  99 

Hungarians,  Chazars,  and  Patzinacites,  harassed  the  empire  on 
the  side  of  the  Danube  ;  while  the  Persians^''  were  incessantly 
exhausting  its  strength  in  the  East,  and  on  the  side  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. All  these  nations,  however,  were  content  with  merely- 
desolating  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  and  imposing  frequent 
contributions  on  the  Greeks.  It  was  a  task  reserved  for  the 
Lombards,  the  Arabs,  the  Normans,  and  the  Turks,  to  detach 
from  it  whole  provinces,  and  by  degrees  to  hasten  its  downfall. 

The  Lombards  were  the  first  that  conquered  from  the  Greeks 
the  greater  part  of  Italy.  Palestine,  Syria,  and  the  whole  pos- 
sessions of  the  Empire  in  Greater  Asia,  as  well  as  Egypt,  Nor- 
thern Africa,  and  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  were  seized  in  the  seventh 
century  by  the  Arabs,  who  made  themselves  masters  of  Sicily, 
and  three  times  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  (669,  717,  719.) 
They  would  have  even  succeeded  in  taking  this  Eastern  capital, 
and  annihilating  the  Greek  empire,  had  not  the  courage  of  Leo 
the  Isaurian,  and  the  surprising  effects  of  the  Gregeois,  or  Greek 
Fire,^~  rendered  their  efforts  useless.  At  length,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  the  Normans  conquered  all  that  rem^ained  to  the  Greeks 
in  Italy  ;  while  the  Seljuk  Turks,  who  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  Ottoman  Turks,  deprived  them  of  the  greater  part  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Turk  is  the  generic  appellation  for  all  the  Tartar  nations,  ^^ 
mentioned  by  the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Scythians.  Their 
original  country  was  in  those  vast  regions  situate  to  the  north 
of  Mount  Caucasus,  and  eastward  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  beyond 
the.Tihon,  or  Oxus  of  the  ancients,  especially  in  Charasm,  Tran- 
soxiana,  Turkestan,  &c.  About  the  eighth  century,  the  Arabs 
had  passed  the  Oxus,  ami  rendered  the  Turks  of  Charasm  and 
Transoxiana  their  tributaries.  They  instructed  ihem  in  the  re- 
ligion and  laws  of  Mahomet ;  but,  by  a  transition  rather  extra- 
ordinary, it  afterwards  happened,  that  the  vanquished  imposed 
the  yoke  on  their  new  masters. 

The  empire  of  the  Arabs,  already  enfeebled  by  the  territorial 
losses  which  have  been  mentioned,  declined  more  and  more, 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century.  The  Caliphs  of 
Bagdad  had  committed  the  mistake  of  trusting  their  persons  to 
a  military  guard  of  foreigners, ^^  viz.  the  Turks,  who,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  effeminacy  of  these  princes,  soon  arrogated  to 
themselves  the  whole  authority,  and  abused  it  so  far,  as  to  leave 
the  Caliphs  entirely  dependent  on  their  will,  and  to  vest  in  them- 
selves the  hereditary  succession  of  the  government.  Thus,  in 
the  very  centre  of  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad,  there  rose  a  multi- 
tude of  new  sovereignties  or  dynasties,  the  heads  of  which, 
under  the  title  of  E?mr  or  Commander,  exercised  the  supreme 


100 


CHAPTER   IV. 


power  ;  leaving-  nothing  more  to  the  Caliph  than  a  pre-eminence 
of  dignity,  and  that  rather  of  a  spiritual  than  a  temporal  nature. 
Besides  the  external  marks  of  homage  and  respect  which  were 
paid  him,  his  name  continued  to  be  proclaimed  in  the  mosques, 
and  inscribed  on  the  coined  money.  By  him  were  granted  all 
letters-patent  of  investiture,  robes,  swords,  and  standards,  accom- 
panied with  high-sounding  titles  ;  which  did  not,  however,  pre- 
vent these  usurpers  from  maltreating  their  ancient  masters, 
insulting  their  person,  or  even  atttinpting  their  lives,  whenever 
it  might  serve  to  promote  their  interest. 

A  general  revolutioii  broke  out  under  the  caliph  Rahdi.  That 
prince,  wishing  to  arrest  the  progress  of  usurpation,  thought  ot 
creating  a  new  minister,  whom  he  invested  with  the  title  of 
Emir-al-Omra,  or  Commander  of  Commanders  ;  and  conferred 
on  him  powers  much  more  ample  than  those  of  his  vizier.  This 
minister,  whom  he  selected  fromi  the  Emirs,  officiated  even  in 
the  gi'and  mosque  of  Bagdad,  instead  of  the  caliph  ;  and  his 
name  was  pronounced  with  equal  honours  in  the  divine  service 
throughout  the  enipire.  This  device,  which  the  caliph  employ- 
ed to  re-establish  his  authority,  only  tended  to  accelerate  its 
destruction.  The  Bowides,  the  most  powerful  dynasty  among" 
the  Emirs,  arrogated  to  themselves  the  dignity  of  Chief  Com- 
tnander  (945,)  and  seized  both  the  city  and  the  sovereignty  of 
Bagdad.  The  Caliph,  stripped  of  all  temporal  power,  was  then 
only  grand  Iman,  or  sovereign-pontifTof  the  Mussulman  religion, 
under  the  protection  of  the  Bowidian  prince,  who  kept  him  as 
his  prisoner  at  Bagdad. 

Such  was  the  sad  situation  of  the  Arabian  empire,  fallen 
from  its  ancient  glory,  when  a  numerous  Turkish  tribe,  from 
the  centre  of  Turkestan,  appeared  on  the  stage,  overthrew  the 
dominions  of  the  Bowides  ;  and,  after  imposing  new  fetters  on 
the  caliphs,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  powerful  empire,  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Seljukides.  This  roving  tribe,  which  took  its 
name  from  Seljuk  a  Mussulman  Turk,  after  having  wandered 
for  some  time  with  their  flocks  in  Transoxiana,  passed  the 
Jihon  to  seek  pasturage  in  the  province  of  Chorasan.  Rein- 
forced by  new  Turkish  colonies  from  Transoxiana,  this  coali- 
tion became  in  a  little  time  so  powerful,  that  Togrul  Beg, 
grandson  of  Seljuk,  had  the  boldness  to  cause  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  Sultan  in  the  city  of  Niesabur,-^  the  capital  of  Cho- 
rasan, and  formally  announced  himself  as  a  conqueror  (1038.) 
This  prince,  and  the  sultans  his  successors,  subdued  by  de- 
grees most  of  the  provinces  in  Asia,  which  formed  the  caliphate 
of  Bagdad.^^  They  annihilated  the  power  of  the  Bowides 
reduced  the  Caliphs  to  the  condition  of  dependents,  and  at 
•length  attacked  also  the  possessions  of  the  Greek  empire. 


PERIOD  IV.       A.  D.   1074—1300.  101 

Alp-Arslan,  the  nephew  and  immediate  successor  of  Togrul 
Beg,  gained  a  signal  victory  in  Armenia,  over  the  Emperor 
Romanus  Diogenes  (1071)  who  was  there  taken  prisoner. 
The  confusion  which  this  event  caused  in  the  Greek  empire, 
was  favourable  to  the  Turks,  who  seized  not  only  what  re- 
mained to  the  Greeks  in  Syria,  but  also  several  provinces  in 
Asia  Minor,  such  as  Cilicia,  Isauria,  Pamphylia,  Lycia,  Pisidia, 
Lycaonia,  Cappadocia,  Galatia,  Pontus,  and  Bythinia. 

The  empire  of  the  Seljukides  was  in  its  most  flourishing 
state  under  the  sultan  Mal^k  Shah,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Alp-Arslan.  The  caliph  Cayem,  in  confirming  to  this  prince 
the  title  of  Sultan  and  Chief  Commander,  added  also  that  of 
Commander  of  the  Faithful,  which  before  that  time  had  never 
been  conferred  but  on  the  caliphs  alone.  On  the  death  of  Ma- 
lek  (1092,)  the  disputes  that  rose  among  his  sons  occasioned  a 
civil  war,  and  the  partition  of  the  empire.  These  vast  territories 
were  divided  among  three  principal  dynasties  descended  from 
Seljuk,  those  of  Iran,  Kerman,  and  Roum,  or  Rome.  This 
latter  branch,  which  ascribes  its  origin  to  Soliman,  great-grand- 
son of  Seljuk,  obtained  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
the  Seljukides  had  conquered  from  the  Greeks.  The  princes 
of  this  dynasty  are  known  in  the  history  of  the  Crusades  by 
the  name  of  Sultans  of  Iconium  or  Cogni,  a  city  of  Lycaonia, 
where  the  sultans  established  their  residence  after  being  de- 
prived by  the  crusaders  of  the  city  of  Nice  in  Bythinia.  The 
most  powerful  of  the  three  dynasties  was  that  of  the  Seljukides 
of  Iran,  whose  sway  extended  over  the  greater  part  of  Upper 
Asia.  It  soon,  however,  fell  from  its  grandeur,  and  its  states 
were  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  sovereignties,  over  which 
the  Emirs  or  governors  of  cities  and  provinces  usurped  the 
supreme  power. ^"^  These  divisions  prepared  the  way  for  the 
conquests  of  the  crusaders  in  Syria  and  Palestine ;  and  fur- 
nished also  to  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  the  means  of  shaking  off 
the  yoke  of  the  Seljukides  (1152,)  and  recovering  the  sove- 
reignty of  Irak- Arabia,  or  Bagdad. 


CHAPTER    V. 

PEKIOD    IV. 


From  Pope  Gregory  VII.  to  Boniface  VIII     a.  d.  1074—1300. 
A  NEW  and  powerful  monarchy  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  that  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs ;   which   monopolized 
both  spiritual  and  temporal  dominion,  and  extended  its   influ- 

9  ^ 


102  CHAPTER  V. 

ence  over  all  the  kingdoms  of  Christendom.  This  supremacy, 
whose  artful  and  complicated  mechanism  is  still  an  object  of 
astonishment  to  the  most  subtle  politicians,  was  the  work  of 
Pope  Gregory  VII.,  a  man  born  for  great  undertakings,  as  re- 
markable for  his  genius,  which  raised  him  above  his  times,  as 
for  the  austerity  of  his  manners  and  the  boundless  reach  of  his 
ambition.  Indignant  at  the  depravity  of  the  age,  which  was 
immersed  in  ignorance  and  vice,  and  at  the  gross  immorality 
which  pervaded  all  classes  of  society,  both  laymen  and  ecclesi- 
astics, Gregory  resolved  to  become  the  reformer  of  morals,  and 
the  restorer  of  religion.  To  succeed  in  this  project,  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  replace  the  government  of  kings,  which  had  totally 
lost  its  power  and  efficiency,  by  a  new  authority,  whose  salutary 
restraints,  imposed  alike  on  the  high  and  the  low,  might  restore 
vigour  to  the  laws,  put  a  stop  to  licentiousness,  and  impose  a 
reverence  on  all  by  the  sanctity  of  its  origin.  This  authority 
was  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  of  which  Gregory  was 
at  once  the  creator  and  inventor. 

This  extraordinary  person,  who  was  the  son  of  a  carpenter 
at  Saona  in  Tuscany,  named  Bonisone,  or  according  to  others, 
descended  of  a  Roman  family,  had  paved  the  way  to  his  future 
greatness  under  the  preceding  pontiffs,  whose  counsels  he  had 
directed  under  the  title  of  Cardinal  Hildebrand.  While  Cardi- 
nal, he  engaged  Pope  Nicolas  II.  to  enter  into  a  treaty  with 
Robert  Guiscard  (1059,)  for  procuring  that  brave  Norman  as  an 
ally  and  a  vassal  of  the  Holy  See.  Taking  advantage,  like- 
wise of  the  minority  of  Henry  IV.,  he  caused,  this  same  year, 
in  a  council  held  at  Rome,  the  famous  decree  to  be  passed, 
which,  by  reserving  the  election  of  the  pontiffs  principally  to 
the  cardinals,  converted  the  elective  privileges  which  the  em- 
perors formerly  enjoyed  in  virtue  of  their  crown  rights,  into  a 
personal  favour  granted  by  the  Pope,  and  emanating  from  the 
court  of  Rome. 

On  the  death  of  Pope  Nicolas  II.,  Cardinal  Hildebrand  pro- 
cured the  election  of  Alexander  II.,  without  waiting  for  the  or- 
der or  concurrence  of  the  Imperial  court ;  and  he  succeeded  in 
maintaining  him  in  the  apostolical  chair  against  Pope  Honorius 
II.,  whom  the  reigning  empress  had  destined  for  that  honour. 
At  length,  being  raised  himself  to  the  pontifical  throne,  scarce- 
ly had  he  obtained  the  Imperial  confirmation,  when  he  put  in 
execution  the  project  which  he  had  so  long  been  concerting  and 
preparing,  viz.  the  erecting  of  a  spiritual  despotism,^  extend- 
ing to  priests  as  well  as  kings  ;  making  the  supreme  pontiff  the 
arbiter  in  all  affairs,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical — the  bestower 
of  favours,  and  the  dispenser  of  crowns.     The  basis  of  this 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300.  103 

dominion  was,  that  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ  ought  to  oe  su- 
perior to  all  human  power.  The  better  to  attain  his  object,  he 
began  by  withdrawing  himself  and  his  clergy  from  the  autho- 
rity of  the  secular  princes. 

At  that  time  the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
states,  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  were  subject  to  the 
kings  of  Germany,  who,  in  virtue  of  their  being  kings  of  Italy 
and  Roman  emperors,  nominated  or  confirmed  the  popes,  and 
installed  the  prefects  of  Rome,  who  there  received  the  power  of 
the  sword  in  their  name.  They  sent  also  every  year  commis- 
sioners to  Rome,  to  levy  the  money  due  to  the  royal  treasury. 
The  popes  used  to  date  their  acts  from  the  years  of  the  empe- 
ror's reign,  and  to  stamp  their  coin  with  his  name;  and  all  the 
higher  clergy  were  virtually  bound  and  subject  to  the  secular 
power,  by  the  solemn  investiture  of  the  ring  and  the  crosier. 
This  investiture  gave  to  the  emperors  and  the  other  sovereigns 
the  right  of  nominating  and  confirming  bishops,  and  even  of  de- 
posing them  if  they  saw  cause.  It  gave  them,  more'over,  the 
right  of  conferring,  at  their  pleasure,  those  fiefs  and  royal  pre- 
rogatives which  the  munificence  of  princes  had  vested  in  the 
Church.  The  emperors,  in  putting  bishops  and  prelates  in 
possession  of  these  fiefs,  used  the  symbols  of  the  ring  and  the 
crosier,  which  were  badges  of  honour  belonging  to  bishops  and 
abbots.  They  made  them,  at  the  same  time,  take  the  oath  of 
fidelity  and  allegiance  ;  and  this  was  the  origin  of  their  depen- 
dence, and  their  obligation  to  furnish  their  princes  with  troops, 
and  to  perform  military  service. 

Gregory  VII.  prohibited,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  all 
sovereigns  to  exercise  the  rights  of  investiture,  by  a  formal  de- 
cree which  he  published  in  a  council  assembled  at  Rome  in  1074. 
There  was  more  than  the  simple  ceremony  of  the  ring  and  the 
crosier  implied  in  this  interdict.  He  aimed  at  depriving  princes  of 
the  right  of  nominating,  confirming,  or  deposing  prelates,  as  well 
as  of  receiving  their  fealty  and  homage,  and  exacting  military 
service.  He  thus  broke  all  those  ties  by  which  the  bishops 
were  held  in  allegiance  and  subordination  to  princes  ;  making 
them,  in  this  respect,  entirely  independent.  In  suppressing  in- 
vestitures, the  pontiff  had  yet  a  more  important  object  in  view. 
It  was  his  policy  to  withdraw  both  himself  and  his  successors, 
as  well  as  the  whole  ecclesiastical  state,  from  the  power  of  the 
German  kings ;  especially  by  abolishing  the  right  which  these 
princes  had  so  long  exercised  of  nominating  and  confirming  the 
Popes.  He  saw,  in  fact,  that  if  he  could  succeed  in  rendering 
ihe  clergy  independent  of  the  secular  power,  it  would  follow,  by 
a  natural  consequence,  that  the  Pope,  as  being  supreme  head  of 


104  CHAPTER    V. 

the  clergy,  would  no  longer  be  dependent  on  the  emperors, 
while  the  emperor,  excluded  from  the  nomination  and  investi- 
ture of  bishops,  would  have  still  less  right  to  interfere  in  the 
election  of  pontiffs. 

This  affair,  equally  interestmg  to  all  sovereigns,  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  kings  of  Germany,  who  had  committed 
the  unfortunate  error  of  putting  the  greater  part  of  their  domains 
into  the  hands  of  ecclesiastics  ;  so  that  to  divest  those  princes 
of  the  right  to  dispose  of  ecclesiastical  fiefs,  was  in  fact  to  de- 
prive them  of  nearly  the  half  of  their  empire.  The  bishops, 
vainly  flattering  themselves  with  the  prospect  of  an  imaginary 
liberty,  forgot  the  valuable  gifts  with  which  the  emperors  had 
loaded  them,  and  enlisted  under  the  banners  of  the  Pope.  They 
turned  against  the  secular  princes  those  arms  which  the  latter 
had  imprudently  trusted  in  their  hands. 

There  yet  subsisted  another  bond  of  union  which  connected 
the  clergy  with  the  civil  and  political  orders  of  society,  and 
gave  them  an  interest  in  the  protection  of  the  secular  authority, 
and  that  was,  the  marriages  of  the-priests  ;  a  custom  in  use  at 
that  time  over  a  great  part  of  the  West,  as  it  still  is  in  the  Greek 
and  Eastern  Churches.  It  is  true,  that  the  law  of  celibacy,  al- 
ready recommended  strongly  by  St.  Augustine,  had  been  adopted 
by  the  Romish  Church,  which  neglected  no  means  of  introducing 
it  by  degrees  into  all  the  churches  of  the  Catholic  communion. 
It  had  met  with  better  success  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  Europe 
than  in  the  northern  countries  ;  and  the  priests  continued  to 
marry,  not  only  in  Germany,  England,  and  the  kingdoms  of  the 
North,  but  even  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  notwithstanding 
the  law  of  celibacy,  which  had  been  sanctioned  in  vain  by  a 
multitude  of  councils. 

Gregory  VII.,  perceiving  that,  to  render  the  clergy  completely 
dependent  on  the  Pope,  it  would  be  necessary  to  break  this 
powerful  connexion,  renewed  the  law  of  celibacy,  in  a  council 
held  at  Rome  (1074;)  enjoining  the  married  priests  either  to 
quit  their  wives,  or  renounce  the  sacerdotal  order.  The  whole 
clergy  murmured  against  the  unfeeling  rigour  of  this  decree, 
which  even  excited  tumult  and  insurrection  in  several  countries 
of  Germany  ;  and  it  required  all  the  firmness  of  Gregory  and 
his  successors  to  abolish  clerical  marriages,  and  establish  the 
law  of  celibacy  throughout  the  Western  churches.^  In  thus 
dissolving  the  secular  ties  of  the  clergy,  it  was  far  from  the  in- 
tention of  Gregory  VII.  to  render  them  independent.  His  designs 
were  more  politic,  and  more  suitable  to  his  ambition.  He  wished 
to  make  the  clergy  entirely  subservient  to  his  own  elevation,  and 
even  to  employ  them  as  an  instrument  to  humble  and  subdue 
the  power  of  the  princes. 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  105 

The  path  had  abeady  been  opened  up  to  him  by  the  False 
Decretals,  as  they  were  called,  forged  about  the  beginifing-  of  the 
ninth  century,  by  the  famous  impostor  Isidore,  who,  with  the 
view  of  diminishing  the  authority  of  the  metropolitans,  advanced 
in  these  letters,  which  he  attributed  to  the  early  bishops  of 
Eome,  a  principle  whose  main  object  was  to  extend  the  rights 
of  the  Romish  See,  and  to  vest  in  the  popes  a  jurisdiction  till 
then  unknown  in  the  church.  Several  Popes  before  Gregory 
VII.  had  already  availed  themselves  of  these  False  Decretals  ;  '^ 
and  they  had  even  been  admitted  as  true  into  different  collec- 
tions of  canons.  Gregory  did  not  content  himself  with  rigidly 
enforcing  the  principles  of  the  impostor  Isidore.  He  went  even 
farther  ;  he  pretended  to  unite,  in  himself,  the  plenary  exercise 
both  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  episcopal  power  ;  leaving  nothing 
to  the  archbishops  and  bishops  but  the  simple  title  of  his  lieu- 
tenants or  vicars.  He  completely  undermined  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  metropolitans  and  bishops,  by  authorizing  in  all  cases  an 
appeal  to  the  Court  of  Rome  ;  reserving  to  himself  exclusively 
the  cognizance  of  all  causes  termed  major — including  more  es- 
pecially the  privilege  of  judging  and  deposing  of  bishops.  This 
latter  privilege  had  always  been  vested  in  the  provincial  councils, 
who  exercised  it  under  the  authority,  and  with  the  consent  of 
the  secular  powers.  Gregory  abolished  this  usage  ;  and  claimed 
for  himself  the  power  of  judging  the  bishops,  either  in  person 
or  by  his  legates,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Synodal  Assemblies. 
He  made  himself  master  of  these  assemblies,  and  even  arroga- 
ted the  exclusive  right  of  convocating  Genera/  Councils. 

This  pontiff,  in  a  council  which  he  held  at  Rome  (1079,)  at 
length  prescribed  a  new  oath,  which  the  bishops  were  obliged 
to  take  ;  the  main  object  of  which  was  not  merely  canonical 
obedience,  but  even  fealty  and  homage,  such  as  the  prelates,  as 
lieges,  vowed  to  their  sovereigns;  and  which  the  pontiff  claimed 
for  himself  alone,  bearing  that  they  should  aid  and  defend, 
against  the  whole  world,  his  new  supremacy,  and  what  he  called 
the  roijal  rights  of  St.  Peter.  Although  various  sovereigns 
maintained  possession  of  the  homage  they  received  from  their 
bishops,  the  oath  imposed  by  Gregory  nevertheless  retained  its 
full  force;  it  was  even  augmented  by  his  successors,  and  ex- 
tended to  all  bishops  without  distinction,  in  spite  of  its  incon- 
sistency with  that  which  the  bishops  swore  to  their  princes. 

Another  very  effectual  moans  which  Gregory  VII.  made  use 
of  to  confirm  his  new  authority,  was  to  send,  more  frequently 
than  his  predecessors  had  done,  legates  into  the  different  states 
and  kingdoms  of  Christendom.  He  made  them  a  kind  of  gov- 
ernors of  provinces,  and  invested  them  with   the  most  ample 


106  CHAPTFR   V. 

powers  These  legates  soon  obtained  a  knowledge  of  all  the 
affairs  of* the  provinces  delegated  to  their  care;  which  greatly 
impaired  the  authority  of  the  metropolitans  and  provincial  coun- 
cils, as  well  as  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.  A  clause  was 
also  inserted,  in  the  form  of  the  oath  imposed  on  the  bishops, 
which  obliged  them  to  furnish  maintenance  and  support  for 
these  legates ;  a  practice  which  subsequently  gave  place  to  fre- 
quent exactions  and  impositions  on  their  part. 

While  occupied  with  the  means  of  extending  his  power  over 
the  clerg}^  Gregory  did  not  let  slip  any  opportunity  of  making 
encroachments  on  the  authority  of  princes  and  sovereigns,  which 
he  represented  as  subordinate  to  that  of  the  Church  and  the 
Pope.  As  supreme  head  of  the  Church,  he  claimed  a  right  of 
inspection  over  all  kings  and  their  governments.  He  deemed 
himself  authorized  to  address  admonitions  to  them,  as  to  the 
method  of  ruling  their  kingdoms;  and  to  demand  of  them  an 
account  of  their  conduct.  By  and  by,  he  presumed  to  listen  to 
the  complaints  of  subjects  against  their  princes,  and  claimed  the 
right  of  being  a  judge  or  arbiter  between  them.  In  this  capacity 
he  acted  towards  Henry  IV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  who  en- 
jo3"ed  the  rights  of  sovereignty  over  Rome  and  the  Pope.  He 
summoned  him  to  Rome  (1076,)  for  the  purpose  of  answering 
before  the  synod  to  the  principal  accusations  which  the  nobles 
of  Saxony,  engaged  in  disputes  with  that  prince,  had  referred  to 
the  Pope.  The  emperor,  burning  with  indignation,  and  hurried 
on  by  the  impetuosity  of  youth,  instantly  convoked  an  assembly 
of  bishops  at  Worms,  and  there  caused  the  pontiff  to  be  deposed. 
No  sooner  was  this  sentence  conveyed  to  Rome,  and  read  in 
presence  of  the  Pope  in  a  council  which  he  had  assembled,  than 
Gregory  ventured  on  a  step  till  then  quite  unheard  of.  He  im- 
mediately thundered  a  sentence  of  excommunication  and  depo- 
sition against  the  Emperor,  which  was  addressed  to  St.  Peter, 
and  couched  in  the  following  terms  : — 

"  In  the  name  of  Almighty  God,  I  suspend  and  interdict  from 
governing  the  kingdom  of  Germany  and  Italy,  Henry,  son  of 
the  emperor  Henry,  who,  with  a  haughtiness  unexampled,  has 
dared  to  rebel  against  thy  church.  I  absolve  all  Christians 
whatever  from  the  oath  which  they  have  taken,  or  shall  here- 
after take,  to  him;  and  henceforth  none  shall  be  permitted  to  do 
him  homage  or  service  as  king ;  for  he  who  would  disobey  the 
authority  of  thy  Church,  deserves  to  lose  the  dignity  with  which' 
he  is  invested.  And  seeing  this  prince  has  refused  to  submit 
as  a  Christian,  and  has  not  returned  to  the  Lord  whom  he  hath 
forsaken,  holding  communion  with  the  excommunicated,  and 
despising  the  advice  which  I  tendered  him  for  the  safety  of  bis 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  107 

sou],  I  load  him  with  curses  in  thy  name,  to  the  end  that  peo- 
ple may  know,  even  by  experience,  that  thou  art  Peter,  and  that 
on  this  rock  the  Son  of  the  living  God  has  built  his  church; 
and  that  the  gates  of  hell  shall  never  prevail  against  it." 

This  measure,  which  seemed  at  first  to  have  been  merely  the 
effect  of  the  pontiff's  impetuosit}'-,  soon  discovered  of  what  im- 
portance it  was  for  him  to  persevere,  and  what  advantage  he 
might  derive  from  it.  In  humbling  the  emperor,  the  most  pow- 
erful monarch  in  Europe,  he  might  hope  that  all  the  other 
sovereigns  would  bend  before  him.  He  omitted  nothing,  there- 
fore, that  might  serve  to  justify  his  conduct,  and  endeavoured 
to  prove,  by  sophistries,  that  if  he  had  authority  to  excommuni- 
cate the  emperor,  he  might  likewise  deprive  him  of  his  dignity; 
and  that  the  right  to  release  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegi- 
ance was  an  emanation  and  a  natural  consequence  of  the  power 
of  the  Keys.  The  same  equivocal  interpretation  he  afterwards 
made  use  of  in  a  sentence  which  he  published  against  the  same 
prince  (lOSO,)  and  which  he  addressed  to  the  Apostles  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  in  these  terms  :  "  You,  fathers  and  princes  of  the 
apostles,  hereby  make  known  to  the  whole  world,  that  if  you 
can  bind  and  unbind  in  heaven,  you  can  much  more,  on  earth, 
take  from  all  men  empires,  kingdoms,  principalities,  dutchies, 
marquisates,  counties,  and  possessions,  of  whatsoever  nature 
they  may  be.  You  have  often  deprived  the  unworthy  of  patri- 
archates, primacies,  archbishoprics,  and  bishoprics,  to  give  them 
to  persons  truly  religious.  Hence,  if  you  preside  over  spiritual 
affairs,  does  not  your  jurisdiction  extend  a  fortiori  to  temporal 
and  secular  dignities?  and  if  you  judge  the  angels  who  rule 
over  princes  and  potentates,  even  the  haughtiest,  will  you  not 
also  judge  their  slaves  ?  Let  then  the  kings  and  princes  of  the 
earth  learn  how  great  and  irresistible  is  your  power !  Let  them 
tremble  to  contemn  the  commands  of  your  church  !  And  do  you, 
blessed  Peter,  and  blessed  Paul,  exercise,  from  this  time  forward, 
your  judgment  on  Henry,  that  the  whole  earth  majr  know  that 
he  has  been  humbled,  not  by  any  human  contingencies,  but  solely 
by  your  power."  Until  that  time,  the  emperors  had  exercised 
the  right  of  confirming  the  Popes,  and  even  of  deposing  them, 
should  there  be  occasion  ;  but,  by  a  strange  reverse  of  preroga- 
tives, the  popes  now  arrogated  to  themselves  the  confirmation  of 
the  emperors,  and  even  usurped  the  right  of  dethroning  them. 

However  irregular  this  step  of  the  pontiff  might  be,  it  did  not 
fail  to  produce  the  intended  effect.  In  an  assembly  of  the  Im- 
perial States,  held  at  Tribur  (1076,)  the  emperor  could  only 
obtain  their  consent  to  postpone  their  proceeding  to  a  new 
election,  and  that  on  the  express  condition  of  his  submitting 


108  CHAPTER  V. 

himself  to  the  judgment  of  the  Pope,  and  being  absolved  imme 
diate'ly  from  the  excommunication  he  had  incurred.  In  conse 
quence  of  this  decision  of  the  States,  Henry  crossed  the  Alps 
in  the  middle  of  winter,  to  obtain  reconciliation  with,  the  Pope, 
who  then  resided  with  the  famous  Countess  Matilda,  at  her 
Castle  of  Canossa,  in  the  Modenese  territory.  Absolution  was 
not  granted  him,  however,  except  under  conditions  the  most  hu- 
miliating. He  was  compelled  to  do  penance  in  an  outer  court 
of  the  castle,  in  a  woollen  shirt  and  barefooted,  for  three  suc- 
cessive days,  and  afterwards  to  sign  whatever  terms  the  pontiflf 
chose  to  prescribe.  This  extraordinary  spectacle  must  have 
spread  consternation  among  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and 
made  them  tremble  at  the  censures  of  the  Church. 

After  this,  Gregory  VII.  exerted  his  utmost  influence  to  en- 
gage all  sovereigns,  without  distinction,  to  acknowledge  them- 
selves his  vassals  and  tributaries.  "  Let  not  the  emperor 
imagine,"  says  he,  in  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  the  German 
nation,  "  that  the  church  is  subject  to  him  as  a  slave,  but  let  him 
know  that  she  is  set  over  him  as  a  sovereign."  From  that  time 
the  pontiff  regarded  the  empire  as  a  fief  of  his  church  ;  and 
afterwards  when  setting  up  a  rival  emperor  to  Henry  IV.,  in 
the  person  of  Hermann  of  Luxemburg,  he  exacted  from  him  a 
formal  oath  of  vassalage.  Gregory  pursued  the  same  conduct 
in  regard  to  the  other  sovereigns  of  Europe.  Boleslaus  II., 
King  of  Poland,  having  killed  Stanislaus  Bislaop  of  Cracow, 
who  had  ventured  to  excommunicate  him,  the  pontiff  took  oc- 
casion from  this  to  depose  that  prince;  releasing  all  his  sub- 
jects from  their  oath  of  fidelity,  and  even  prohibiting  the  Polish 
bishops  hencefortli  to  crown  any  king  without  the  express  con- 
sent of  the  Pope. 

This  aspiring  pontiff  stuck  at  nothing ;  he  regarded  nothing, 
provided  he  could  obtain  his  object.  However  contrary  the 
customs  of  former  times  were  to  his  pretensions,  he  quoted 
them  as  examples  of  authority,  and  with  a  boldness  capable  of 
imposing  any  thing  on  weak  and  ignorant  minds.  It  was  thus 
that,  in  order  to  oblige  the  French  nation  to  pay  him  the  tax  of 
one  penny  each  house,  he  alleged  the  example  of  Charlemagne, 
and  pretended  that  that  prince  had  not  merely  paid  this  tribute, 
but  even  granted  Saxony  as  a  fief  to  St.  Peter ;  as  he  had  con- 
quered it  with  the  assistance  of  that  apostle.  In  writing  to 
Philip  I.  of  France,  he  expressed  himself  in  these  terms : 
"  Strive  to  please  St.  Peter,  who  has  thy  kingdom  as  well  as 
thy  soul  in  his  power ;  and  who  can  bind  thee,  and  absolve  in 
heaven  as  well  as  on  earth."  And  in  a  letter  which  he  addressed 
to  the  Princes  of  Spain,  he  attempted  to  persuade  them,  that  the 


Henry  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany^  submitting  to 
Pope  Gregory  VIL     Vol.  1,  p.  108. 


Peter  the  Hermit  preaching  to  the  Crusaders. 
Vol.  l,p.  116. 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300  109. 

kins^dom  of  Spain,  being  originally  the  property  of  the  Holy 
See,  they  could  not  exonerate  themselves  from  paying  him  a 
tax  on  all  the  lands  they  had  conquered  fro-m  the  Infidels. 

He  affirmed  to  Solomon,  King  of  Hungary,  that  Stephen  I., 
on  receiving  his  crown  at  the  hands  of  Pope  Silvester  II.,  had 
surrendered  his  kingdom  as  free  property  to  the  Holy  See  ;  and 
that,  in  virtue  of  this  donation,  his  kingdom  was  to  be  considered 
as  a  part  of  the  domain  of  the  church.  He  wrote  in  exactly  the 
same  style  to  Geysa  his  immediate  successor.  In  one  of  his 
letters  to  Sueno,  King  of  Denmark,  he  enjoins  him  to  deliver 
up  his  kingdom  to  the  power  of  the  Romish  See.  He  refused 
(1076,)  to  grant  the  royal  dignity  to  Demetrius  Swinimir,  Duke 
of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia,  except  on  the  express  condition,  that 
he  should  do  him  homage  for  his  kingdom,  and  engage  to  pay 
the  Pope  an  annual  tribute  of  two  hundred  golden  pieces  of  By- 
zantium. This  poniiftliad  the  art  of  disguising  his  ambition  so 
dexterously,  under  the  mask  of  justice  and  piety,  that  he  pre- 
vailed with  various  other  sovereigns  to  acknowledge  themselves 
his  vassals.  Bertrand,  Count  of  Provence,  transferred  to  him 
his  fealty  and  homage,  to  the  prejudice  of  those  feudal  obliga- 
tions he  owed  to  the  Empire.  Several  princes  of  Italy  and  Ger- 
many, influenced  by  artifice  or  intimidation,  abandoned  the 
emperor,  and  put  themselves  under  submission  to  the  Pope. 
His  efforts  were  not  equally  successful  with  William  the  Con- 
queror, King  of  England,  whom  he  had  politely  invited  by  letter, 
to  do  him  homage  for  his  kingdom,  after  the  manner  of  his  royal 
predecessors.  That  prince,  too  wise  to  be  duped  by  papal  im- 
position, replied,  that  he  vvas  not  in  a  humour  to  perform  homage 
which  he  had  never  promised,  and  which  he  was  not  aware  naa 
ever  been  perform^ed  by  any  of  his  predecessors. 

The  successors  of  Gregory  VII.,  follower!  in  the  path  he  had 
opened  up ;  giving  their  utmost  support  to  all  his  maxims  and  pre- 
tensions. In  consequence,  a  very  great  number  of  the  princes 
of  Christendom,  some  intimidated  by  the  thunders  of  ecclesias- 
tical anathemas,  others  with  a  view  to  secure  for  themselves 
the  protection  of  the  Holy  See,  acknowledged  these  Usurped 
powers  of  the  Popes.  The  Kings  of  Portugal,  Arragon,  England, 
Scotland,  Sardinia,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  several  others,  became, 
in  course  of  time,  vassals  and  tributaries  to  the  Papal  See;  and 
there  is  not  a  doubt,  that  the  universal  monarchy,  the  scheme 
of  which  Gregory  VII.  had  conceived,  would  have  been  com- 
pletely established,  if  some  of  his  successors  had  been  endowed 
with  his  vast  ambition,  and  his  superior  genius. 

In  every  other  respect,  circumstances  v/ere  such  as  to  hasten 
8.nd  facilitate  the  progress  of  this  new  pontifical  supremacy.    It 

VOL.  I.  1^^ 


110  en  AFTER  V. 

had  commenced  in  a  barbarous  age,  when  the  whole  of  the 
Western  world  was  covered  with  the  darkness  of  ignorance, 
and  when  mankind  knew  neither  the  just  rights  of  sovereignty, 
nor  the  bounds  which  reason  and  equity  should  have  set  to  the 
authority  of  the  priesthood.  The  court  of  Rome  was  then  the 
only  school  where  politics  were  studied,  and  the  Popes  the  only 
monarchs  that  put  them  in  practice.  An  extravagant  supersti- 
tion, the  inseparable  companion  of  ignorance,  held  all  Europe 
in  subjection ;  the  Popes  were  reverenced  with  a  veneration 
resembling  that  which  belongs  only  to  the  Deity;  and  the  whole 
world  trembled  at  the  utterance  of  the  single  word  Exconimu- 
nication.  Kings  were  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  oppose  any 
successful  resistance  to  the  encroachments  of  Rome  ;  their  au- 
thority was  curtailed  and  counteracted  by  that  of  their  vassals, 
who  seized  with  eagerness  every  occasion  which  the  Popes 
offered  them,  to  aggrandize  their  own  prerogatives  at  the  expense 
of  the  sovereign  authorit5^ 

The  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  was  alone  able  to  countervail 
this  new  spiritual  tyranny,  was  at  open  war  with  his  grand  vas- 
sals, whose  usurpations  he  was  anxious  to  repress;  while  they, 
disrespecting  the  majesty  of  the  throne,  and  consulting  only 
their  own  animosity  against  the  emperor,  blindly  seconded  the 
pretensions  of  the  pontiff.  The  emperor,  however,  did  all  in 
his  power  to  oppose  a  barrier  to  this  torrent  of  ecclesiastical 
despotism  ;  but  the  insolence  of  Gregory  became  so  extrava- 
gant, that,  not  content  to  attack  him  with  spiritual  weapons,  he 
set  up  rival  emperors,  and  excited  intestine  wars  against  him  ; 
and  his  successors  even  went  so  far  as  to  arm  the  sons  against 
their  own  father.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  contests  which 
arose  between  the  Empire  and  the  Papacy,  under  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  and  which  agitated  both  Germany  and  Italy  for  a 
period  of  several  centuries.  They  gave  birth,  also,  to  the  two 
factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines,  the  former  Imperial, 
^nd  the  other  Papal,  who  for  a  long  course  of  time  tore  each 
other  to  pieces  with  inconceivable  fury. 

Henry  V.,  son  and  successor  of  Henry  IV.,  terminated  the 
grand  dispute  about  the  investitures  of  the  ring  and  the  crosier. 
By  the  Concordat  which  he  concluded  at  Worms  (1122)  with 
Pope  Calixtus  II.,  he  renounced  the  ceremony  of  the  ring  and 
the  cross  ;  and  granting  to  the  churches  free  liberty  of  election, 
he  reserved  nothing  to  himself,  except  the  privilege  of  sending 
commissioners  to  the  elections,  and  giving  to  the  newly  elected 
prelates,  after  consecration,  the  investiture  of  the  regalian  rights, 
by  means  of  the  sceptre,  instead  of  the  ring  and  crosier.  The 
ties  of  vassalage  which  connected  the  bishops  with  the  empe- 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  Ill 

rors,  were  still  preserved  by  this  transaction,  contrary  to  the  in- 
tentions of  Gregory  VII. ;  but  the  emperors  being  obliged  to 
approve  of  the  persons  whom  the  Church  should  hereafter  pre- 
sent, lost  their  chief  influence  in  the  elections,  and  were  no 
longer  entitled,  as  formerly,  to  grant  or  refuse  investiture. 

These  broils  with  the  court  of  Rome,  the  check  which  they 
gave  to  the  Imperial  authority,  joined  to  the  increasing  abuses 
of  the  feudal  system,  afforded  the  princes  and  states  of  the  Em- 
pire the  means  of  usurping  the  heritable  succession  of  their 
dutchies,  counties,  and  fiefs  ;  and  of  laying  the  foundations  of  a 
new  power,  which  they  afterwards  exercised  under  the  name  of 
territorial  superiority.  Frederic  II.,  compelled  by  the  pressure 
of  events,  Avas  the  first  emperor  that  sanctioned  the  territorial 
rights  of  the  states  by  charters,  which  he  delivered  to  several 
princes,  secular  and  ecclesiastic,  in  the  years  1220  and  1232. 
The  Imperial  dignity  thus  lost  its  splendour  with  the  power  of 
the  emperors  ;  and  the  constitution  of  the  Empire  was  totally 
changed.  That  vast  monarchy  degenerated  by  degrees  into  a 
kind  of  federal  system  ;  and  the  Emperor,  in  course  of  time, 
became  only  the  common  chief,  and  superior  over  the  numerous 
vassals  of  which  that  association  was  composed.  The  extra- 
ordinary efforts  made  by  the  Emperors  Frederic  I.  and  II.  of  the 
house  of  Hohenstaufen,"*  to  re-establish  the  tottering  throne  of 
the  empire,  ended  in  nothing;  and  that  House,  one  of  the  most 
powerful  in  Europe,  was  deprived  of  all  its  crowns,  and  perse- 
cuted even  to  the  scaffold. 

The  empire  thus  fell  into  gradual  decay,  Avhile  the  pontifical 
power,  rising  on  its  ruins,  gained,  day  by  day,  new  accessions 
of  strength.  The  successors  of  Gregory  VII.  omitted  nothing 
that  policy  could  suggest  to  them,  in  order  to  humble  more  and 
more  the  dignity  of  the  Emperors,  and  to  bring  them  into  a  state 
of  absolute  dependence,  by  arrogating  to  themselves  the  express 
right  of  confirming,  and  even  of  deposing  them  ;^  and  com- 
pelling them  to  acknowledge  their  feudal  superiority.  Being 
thus  no  longer  obliged  to  submit  their  election  to  the  arbitration 
of  the  Imperial  court,  the  ambitious  pontiffs  soon  aspired  to 
absolute  sovereignty. 

The  custom  of  dating  their  acts,  and  coining  their  money 
with  the  stamp  and  name  of  the  emperor,  disappeared  after 
the  time  of  Gregory  VII. ;  and  the  authority  which  the  empe- 
rors had  exercised  at  Rome,  ceased  entirely  with  the  loss  of  the 
prefecture  or  government  of  that  city  ;  which  Pope  Innocent  III. 
took  into  his  own  hands  (1198,)  obliging  the  prefect  of  Rome 
to  swear  the  usual  oath  of  homage  to  the  Apostolic  See,  which 
that  magistrate  owed  to  the  emperor,  from  whom  he  received 


112  CHAPTER    V. 

the  prefecture.  Hence  it  happened,  that  the  chiefs  of  the  Em- 
pire, obliged  to  compromise  with  a  power  which  they  had  learned 
to  dread,  had  no  longer  any  difficulty  in  recognising  the  entire 
mdependence  of  the  Popes  ;  even  formally  renouncing  the 
rights  of  high  sovereignty  which  their  predecessors  had  enjoyed, 
not  only  over  Rome,  but  over  the  Ecclesiastical  States.  The 
domains  of  th*8  church  were  likewise  considerably  increased 
by  the  acquisitions  Avhich  Innocent  III.  made  of  the  March 
of  Ancona,  and  the  dutchy  of  Spoleio ;  as  v/ell  as  by  the  per- 
sonal property  or  Patrimony  of  the  Countess  Matilda,^  which 
the  Emperor  Frederic  II.  ceded  to  Honorius  III.  (1220,)  and 
which  his  successors  in  the  Apostolic  chair  formed  into  the  pro- 
vince known  by  the  name  of  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 

One  of  the  grand  means  which  the  Popes  employed  for  the 
advancement  of  their  new  authority,  was  the  multiplication  of 
Religious  Orders,  and  the  way  in  which  they  took  care  to  man- 
age these  corporations.  Before  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.,  the 
only  order  known  in  the  West  was  that  of  the  Benedictines, 
divided  into  several  families  or  congregations.  The  rule  of  St, 
Benedict,  prescribed  at  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (S17)  to 
all  monks  within  the  en^.pire  of  the  Franks,  was  the  only  one 
allowed  by  the  Romish  Church;  just  as  that  of  St.  Basil  was, 
and  still  is,  the  only  one  practised  in  the  East  by  the  Greek 
Church.  The  first  of  these  newly  invented  orders  was  that  of 
Grammont  in  Limosin  (1073,)  authorized  by  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
This  was  followed,  in  the  same  century,  by  the  order  of  Char- 
treux,  and  that  of  St.  Antony.^  The  Mendicant  orders  took 
their  rise  under  Innocent  III.,  near  the  end  of  the  twelfth,  and 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Their  number  increased 
in  a  short  time  so  prodigiously,  that,  in  3274,  they  could  reckon 
twenty-three  orders.  The  complaints  which  were  raised  on  this 
subject  from  all  parts  of  Christendom,  obliged  Pope  Gregory  to 
reduce  them,  at  the  Council  of  Lyons,  to  four  orders,  viz.  the 
Hermits  of  St.  William  or  Augustines,  Carmelites,  the  Minor 
or  Franciscan  friars,  and  the  Preaching  or  Dominican  friars. 
The  Popes,  perceiving  that  they  might  convert  the  monastic 
orders,  and  more  particularly  the  mendicants,  into  a  powerful 
engine  for  strengthening  their  own  authority,  and  keeping  the 
secular  clergy  in  subjection,  granted  by  degrees  to  these  frater- 
nities, immunities  and  exemptions  tending  to  withdraw  them 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  and  to  emancipate  them 
from  every  other  authority,  except  that  of  their  Heads,  and  the 
Popes.  They  even  conferred  on  them  various  privileges,  such 
as  those  of  preaching,  confession,  and  instructing  the  young; 
as  being  the  most  likely  means  to  augment  their  credit  and  their 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  113 

influence.  The  consequence  was,  that  the  monks  were  fre- 
quently emplo3'ed  by  the  Popes  in  quality  of  legates  and  mis- 
sionaries ;  they  were  feared  and  respected  by  sovereigns,  sin- 
gularly revered  by  the  people,  and  let  slip  no  occasion  of  exalting 
a  power  to  which  alone  they  owed  their  promotion,  their  re- 
spectability, and  all  the  advantages  they  enjoyed. 

Of  all  the  successors  of  Gregory  VII.,  he  who  resembled  him 
most  in  the  superiority  of  his  genius,  and  the  extent  of  his 
knowledge,  was  Innocent  III.,  who  was  of  the  family  of  the 
Counts  of  Segni,  and  elevated  to  the  pontificate  at  the  age  of 
37.  He  was  as  ambitious  as  that  pontiff,  and  equally  fertile 
in  resources  ;  and  he  even  surpassed  him  in  the  boldness  of 
his  plans,  and  the  success  of  his  enterprises.  Innocent  an- 
nounced himself  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  set  up  by  God 
to  govern  not  only  the  Church,  hut  the  whole  world.  It  was 
this  Pope  who  first  made  use  of  the  famous  comparison  about 
the  sun  and  the  moon  :  As  God,  says  he,  has  placed  two  great 
luminaries  in  the  firmament,  the  one  to  rule  the  day,  and  the 
other  to  give  light  by  night,  so  has  he  established  tico  grand 
powers,  the  pontifical  and  the  royal ;  and  as  the  moon  receives 
her  light  from  the  sun,  so  does  royalty  horroio  its  splendour 
from  the  Papal  authority. 

Not  content  to  exercise  the  legislative  power  as  he  pleased, 
by  means  of  the  numerous  decretals  which  he  dispersed  over 
all  Christendom,  this  pontiff  was  the  first  that  arrogated  to  him- 
self the  prerogative  of  dispensing  with  the  laws  themselves, 
in  virtue  of  what  he  termed  the  plenitude  of  his  poiver.  It  is 
to  hmi  also  that  the  origin  of  the  Inquisition  is  ascribed,  that 
terrible  tribunal  which  afterwards  became  the  firmest  prop  of 
sacerdotal  despotism  ;  but  what  is  of  more  importance  to  re- 
mark, is,  that  he  laid  the  foundations  of  that  exorbitant  power, 
which  his  successors  have  since  exercised  in  collating  or  pre- 
senting to  ecclesiastical  dignities  and  benefices. 

The  secular  princes  having  been  deprived  of  their  rights  of 
nomination  and  confirmation,  by  the  decrees  of  Gregory  VII. 
and  his  successors,  the  privilege  of  electing  bishops  was  re- 
stored to  the  clergy  and  congregation  of  each  church,  and  to 
the  chapters  of  convents  ;  the  confirmati-on  of  the  elected  pre- 
lates belonged  to  their  immediate  superiors ;  and  collation  to 
the  other  ecclesiastical  benefices  was  reserved  for  the  bishops 
and  ordinaries.  All  these  regulations  were  changed  towards 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  canons  of  cathedral 
churches,  authorized  by  the  Court  of  Rome,  claimed  to  them- 
selves the  right  of  election,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  clergy  and 
the  people ;  while  the  Popes,  gradually  interfering  with  elec- 

10^ 


114  CHAPTER    V. 

tions  and  collations,  found  means  to  usurp  the  nomination  and 
collation  to  almost  all  ecclesiastical  benefices.  The  principle  of 
these  usurpations  was  founded  on  the  false  decretals ;  accord- 
ing to  which  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  emanates  from  the 
court  of  Rome,  as  a  river  flows  from  its  source.  It  is  from  the 
Pope  that  archbishops  and  bishops  hold  that  portion  of  authori- 
ty with  which  they  are  endowed  ;  and  of  which  he  does  not 
divest  himself,  by  the  act  of  communicating-  it  to  them;  but  is 
rather  the  more  entitled  to  co-operate  with  them  in  the  exercise 
of  that  jurisdiction  as  often  as  he  may  judge  proper. 

This  principle  of  a  conjunct  authority,  furnished  a  very  plau- 
sible pretext  for  the  Popes  to  interfere  in  collation  to  benefices. 
This  collation,  according  to  the  canon  law,  being  essential  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  it  seemed  natural  that  the  Pope, 
who  concurred  in  the  jurisdiction,  should  also  concur  in  the 
privileges  derived  from  it,  namely,  induction  or  collation  to  be- 
nefices. From  the  right  of  concurrence,  therefore.  Innocent  III. 
proceeded  to  that  o(  preve7itio?i,  he'mg  the  first  pontiff  that  mad» 
use  of  it.  He  exercised  that  right,  especially  with  regarii  cO 
benefices  which  had  newly  become  vacant  by  the  death  of  their 
incumbents,  when  at  the  Court  of  Rome;  in  which  cases  it 
was  easy  to  anticipate  or  get  the  start  of  the  bishops.  In  the 
same  manner,  this  right  was  exercised  in  remote  dioceses,  by 
means  of  legates  a  latere,  which  he  dispersed  over  the  diflerept 
provinces  of  Christendom. 

From  the  right  of  prevention  were  derived  the  provisioiial 
mandates,  and  the  Graces  Exjjectaiives,  (reversionary  grants  or 
Bulls)  letters  granting  promise  of  church  livings  before  they 
became  vacant.  The  Popes  not  having  legates  every  where, 
and  wishing,  besides,  to  treat  the  bishops  with  some  respect, 
began  by  addressing  to  them  letters  of  recommendation  in  fa- 
vour of  those  persons  for  whom  they  were  anxious  to  procure 
benefices.  These  letters  becoming  too  frequent  and  importu- 
nate, the  bishops  ventured  to  refuse  their  compliance  ;  on  Vv^hich 
the  Popes  began  to  change  their  recommendations  into  orders 
or  mandates ;  and  appointed  commissioners  to  enforce  their 
execution  by  means  of  ecclesiastical  censures.  These  man- 
dates were  succeeded  b}?-  the  Graces  Expectatives,  which,  pro- 
perly speaking,  were  nothing  else  than  mandates  issued  for  be- 
nefices, whose  titulars  or  incumbents  were  yet  alive.  Lastly 
appeared  the  Reservations,  which  were  distinguished  into  ge- 
neral and  special.  The  first  general  reservation  was  that  of 
benefices  becoming  vacant  by  the  incumbents  dying  at  the  Court 
of  Rome.  This  was  introduced  by  Pope  Clement  IV.  in 
1265,  in  order  to  exclude  for  ever  the  bishops  from  the  right  of 
concurrence  and  prevention  in  benefices  of  that  kind. 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  11.5 

This  first  reservation  was  the  forerunner  of  several  others, 
such  as  the  reservation  of  all  cathedral  churches,  abbeys,  and 
priories  ;  as  also  of  the  highest  dignities  in  cathedral  and  colle- 
giate churches ;  and  of  all  collective  benefices,  becoming  vacant 
during  eight  months  in  the  year,  called  the  Pope's  months,  so 
that  only  four  months  remained  for  the  ordinary  collators ;  and 
these  too,  encroached  upon  by  mandates,  expectatives,  and  re- 
servations. The  Popes  having  thus  seized  the  nomination  to 
episcopal  dignities,  it  followed,  by  a  simple  and  natural  process, 
that  the  confirmation  of  all  prelates,  without  distinction,  was  in 
like  manner  reserved  for  them.  It  would  have  even  been  reck- 
oned a  breach  of  decorum  to  address  an  archbishop,  demanding 
from  him  the  confirmation  of  a  bishop  nominated  by  the  Pope  ; 
so  that  this  point  of  common  right,  which  vested  the  confirma- 
tion of  every  prelate  in  his  immediate  superior,  was  also  anni- 
hilated ;  and  the  Romish  See  was  at  length  acknowledged  over 
the  whole  Western  world,  as  the  only  source  of  all  jurisdiction, 
and  all  ecclesiastical  power. 

An  extraordinary  event,  the  offspring  of  that  superstitious  age 
served  still  more  to  increase  the  power  of  the  Popes ;  and  that 
was  the  Crusades,  which  the  nations  of  Europe  undertook,  at 
their  request  and  by  their  orders,  for  the  conquest  of  Palestine 
or  the  Holy  Land.  These  expeditions,  known  by  the  name  of 
Holy  Wars,  because  religion  was  made  the  pretext  or  occasion 
of  them,  require  a  somewhat  particular  detail,  not  merely  of  the 
circumstances  that  accompanied  them,  but  also  of  the  changes 
which  they  introduced  into  the  moral  and  political  condition  of 
society.  Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  which  were  in  use  from 
the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity,  had  become  very  frequent  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  opinion  which  then 
very  generally  prevailed,  that  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand, 
induced  vast  numbers  of  Christians  to  sell  their  possessions  in 
Europe,  in  order  that  they  might  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land, 
there  to  await  the  coming  of  the  Lord.  So  long  as  the  Arabs 
were  masters  of  Palestine,  they  protected  these  pilgrimages, 
from  which  they  derived  no  small  emoluments.  But  when  the 
Seljukian  Turks,  a  barbarous  and  ferocious  people,  had  con- 
quered that  country  (1075)  under  the  Caliphs  of  Egypt,  the  pil- 
grims saw  themselves  exposed  to  every  kind  of  insult  and  op- 
pression.^ The  lamentable  accounts  which  they  gave  of  these 
outrages  on  their  return  to  Europe,  excited  the  general  indigna- 
tion, and  gave  birth  to  the  romantic  notion  of  expelling  these 
Infidels  from  the  Holy  Land. 

Gregory  VII.  was  the  projector  of  this  grand  scheme.  He 
addressed  circular  letters  to  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and 


116  CHAPTER    V. 

invited  them  to  make  a  general  crusade  against  the  Turks. 
Meantime,  however,  more  pressing  interests,  and  his  quarrels 
with  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  obliged  him  to  defer  the  projected 
enterprise  ;  but  his  attention  was  soon  recalled  to  it  by  the  re- 
presentation of  a  pilgrim,  called  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  native  of 
Amiens  in  Picardy.  Furnished  with  letters  from  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem  to  the  Pope  and  the  princes  of  the  West,  this 
ardent  fanatic  traversed  the  whole  of  Italy,  France,  and  Germa- 
ny ;  preaching  every  where,  and  representing,  in  the  liveliest 
colours,  the  profanation  of  the  sacred  places,  and  the  miserable 
condition  of  the  Christians  and  poor  pilgrims  in  the  Holy  Land. 
It  proved  no  difficult  task  for  him  to  impart  to  others  the  fanati- 
cism with  which  he  was  himself  animated.  His  zeal  was  pow- 
erfully seconded  by  Pope  Urban  II.,  who  repaired  in  person  to 
France,  where  he  convoked  the  council  of  Clermont  (1095,)  and 
pronounced,  in  full  assembly,  a  pathetic  harangue,  at  the  close 
of  which  they  unanimously  resolved  on  the  Holy  War.  It  was 
decreed,  that  all  who  should  enrol  their  names  in  this  sacred 
militia,  should  wear  a  red  cross  on  their  right  shoulder  :  that 
they  should  enjoy  plenary  indulgence,  and  obtain  remission  of 
all  their  sins. 

From  that  time  the  pulpits  of  Europe  resounded  with  exhor- 
tations to  the  crusades.  People  of  every  rank  and  condition 
were  seen  flocking  in  crowds  to  assume  the  signal  of  the  cross ; 
and,  in  the  following  year,  innumerable  bands  of  crusaders,  from 
the  different  countries  of  Europe,  set  out,  one  after  another,  on 
this  expedition  to  the  East.^  The  only  exception  was  the  Ger- 
mans, who  partook  but  feebly  of  this  universal  enthusiasm,  on 
account  of  the  disputes  which  then  subsisted  between  the  Em- 
peror and  the  court  of  Rome.^°  The  three  or  four  first  divisions 
of  the  crusaders,  under  the  conduct  of  chiefs,  who  had  neither 
name  nor  experience,  marched  without  order  and  without  disci- 
pline; pillaging,  burning,  and  wasting  the  countries  through 
which  they  passed.  Most  of  them  perished  from  fatigue,  hun- 
ger, or  sickness,  or  by  the  sv/ord  of  the  exasperated  nations, 
whose  territories  they  had  laid  desolate. ^^ 

To  these  unw^arlike  and  undisciplined  troops  succeeded  regu- 
lar armies,  commanded  by  experienced  officers,  and  powerful 
princes.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (1096,)  Duke  of  Lorrain,  accom- 
panied by  his  brother  Baldwin,  and  his  cousin  Baldwin  of  Bourg, 
with  a  vast  retinue  of  noblemen,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
first  body  of  crusaders.  He  directed  his  march  through  Ger- 
many, Hungary,  and  Bulgaria,  towards  Constantinople,  and 
was  soon  followed  by  several  French  princes,  such  as  Hugh  the 
Great,  brother  of  Philip  I.  King  of  France  ;  Robert  Duke  of 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074— 1300.  117 

Normandy,  son  of  William  the  Conqueror  ;  Stephen  VI.,  Count 
of  Blois  ;  Eustace  of  Boulogne,  brother  to  Godfrey  de  Bouillon. 
and  Robert  Count  of  Flanders,  who  all  preferred  the  route  by 
Italy.  They  passed  the  v/inter  in  the  environs  of  Bari,  Brin- 
disi,  and  Otranto  ;  and  did  not  embark  for  Greece  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring-.  Boemond,  Prince  of  Tarentum,  son  to  Roger, 
Earl  of  Sicily,  at  the  instigation  of  the  French  grandees,  took 
the  cross,  after  their  example,  and  carried  with  him  into  the 
East  the  flower  of  the  Normans,  and  the  noblesse  of  Sicily, 
Apulia,  and  Calabria.  Lastly,  Raymond  IV.,  Count  of  Tou- 
louse, accompanied  by  the  Bishop  of  Puy,  traversed  Lombardy, 
Friuli,  and  Dalmatia,  on  his  passage  to  the  Holy  Land. 

The  general  rendezvous  of  the  crusaders  was  at  Chalcedon 
in  Bythinia.  It  is  supposed  that  their  forces  united,  amounted 
to  six  hundred  thousand  combatants.  They  commenced  their 
exploits  with  the  siege  of  Nice,  capital  of  the  empire  of  Roum, 
of  which  they  made  themselves  master,  after  having  repulsed  the 
Turks  who  had  advanced  under  the  command  of  the  Sultan 
Kili-Arslan,  the  son  of  Soliman,  premier  sultan  of  Roum.  Ano- 
ther victory  gained  over  the  same  sultan  U097)  in  the  Gorgo- 
nian  valley  in  Bythinia,  opened  for  the  crusaders  a  passage  into 
Syria.  There  they  undertook  the  siege  of  the  strong  city  of 
Antioch,  which  they  carried  after  an  immense  loss  of  lives  (109S.) 
Having  at  length  arrived  in  Palestine,  they  planned  the  attack 
of  Jerusalem,  which  the  Caliph  of  Egypt  had  just  recovered 
from  the  Turks  ;  and  v/hich  the  crusaders,  in  their  turn,  carried 
by  assault  from  the  Egyptians  (1099.)  This  city  was  declared 
the  capital  of  a  new  kingdom,  the  sovereignty  of  which  was  be- 
stowed on  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  though  he  refused  to  take  the 
title  of  king.  This  famous  prince  extended  his  conquests  by  a 
splendid  victory,  which  he  gained  that  same  year  near  Ascalon, 
over  the  Caliph  of  Eg3^pt.  On  his  death,  his  brother  Baldwin 
succeeded  him,  and  transmitted  the  throne  to  his  cousin  Bald- 
win of  Bourg,  whose  posterity  reigned  in  Jerusalem  until  the 
destruction  of  that  kingdom  by  Saladin  (1187.) 

Besides  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  which  comprehended  Pa- 
lestine, with  the  cities  of  Sidon,  Tyre,  and  Ptolemais,  the  cru- 
saders founded  several  other  states  in  the  East.  The  earldom 
of  Edessa,  first  conquered  by  Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey, 
passed  to  several  French  princes  in  succession  until  the  year 
1144,  when  it  was  subdued  by  Atabek-Zenghi  commonly  called 
Sanguin.  The  principality  of  Antioch  fell  to  the  share  of  Boe- 
mond, prince  of  Tarentum,  whose  heirs  and  descendants  added 
to  it,  in  1188,  the  County  of  Tripoli,  which  had  been  founded 
(1110)  by  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  one  of  the  crusaders 


118  CHAPTER  V. 

But  they  were  deprived  both  of  the  one  and  the  other  of  these 
sovereignties  by  the  Mamelukes  in  1268,  uho  afterwards  (12S9) 
conquered  Antioch  and  Tripoli.  Lastly,  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus 
which  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion,  King  of  England,  took  from  the 
Greeks  (1191,)  was  surrendered  by  that  prince  to  Guy  de  Lu- 
signan,  whose  posterity  reigned  in  Cyprus  till  the  year  1487, 
when  that  island  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  republic  of 
Venice. 

The  transient  duration  of  these  different  states,  presents  no- 
thing suprising.  The  Christians  of  the  East,  disunited  among 
themselves,  surrounded  on  all  hands,  and  incessantly  attacked 
by  powerful  nations,  found  themselves  too  remote  from  Europe 
to  obtain  from  that  quarter  any  prompt  or  effective  succour.  It 
was,  therefore,  impossible  for  them  long  to  withstand  the  efforts 
of  the  Mahometans,  who  were  animated  as  well  as  the  Chris- 
tians by  a  sectarian  zeal,  which  led  them  to  combine  their  forces 
against  the  enemies  of  their  religion  and  their  prophet.  The 
enthusiasm  of  religious  wars  did  not  however  become  extinct 
until  nearly  two  centuries.  It  was  encouraged  and  supported 
by  the  numerous  privileges  which  popes  and  sovereigns  con- 
ferred on  the  invaders,  and  by  the  rich  endowments  that  were 
made  in  their  favour.  All  Europe  continued  to  be  in  motion, 
and  all  its  principal  sovereigns  marched  in  their  turn  to  the 
East,  either  to  attempt  new  conquests,  or  maintain  those  which 
the  first  crusaders  had  achieved. 

Six  grand  crusades  succeeded  to  the  first ;  all  of  which  were 
either  fruitless,  or  at  least  without  any  important  and  durable 
success.  Conrad  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Louis  VII., 
King  of  France,  undertook  the  second  (1147,)  on  account  of  the 
conquests  of  Atabek-Zenghi,  who,  three  years  before,  had  made 
himself  master  of  Edessa.  The  third  (1189)  was  headed  by 
the  Emperor  Frederic  I.,  surnamed  Barbarossa ;  Philip  Augus- 
tus King  of  France ;  and  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion  of  England; 
and  the  occasion  of  it,  was  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the  fa- 
mous Saladin  (1187.)  The  fourth  was  undertaken  (1202,)  at 
the  pressing  instigation  of  Innocent  III.  Several  of  the  French 
and  German  nobility  uniting  with  the  Venetians,  assumed  the 
cross  under  the  command  of  Boniface,  Marquis  of  Montferrat ; 
but  instead  of  marching  to  Palestine,  they  ended  their  expedi- 
tion by  taking  Constantinople  from  the  Greeks.  The  fifth  cru- 
sade (1217)  was  conducted  by  Andrew,  King  of  Hungary,  at- 
tended by  many  of  the  princes  and  nobility  of  Germany,  who 
had  enlisted  under  the  banner  of  the  Cross  in  consequence  of 
the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Lateran  (1215.)  The  Emperor 
Frederic  II.  undertook  the  sixth  (1228.)     By  a  treaty  which  he 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300.  119 

concluded  with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  he  obtained  the  restoration 
of  Jerusalem  and  several  other  cities  of  Palestine  ;  although 
they  did  not  long  continue  in  his  possession.  The  Carizmian 
Turks,  oppressed  by  the  Moguls,  seized  on  the  Holy  Land 
(1244,)  and  pillaged  and  burnt  Jerusalem.  That  famous  city, 
together  with  the  greater  part  of  Palestine,  fell  afterwards  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Sultans  of  Egypt. 

The  seventh  and  last  grand  crusade,  was  undertaken  by  Louis 
IX.  King  of  France  (124S.)  He  conceived  it  necessary  to  be- 
gin his  conquests  by  that  of  Egypt;  but  his  design  completely 
miscarried.  Being  made  prisoner  with  his  army  after  the  action 
at  Mansoura  (1250,)  he  only  obtained  his  liberty  by  restoring 
Damietta,  and  paying  a  large  ransom  to  the  Sultan  of  Egypt. 
The  unfortunate  issue  of  this  last  expedition,  slackened  the  zeal 
of  the  Europeans  for  crusading.  Still,  however,  they  retained 
two  important  places  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  the  cities  of  Tyre 
and  Piolemais.  But  these  places  having  been  conquered  by  the 
Mamelukes  (1291,)  there  was  no  longer  any  talk  about  crusades 
to  the  East ;  and  all  the  attempts  of  the  Court  of  Kome  to  revive 
them  proved  ineffectual. 

It  now  remains  for  us  briefly  to  notice  the  efTects  which  re- 
sulted from  the  crusades,  with  regard  to  the  social  and  political 
state  of  the  nations  in  Western  Europe.  One  consequence  of 
these,  was  the  aggrandizement  of  the  Eoman  Pontiffs,  who, 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  crusades,  played  the  part  of  su- 
preme chiefs  and  sovereign  masters  of  Christendom.  It  was  at 
their  request,  as  we  have  seen,  that  those  religious  wars  were 
undertaken  ;  it  was  they  who  directed  them  by  means  of  their 
legates, — who  compelled  emperors  and  kings,  by  the  terror  of 
their  spiritual  arms,  to  march  under  the  banner  of  the  Cross — 
who  taxed  the  clergy  at  their  pleasure,  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  these  distant  expeditions, — who  took  under  their  immediate 
protection  the  persons  and  effects  of  the  Crusaders,  and  eman- 
cipated them,  by  means  of  special  privileges,  from  all  depend- 
ence on  any  power,  civil  or  judiciary.  The  wealth  of  the  clergy 
was  considerably  increased  during  the  time  of  which  we  speak, 
both  by  the  numerous  endowments  which  took  place,  and  by 
the  acquisition  which  the  Church  made  of  the  immense  landed 
property  which  the  pious  owners  sold  them  on  assuming  the 
badge  of  the  Cross. 

These  advantages  which  the  See  of  Rome  drew  from  the 
crusades  in  the  East,  were  inducements  to  undertake  similar 
expeditions  in  the  West  and  North  of  Europe.  In  these  quar- 
ters we  find  that  the  wars  of  the  cross  were  carried  on,  1. 
Against  the  Mahometans  of  Spain  and  Africa.     2.  Against  the 


120  CHAPTER    V. 

Emperors  and  Kings  who  refused  obedience  to  the  orders  of  the 
Popes. 12  3.  Against  heretical  or  schismatic  princes,  sach  as  the 
Greeks  and  Russians.  4.  Against  the  Slavonians  and  other 
Pagan  natimis,  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic.  5.  Against  the 
Waldenses,  Albigenses,  and  Hussites,  who  were  regarded  as 
heretics.     6.  Against  the  Turks. 

If  the  result  of  the  crusades  was  advantageous  to  the  hier- 
archy, if  it  served  to  aggrandize  the  power  of  the  Roman  Pop 
tiffs,  it  must,  on  the  contrary,  have  proved  obviously  prejudicial 
ro  the  authority  of  the  secular  princes.  It  was  in  fact  during 
this  period  that  the  power  of  the  emperors,  both  in  Germany 
and  Italy,  was  sapped  to  the  very  foundation ;  that  the  royal 
nouse  of  Hohenstanfen  sunk  under  the  determined  efforts  of  tbe 
Court  of  Rome  ;  and  that  the  federal  system  of  the  Empire  gained 
gradual  accessions  of  strength.  In  England  and  Hungary,  we 
observe  how  the  grandees  seized  on  the  opportunity  to  increase 
their  own  power.  The  former  took  advantage  of  their  sove- 
reign's absence  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  latter  of  the  protec- 
tion which  they  received  from  the  Popes,  to  claim  new  privi- 
leges and  extort  charters,  such  as  they  did  from  John  of  England, 
and  Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  tending  to  cripple  and  circumscribe 
the  royal  authority. 

In  France,  however,  the  result  was  different.  There,  the 
kings  being  freed,  by  means  of  the  crusades,  from  a  crowd  of 
resiJess  and  turbulent  vassals  who  often  threw  the  kingdom  into 
a  slate  of  faction  and  discord,  were  left  at  liberty  to  extend  their 
prerogatives,  and  turn  the  scale  of  power  in  their  ow^n  favour. 
They  even  considerably  augmented  their  royal  and  territorial 
revenues,  either  by  purchasing  lands  and  fiefs  from  the  proprie- 
tors v,ho  had  armed  in  the  cause  of  the  cross  ;  or  by  annexing 
to  the  crown  the  estates  of  those  who  died  in  the  Holy  Land, 
without  leaving  feudal  heirs  ;  or  by  seizing  the  forfeitures  ol 
others  who  were  persecuted  by  religious  fanaticism,  as  heretics 
or  abettors  of  heresy.  Finally,  the  Christian  kings  of  Spain, 
the  sovereigns  of  the  North,  the  Ivnights  of  the  Teutonic  order, 
and  of  Livonia,  joined  the  crusades  recommended  by  the  Popes, 
iiom  the  desire  of  conquest ;  the  former,  to  subdue  the  Ma- 
hometans in  Spain,  and  the  others  to  vanquish  the  Pagan 
nations  of  the  North,  the  Slavonians,  Finns,  Livonians,  Prus- 
sians, Lithuanians,  and  Courlanders. 

It  is  to  the  crusades,  in  like  manner,  that  Europe  owes  the 
use  of  surnames,  as  well  as  of  armorial  bearings,  and  heraldry.  ^^ 
It  is  easy  to  perceive,  that  among  these  innumerable  armies  of 
crusaders,  composed  of  different  nations  and  languages,  somo 
mark  or  symbol  was  necessary,  in  order  to  distinguish  particular 


Venice  in  the  l6th  Century.    Vol.  1,  p.  138, 


Zenghis  Khan,  the  Mogul  Prince.     Vol.  1,  p.  155. 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300.  121 

nations,  or  signalize  their  commanders.  Surnames  and  coats 
of  arms  were  employed  as  these  distinctive  badges  ;  the  latter 
especially  were  invented  to  serve  as  rallying  points,  for  the  vas- 
sals and  troops  of  the  crusading  chiefs.  Necessity  first  intro- 
duced them,  and  vanity  afterwards  caused  them  to  be  retained. 
These  coats  of  arms  were  hoisted  on  their  standards,  the  knights 
got  them  emblazoned  on  their  shields,  and  appeared  with  them 
at  tournaments.  Even  those  who  had  never  been  at  the  cru- 
sades, became  ambitious  of  these  distinctions;  which  maybe 
considered  as  permanently  established  in  families,  from  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  same  enthusiasm  that  inspired  the  Europeans  for  the 
crusades,  contributed  in  like  manner  to  bring  tournaments  into 
vogue.  In  these  solemn  and  military  sports,  the  young  noblesse 
were  trained  to  violent  exercises,  and  to  the  management  of 
heavy  arms  ;  so  as  to  gain  them  some  reputation  for  valour,  and 
to  insure  their  superiority  in  war.  In  order  to  be  admitted  to 
these  tournaments  it  was  necessary  to  be  of  noble  blood,  and  to 
show  proofs  of  their  nobility.  The  origin  of  these  feats  is  ge- 
nerally traced  back  to  the  end  of  the  tenth,  or  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  century.  Geoffrey  of  Preuilly,  whom  the  writers 
of  the  middle  ages  cite  as  being  the  inventor  of  them,  did  no 
more,  properly  speaking,  than  draw  up  their  code  of  regula- 
tions. France  was  the  country  from  which  the  practice  of 
tournaments  diffused  itself  over  all  other  nations  of  Europe. 
They  were  very  frequent,  during  all  the  time  that  the  crusading 
mania  lasted. 

To  this  same  epoch  belongs  the  institution  of  Religious  and 
Military  Orders.  These  were  originally  established  for  the 
purpose  of  defending  the  new  Christian  States  in  the  East,  for 
protecting  pilgrims  on  their  journey,  taking  care  of  them  when 
sick,  &c.;  and  the  vast  wealth  which  they  acquired  in  most  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  preserved  their  existence  long  after  the 
loss  of  the  Holy  Land  ;  and  some  of  these  orders  even  made 
a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  political  history  of  the  Western 
nations. 

Of  all  these,  the  first  and  most  distinguished  was  the  Order 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  called  afterwards  the  Order  of  Mal- 
ta. Prior  to  the  first  crusade,  there  had  existed  at  Jerusalem  a 
church  of  the  Latin  or  Romish  liturgy,  dedicated  to  St.  Mary, 
and  founded  by  some  merchants  of  Amalfi  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  There  was  also  a  monastery  of  the  Order  of  St.  Be- 
nedict, and  a  hospital  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  or  afflicted  pil- 
grims. This  hospital,  the  directors  of  which  were  appointed 
by  the  Abbot  of  St.  Mary's,  having  in  a  very  short  time  become 

VOL.  I.  11 


122  CHAPTER   V. 

immensely  rich  by  numerous  donations  of  lands  and  seignories 
both  in  Europe  and  Palestine,  one  of  its  gfovernors  named  Ge- 
rard, a  native  of  Martigues  in  Provence,  as  is  alleged,  took  the 
regular  habit  (1100,)  and  formed  with  his  brethren  a  distinct 
congregation,  under  the  name  and  protection  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist.  Pope  Pascal  II.,  by  a  bull  issued  in  1114,  approved 
of  this  new  establishment,  and  ordained,  that  after  the  death  of 
Gerard,  the  Hospitallers  alone  should  have  the  election  of  their 
superintendent.  Raymond  dn  Piiy,  a  gentleman  from  Dau- 
phine,  and  successor  to  Gerard,  was  the  first  that  took  the  tide 
of  Grand  Master.  He  prescribed  a  rule  for  the  Hospitallers  ; 
and  Pope  Calixtus  II.,  in  approving  of  this  rule  (1120,)  divided 
the  members  of  the  order  into  three  classes.  The  nobles,  called 
Knights  of  Justice,  were  destined  for  the  profession  of  arms, 
making  war  on  the  Infidels,  and  protecting  pilgrims.  The 
priests  and  chaplains,  selected  from  the  respectable  citizens, 
were  intrusted  w^ith  functions  purely  ecclesiastical ;  while  the 
serving  brethren,  who  formed  the  third  class,  were  charged  with 
the  care  of  sick  pilgrims,  and  likewise  to  act  in  the  capacity  of 
soldiers.  These  new  knights  w^ere  known  by  the  name  of 
K/iights  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and  were  dis- 
tinguished by  wearing  a  white  octagon  cross  on  a  black  habit. 

After  the  final  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  this  order  established 
themselves  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus.  From  this  they  passed  into 
Rhodes,  which  they  had  conquered  from  the  Infidels  (1310.) 
This  latter  island  they  kept  possession  of  till  1522;  and  being 
then  expelled  by  Soliman  the  Great,  they  obtained  (1530)  from 
Charles  y.,  the  munificent  grant  of  the  Isle  of  Malta,  under  the 
express  terms  of  making  w^ar  against  the  Infidels.  Of  this  place 
they  were  at  length  deprived  by  Buonaparte  in  1793. 

The  order  of  Templars  followed  neai  y  that  of  St.  John.  Its 
first  founders  (1119)  were  some  French  gentlemen;  the  chief 
of  whom  were  Hugo  de  Payens,  and  Geoffrey  de  St.  Omer. 
Having  made  a  declaration  of  their  vows  before  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  they  took  upon  themselves  the  special  charge  of 
maintaining  free  passage  and  safe  conduct  for  the  pilgrims  to 
the  Holy  Land.  Baldwin,  king  of  Jerusalem,  assigned  them 
an  apartment  in  his  palace,  near  the  temple,  whence  they  took 
the  name  of  Knights  of  the  Temple,  and  Templars.  They  ob- 
tained from  Pope  Honorius  II.  (1120)  a  rule,  with  a  white  habit; 
to  which  Eugene  III.  added  a  red  cross  octagon.  This  order, 
after  accumulating  vast  w^ealth  and  riches,  especially  in  France, 
and  distinguishing  themselves  by  their  military  exploits  for 
nearly  two  centuries,  were  at  length  suppressed  by  the  Council 
of  Vienna  (1312.) 


PERIOD  IV.    A.  D.  1074—1300.  123 

The  Teutonic  order,  according  to  the  most  probable  opinion, 
took  its  origin  in  the  camp  before  Acre,  or  Ptolemais.  The 
honour  of  it  is  ascribed  to  some  charitable  citizens  of  Bremen 
and  Lubec,  who  erected  a  hospital  or  tent  with  the  sails  of  their 
vessels,  for  the  relief  of  the  numerous  sick  and  wounded  of  their 
nation.  Several  German  gentlemen  having  joined  in  this  esta- 
blishment, they  devoted  themselves  by  a  vow  to  the  service  of 
the  sick;  as  also  to  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Land  against  the 
Infidels.  This  order,  known  by  the  name  o[  the  Teutonic 
Knights  of  St.  Mary  of  Jerusalem,  received  confirmation  from 
Pope  Celestin  III.  (1192,)  who  prescribed  for  them  the  rule  of 
the  Hospital  of  St.  John,  with  regard  to  their  attendance  on  the 
sick;  and  with  regard  to  chivalry  or  knighthood,  that  of  the 
order  of  Templars.  Henry  Walpott  de  Passenheim  was  the 
first  grand  master  of  the  order;  and  the  new  knights  assumed 
the  white  habit,  with  ablack  cross, to  distinguish  them  from  the' 
other  orders.  It  was  under  their  fourth  grand  master,  Hermann 
de  Saltza  (1230,)  that  they  passed  into  Prussia,  which  they 
conquered  (1309.)  Tliey  fixed  their  chief  residence  at  Marien- 
burg;  but  having  lost  Prussia  in  consequence  of  a  change  in 
the  religious  sentiments  of  their  grand  master,  Albert  de  Bran- 
denburg (152S,)  they  transferred  their  capital  to  Mergentheim. 
in  Franconia. 

A  fourth  order  of  Hospitallers  founded  in  the  Holy  Land,  was 
that  of  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem,  who  had  for  their  principal 
object  the  treatment  of  lepers  ;^'^  and  who,  in  process  of  time, 
from  a  medical,  became  a  military  order.  After  having  long 
resided  in  the  East,  where  they  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
Holy  wars,  they  followed  St.  Louis  into  France  (1254,)  and 
fixed  their  chief  seat  at  Boigny,  near  Orleans.  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  united  them  with  the  order  of  St.  Maurice,  in  Savoy; 
and  Henry  IV.  with  that  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel,  in 
France.  On  the  model,  and  after  the  example  of  these  four 
military  orders,  several  others  were  founded  in  succession,  in 
various  kingdoms  of  Europe. ^^  All  these  institutions  contri- 
buted greatly  to  the  renown  of  chivalry,  so  famous  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  origin  of  this  latter  institution  is  earlier  than  the 
times  of  which  we  now  speak,  and  seems  to  belong  to  the  tenth, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  anarchy  of  feu- 
dalism being  then  at  its  height,  and  robberies  and  private  quar- 
rels every  where  prevailing,  several  noble  and  distinguished 
individuals,  devoted  themselves,  by  a  solemn  vow,  according  to 
the  genius  of  the  times,  to  the  defence  of  religion  and  its  minis- 
ters ;  as  also  of  the  fair  sex,  and  of  every  person  suffering  from 
distress  or  oppression      From  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 


124  CHAPTER    V. 

to  the  time  when  the  crusades  began,  we  find  chivalry,  with  its 
pomp  and  its  ceremonies,  established  in  all  the  principal  states 
of  Europe.  This  salutary  institution,  by  inspiring  the  minds 
of  men  with  new  energy,  gave  birth  to  many  illustrious  cha- 
racters. It  tended  to  repress  the  disorders  of  anarchy,  to  revive 
order  and  law,  and  establish  a  new  relationship  among  the  na- 
tions of  Europe. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said,  that  these  ultra-marine  expeditions 
prosecuted  with  obstinacy  for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  hasten- 
ed the  progress  of  arts  and  civilization  in  Europe.  The  cru- 
saders, journeying  through  kingdoms  better  organized  than 
their  own,  and  observing  greater  refinement  in  their  laws  and 
manners,  were  necessarily  led  to  form  new  ideas,  and  acquire 
new  information  with  regard  to  science  and  politics.  Some 
vestiges  of  learning  and  good  taste  had  been  preserved  in  Greece, 
and  even  in  the  extremities  of  Asia,  where  letters  had  been 
encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  Caliphs.  The  city  of  Con- 
stantinople, which  had  not  yet  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the 
barbarians,  abounded  in  the  finest  monuments  of  art.  It  pre- 
sented to  the  eyes  of  the  crusaders,  a  spectacle  of  grandeur  and 
magnificence  that  could  not  but  excite  their  admiration,  and  call 
forth  a  strong  desire  to  imitate  those  models,  the  sight  of  which 
at  once  pleased  and  astonished  them.  To  the  Italians  especially, 
it  must  have  proved  of  great  advantage.  The  continued  inter- 
course which  they  maintained  with  the  East  and  the  city  of 
Constantinople,  afforded  them  the  means  of  becoming  familiar 
with  the  language  and  literature  of  the  Greeks,  of  communica- 
ting the  same  taste  to  their  own  countrymen,  and  in  this  way 
advancing  the  glorious  epoch  of  the  revival  of  letters. 

About  the  same  time,  commerce  and  navigation  were  making 
considerable  progress.  The  cities  of  Italy,  such  as  Venice, 
Genoa,  Pisa,  and  others,  in  assisting  the  Crusaders  in  their  ope- 
rations, by  means  of  the  transports,  provisions,  and  warlike  stores 
with  which  they  furnished  them,  continued  to  secure  for  them- 
selves important  privileges  and  establishments  in  the  seaports 
of  the  Levant,  and  other  ports  in  the  Greek  empire.  Their 
example  excited  the  industry  of  several  maritime  towns  in 
France,  and  taught  them  the  advantage  of  applying  their  atten- 
tion to  Eastern  commerce.  In  the  North,  the  cities  of  Ham- 
burgh and  Lubec,  formed,  about  the  year  1241,  as  is  generally 
supposed,  their  first  commercial  association,  which  afterwards 
became  so  formidable  under  the  name  of  the  Hanseatic  Leagice.^^ 
The  staple  articles  of  these  latter  cities,  consisted  in  marine 
stores,andotherproductJons  of  the  North,  which  they  exchanged 
for  the  spiceries  of  the  Eabt,  and  the  manufactures  of  Italy  and 
the  Low  Countries. 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074 — 1300.  125 

The  progress  of  industry,  the   protection  which  sovereio-ns 
extended  to  it,  and  the  pains  they  took  to  check  the  disorders  of 
feudalism,  contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  towns,  by  daily  aug- 
menting their  population   and   their  wealth.     This  produced, 
about  the  times  we  are  speaking  of,  an  advantageous  change  in 
the  civil  and  social  condition  of  the  people.     Throughout  the 
principal  states  of  Europe,  cities  began,  after  the  twelfth  centu- 
ry, to  erect  themselves  into  political  bodies,  and  to  form,  by  de 
grees,  a  third  order,  distinct  from  that  of  the  clergy  and  nobility 
Before  this  period,  the  inhabitants  of  towns  enjoyed  neither  civil 
nor  political  liberty.     Their  condition  was  very  little  better  than 
that  of  the  peasantry,  who  were  all  serfs,  attached  to  the  soil. 
The  rights  of  citizenship,  and  the  privileges  derived  from  it, 
were  reserved  for  the  clergy  and  the  noblesse.     The  Counts,  oi 
governors  of  cities,  by  rendering  their  power  hereditary,  had 
appropriated  to  themselv^es  the  rights  that  were  originally  at- 
tached to  their  functions.     They  used  them  in  the  most  arbi 
trary  way,  and  loaded  the  inhabitants  with  every  kind  of  opprcs 
sion  that  avarice  or  caprice  could  suggest. 

At  length,  the  cities  which  were  either  the  most  oppressed, 
or  the  most  powerful,  rose  in  rebellion  against  this  intolerable 
yoke.  The  inhabitantsNformed  themselves  into  confederations, 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Communes  or  Free  Coiyora- 
tions.  Either  of  their  own  accord,  or  by  charters,  obtained  very 
often  on  burdensome  terms,  they  procured  for  themselves  a  free 
government,  which,  by  relieving  them  from  servitude,  and  all 
impositions  and  arbitrary  exactions,  secured  them  personal  liberty 
and  the  possession  of  their  effects,  under  the  protection  of  their 
own  magistrates,  and  the  institution  of  a  militia,  or  city  guard. 
This  revolution,  one  of  the  most  important  in  Europe,  first  took 
place  in  Italy,  where  it  was  occasioned  by  the  frequent  inter- 
regnums that  occurred  in  Germany,  as  well  as  by  the  distur- 
bances that  rose  between  the  Empire  and  the  priesthood,  in  the 
eleventh  century.  The  anathemas  thundered  against  Henry 
IV.,  by  absolving  the  subjects  from  the  obedience  they  owed 
their  sovereign,  served  as  a  pretext  to  the  cities  of  Italy  for 
shaking  off  the  authority  of  the  Imperial  viceroys,  or  bailiffs, 
who  had  become  tyrants  instead  of  rulers,  and  for  establishing 
free  and  republican  governments.  In  this,  they  were  encoura- 
ged and  supported  by  the  protection  of  the  Roman  pontiffs, 
whose  sole  aim  and  policy  was  the  abasement  of  the  Imperial 
authority. 

Before  this  period,  several  maritime  cities  of  Italy,  such  as 
Naples,  Amalfi,  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Genoa,  emboldened  by  the 
advantages  of  their  situation,  by  the  increase  of  their  pojDulation 

11  # 


126  CHAPTER   v. 

and  their  commerce,  had  already  emancipated  themselves  from 
the  Imperial  yoke,  and  erected  themselves  into  republics.  Their 
example  was  followed  by  the  cities  of  Lombardy  and  the  Vene- 
tian territory,  especially  Milan,  Pavia,  Asti,  Cremona,  Lodi, 
Como,  Parma,  Placentia,  Verona,  Padua,  &c.  All  these  cities, 
animated  with  the  enthusiasm  of  liberty,  adopted,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  century,  consuls  and  popular  forms  of 
government.  They  formed  a  kind  of  military  force,  or  city 
guard,  and  vested  in  themselves  the  rights  of  royalty,  and  the. 
power  of  making,  in  their  own  name  and  authority,  alliances, 
wars,  and  treaties  of  peace.  From  Italy,  this  revolution  ex- 
tended to  France  and  Germany,  the  Low  Countries,  and  Eng- 
land. In  all  these  different  states,  the  use  of  Communes,  or 
boroughs,  was  established,  and  protected  by  the  sovereigns,  who 
employed  these  new  institutions  as  a  powerful  check  against 
the  encroachments  and  tyranny  of  the  feudal  lords. 

In  France,  Louis  the  Fat,  who  began  his  reign  in  llOS,  was 
the  first  king  that  granted  rights,  or  constitutional  charters,  to 
certain  cities  within  his  domain,  either  from  political  motives, 
or  the  allurement  of  money.  The  nobility,  after  his  example, 
eagerly  sold  liberty  to  their  subjects.  The  revolution  became 
general;  the  cry  for  liberty  was  raised  every  where,  and  inte- 
rested every  mind.  Throughout  all  the  provinces,  the  mhabi- 
bants  of  cities  solicited  charters,  and  sometimes  without  waiting 
for  them,  they  formed  themseh^es  voluntarily  into  communities, 
electing  magistrates  of  their  own  choice,  establishing  companies 
of  militia,  and  taking  charge  themselves  of  the  fortifications  and 
wardenship  of  their  cities.  The  magistrates  of  free  cities  in 
northern  France,  were  usually  called  mayors,  sheriffs,  and  liv- 
erymen ;  while,  in  the  south  of  France,  they  were  called  syndics 
and  consuls.  It  soon  became  an  established  principle,  that  kings 
alone  had  the  power  to  authorize  the  erection  of  corporate  towns. 
Louis  VIII.  declared  that  he  regarded  all  cities  in  which  these 
corporations  were  established,  as  belonging  to  his  domain.  They 
owed  military  service  directly  and  personall}^  to  the  king  ;  while 
such  cities  as  had  not  these  rights  or  charters,  were  obliged  to 
follow  their  chiefs  to  the  war. 

In  Germany,  we  find  the  emperors  adopting  the  same  policy 
as  the  kings  of  France.  The  resources  which  the  progress  of 
commerce  and  manufactures  opened  to  the  industry  of  the  in- 
habitants of  cities,  and  the  important  succours  which  the  empe- 
rors, Henry  IV.  and  V.,  had  received  from  them  in  their  quar- 
rels wiih  the  Pope  and  the  princes  of  the  Empire,  induced  them 
to  take  these  cities  under  their  protection,  to  augment  their  num- 
ber, and  multiply  iheir  priv'^eges.     Henry  V.  was  the  first  em- 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  127 

peror  that  adopted  this  line  of  policy.  He  granted  freeaom  to 
the  inhabitants  of  several  cities,  even  to  artisans  and  tradesman  ; 
whose  condition,  at  that  time,  was  as  degraded  and  debased  as 
that  of  serfs.  He  extended  to  them  the  rank  and  privileges  of 
citizens,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  division  of  cities  into  classes 
and  corporations  of  trades.  This  same  prince  set  about  repair- 
ing the  fault  which  the  emperors  of  the  house  of  Saxony  had 
committed,  of  giving  up  to  the  bishops  the  temporal  jurisdiction 
in  all  the  cities  wherein  they  resided.  He  gradually  superse- 
ded these  rights,  by  the  new  privileges  which  he  granted  to  the 
inhabitants  of  cities.  The  emperors,  his  successors,  followed 
his  example ;  in  a  little  time,  several  of  these  cities  threw  off 
the  yoke  of  their  bishops,  while  others  extricated  themselves 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  their  superiors,  or  provosts,  whether 
imperial  or  feudal,  and  adopted,  in  imitation  of  the  cities  in  Italy 
and  France,  magistrates  of  their  own  choosing,  a  republican 
form  of  government,  and  a  municipal  polity. 

This  liberty  in  cities,  gave  new  vigour  to  industry,  multiplied 
the  sources  of  labour,  and  created  means  of  opulence  and  power, 
till  then  unknown  in  Europe.  The  population  of  these  cities 
increased  with  their  v/ealth.  Communities  rose  into  political 
consequence  ;  and  we  find  them  successively  admitted  to  the 
diets  avid  national  assemblies,  in  all  the  principal  states  of  Eu- 
rope. England  set  an  exam.ple  of  this  ;  and  though  English 
authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  precise  time  when  the  Commons 
of  that  kingdom  Avere  called  into  Parliament,  it  is  at  least  cer- 
tain that  their  first  admission  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
(about  126-5  or  1266,)  and  that  the  formal  division  of  the  Par- 
liament into  two  houses,  is  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Edward  III.^'' 
France  followed  the  example  of  England;  the  convocation  of 
the  states,  by  Philip  the  Fair  (1303,)  on  the  subject  of  his  dis- 
putes with  Pope  Boniface  Vlll.,  is  considered  as  the  first  assem- 
bly of  the  States-general,  composed  of  the  three  orders  of  the 
kingdom.  As  to  Germany,  the  first  diet  in  which  the  cities  of 
the  Empire  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  third  order,  was  that  of 
Spire  (1309,)  convoked  by  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.,  of  the 
house  of  Luxembourg.  Afterwards,  we  find  these  cities  exer- 
cising a  decisive  or  deliberative  voice  at  the  diet  of  Frankfort 
(1344,)  under  Louis  the  Bavarian. 

In  all  these  states,  we  find  the  sovereigns  protecting  more  es- 
pecially those  free  cities  which  aided  them  in  checking  the  de- 
vastations, and  putting  a  stop  to  the  fury  of  private  or  intestine 
wars.  The  most  powerful  of  the  feudal  chiefs,  finding  every 
where  cities  in  a  capacity  lo  defend  themselves,  became  less  en- 
terprising in  their  ambition ;  and  even  the  nobles  of  inferior 


128  CHAPTER  V. 

rank  learned  to  respect  the  ponder  of  these  communities.  The 
royal  authority  was  thereby  strengthened  ;  and  the  cities,  natu- 
rally inclining-  to  the  sovereigns  that  protected  them,  served  as 
a  counterpoise  in  the  general  assemblies,  to  the  power  of  the 
clergy  and  the  noblesse,  and  were  the  means  of  obtaining  those 
subsidiary  supplies  necessary  for  the  exigencies  of  the  state. 

The  liberty  which  the  inhabitants  of  cities  had  thus  procured 
by  the  establishment  of  these  communities,  or  corporate  bodies, 
extended  itself  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  by  way  of  en- 
franchisements. Various  circumstances  concurred  to  render 
the  use  of  these  more  frequent,  after  the  twelfth  century.  The 
sovereigns,  guided  by  the  maxims  of  sound  policy,  set  the  first 
example  of  this  within  their  own  demesnes;  and  they  were 
speedily  imitated  by  the  feudal  lords  and  nobles,  who,  either  out 
of  courtesy  to  their  sovereigns,  or  to  prevent  the  desertion  of 
their  vassals,  or  acquire  new  dependents,  were  compelled  to 
grant  liberty  to  the  one,  and  mitigate  the  servitude  of  the  other. 
The  communities,  or  chartered  cities,  likewise  seconded  and 
promoted  these  enfranchisements,  by  the  protection  which  they 
granted  to  the  serfs  against  their  feudal  superiors. 

In  Italy,  we  perceive  these  enfranchisements  following  as 
an  immediate  consequence  of  the  institution  of  communities. 
The  continual  feuds  that  arose  among  the  numerous  republics 
whicli  had  lately  thrown  ofT  the  yoke  of  authority,  made  the 
liberty  of  the  serfs  a  measure  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to 
augment  the  numberofcitizensqualified  to  bear  arms,  and  hold 
places  of  trust.  Bonacurso,  Captain  of  Bologna  (1256,)  pro- 
posed to  his  fellow-citizens,  and  carried  the  law  of  enfranchise- 
ment. All  those  who  had  serfs  were  obliged  to  present  them 
before  the  Podesta,  or  Captain  of  the  people,  who  affranchised 
them  for  a  certain  sum  or  lax,  v.'hich  the  republic  paid  to  the 
owner.  The  feudal  superiors,  finding  that  these  enfranchise- 
ments had  a  powerful  support  in  the  liberty  of  the  free  cities, 
were  obliged  either  to  meliorate  the  condition  of  their  serfs,  or 
grant  them  liberty. 

In  France,  afier  the  twelfth  century,  and  the  reign  of  Louis 
the  Fat,  these  enfranchisements  began  to  be  frequent.  The  son 
and  successor  of  that  prince,  Louis  VII.,  by  royal  letter  (1180,) 
affranchised  all  the  serfs  which  the  crown  possessed  at  Orleans, 
and  within  five  leagues  of  it.  Louis  X.  passed  a  general  law 
(1315,)  for  the  enfranchisement  of  all  serfs  belonging  to  the 
crown.  He  there  made  a  positive  declaration,  that  slavery  loas 
contrary  to  nature ^loliicli  intended  that  all  men  hy  hlrth  should 
he  free  and  equal;  that,  since  his  A-i;i^'-f/o;;^  was  deii'jminated 
the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  or  Freemen,  it  appeared  just  and 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  129 

right  that  the  fact  should  correspond  with  the  naine.  He  invited, 
at  the  same  time,  all  the  nobility  to  imitate  his  example,  by 
granting-  liberty  to  their  serfs.  That  prince  would  have  en- 
nobled the  homage  he  paid  to  nature,  if  the  gift  of  liberty  had 
been  gratuitous  on  his  part ;  but  he  made  it  a  mere  object  of 
finance,  and  to  gratify  those  only  who  could  afford  to  pay  for  it ; 
whence  it  happened,  that  enfranchisements  advanced  but  very 
slowly  ;  and  examples  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  history,  so  late  as 
the  reign  of  Francis  I. 

In  Germany,  the  number  of  serfs  diminished  in  like  manner, 
after  the  twelfth  century.  The  crusades,  and  the  destructive 
wars  which  the  Dukes  of  Saxony  and  the  Margraves  of  the 
North  carried  on  with  the  Slavian  tribes  on  the  Elbe  and  the 
Baltic,  having  depopulated  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of 
Germany,  numerous  colonies  from  Brabant,  the  Netherlands, 
Holland  and  Friesland,  were  introduced  into  these  countries, 
where  they  formed  themselves  into  establishments  or  associa- 
tions of  free  cultivators  of  the  soil.  From  Lower  Germany  the 
custom  of  enfranchisements  extended  to  the  Upper  provinces, 
pmd  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  This  was  encouraged  by 
the  free  cities,  which  not  only  gave  a  welcome  reception  to  the 
serfs  who  had  fled  to  shelter  themselves  from  oppression  within 
their  walls,  but  they  even  granted  protection,  and  the  rights  of 
citizenship,  to  those  who  had  settled  within  the  precincts  or 
liberties  of  the  town  ;^^  or  who  continued,  without  changing 
their  habitation,  to  reside  on  the  lands  of  their  feudal  superiors. 
This  spirited  conduct  of  the  free  cities  put  the  nobles  of  Ger- 
many to  the  necessity  of  aiding  and  abetting,  by  degrees,  either 
the  suppression  or  the  mitigation  of  slavery.  They  reimbursed 
themselves  for  the  loss  of  the  fine  or  tax  which  they  had  been 
in  the  habit  of  levying,  on  the  death  of  their  serfs,  by  an  aug- 
mentation of  the  quit-rent,  or  annual  cess  which  they  exacted 
from  them  on  their  being  affranchised. 

In  the  Low  Countries,  Henry  II.,  duke  of  Brabant  (3218,) 
in  his  last  will,  granted  liberty  to  all  cultivators  of  the  soil ; — 
he  affranchised  them  on  the  right  of  mortmain,  and  ordained, 
that,  like  the  inhabitants  of  free  cities,  they  should  be  judged  by 
no  other  than  their  own  magistrates.  In  this  manner,  liberty 
by  degrees  recovered  its  proper  rights.  It  assisted  in  dispelling 
the  clouds  of  ignorance  and  superstition,  and  spread  a  new 
lustre  over  Europe.  One  event  which  contributed  essentially 
to  give  men  more  exact  notions  on  government  and  jurispru- 
dence, was  the  revival  of  the  Roman  law,  which  happened 
about  the  time  we  now  speak  of.  The  German  tribes  that  de- 
stroyed the  Western  Empire  in  the  fifth  century,  would  natu- 


130  CHAPTER  V. 

rally  despise  a  system  of  legislation,  such  as  that  of  the  Romans, 
which  neither  accordpd  with  the  ferocity  of  their  manners,  nor 
the  rudeness  of  their  ideas.  In  consequence,  the  revolution 
which  occasioned  the  downfall  of  that  empire,  brought  at  the 
same  time  the  Roman  jurisprudence  into  desuetude  over  all 
the  Western  world.  *^ 

A  lapse  of  several  centuries,  however,  was  required,  to  rec- 
tify men's  ideas  on  the  nature  of  society,  and  to  prepare  them 
for  receiving  the  laws  and  institutions  of  a  civilized  and  re- 
fined government.  Such  was  the  general  state  and  condition 
of  political  knowledge,  when  the  fame  of  a  celebrated  civilian, 
called  Irnerius,  who  taught  the  law  of  Justinian  publicly  at 
Bologna,  about  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  century,  at- 
tracted to  that  academy  the  youth  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 
There  they  devoted  themselves  with  ardour  to  the  study  of  this 
new  science.  The  pupils,  instructed  by  Irnerius  and  his  suc- 
cessors, on  returning  hom.e,  and  being  employed  in  the  tribunals 
and  public  offices  of  their  native  countr\^  gradually  carried  into 
practice  the  principles  which  they  had  imbibed  in  the  school  ot 
Bologna.  Hence,  in  a  short  time,  and  without  the  direct  inter- 
ference of  the  legislative  authority,  the  law  of  Justinian  was 
adopted  by  degrees,  as  a  subsidiary  law  in  all  the  principal 
states  of  Europe.  Various  circumstances  contributed  to  acce- 
lerate the  progress  of  this  revolution.  People  had  felt  for  a 
long  time  the  necessity  of  a  new  legislature,  and  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  their  national  laws.  The  novelty  of  the  Roman 
laws,  as  well  as  their  equity  and  precision,  arrested  the  atten- 
tion of  all  Europe  ;  and  sovereigns  found  it  their  interest  to 
protect  a  jurisprudence,  whose  maxims  were  so  favourable  to 
royalty  and  monarchical  power,  and  which  served  at  once  lo 
strengthen  and  extend  their  authority*. 

The  introduction  of  the  Roman  jurisprudence  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  the  Canon  law.  The  Popes,  perceiving  the 
rapid  propagation  of  this  new  science,  and  eager  to  arrest  its 
progress,  immediately  set  themselves  to  the  work  of  raising  that 
vast  and  astonishing  edifice  the  Canon  law,  as  an  engine  to  pro- 
mote the  accomplishment  of  their  own  greatness.  Gratian,  a 
monk  of  Bologna,  encouraged  by  Pope  Eugenius  III.,  compiled 
a  collection  of  Canons,  under  the  title  of  the  Decret,  which  he 
arranged  in  systematic  order,  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  that  law.  This  compilation,  extracted  from  different 
authors  who  had  preceded  him,  recommended  itself  to  the  world 
by  its  popular  method,  which  was  adapted  to  the  genius  of  the 
times.  Pope  Eugenius  III.  gave  it  his  approval  in  1152, 
and  ordained  that  it  should  be  read  and  explained  in  the  schools. 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074— 1300.  131 

This  collection  of  Gratian  soon  obtained  a  wide  and  most  suc- 
cessful reception  ;  from  the  schools  it  passed  to  the  public  tri- 
bunals, both  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  At  length,  Pope  Gregory 
IX.,  in  imitation  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  who  had  caused  a 
collection  of  his  own  statutes,  and  those  of  his  predecessors,  to 
be  made  by  Tribonian,  ordered  his  chaplain  Raymond  de  Pen- 
nafort  to  compile  and  digest,  in  their  proper  order,  all  the  deci- 
sions of  his  predecessors,  as  well  as  his  own;  thus  extending  to 
common  practice,  what  had  been  originally  established  but  for 
one  place,  and  for  particular  cases.  He  published  his  collection 
(1235)  under  the  name  of  Decretals,  with  an  injunction,  that  it 
should  be  employed  both  in  the  tribunals  and  in  the  schools. 

If  this  new  system  of  jurisprudence  served  to  extend  the  juris- 
diction, and  strengthen  the  temporal  power  of  the  Popes,  it  did 
not  fail  at  the  same  time  to  produce  salutary  effects  on  the 
governments  and  manners  of  Europe.  The  peace,  or  tricce  of 
God,  which  some  bishops  of  France,  in  the  eleventh  century, 
had  instituted  as  a  check  on  the  unbridled  fury  of  private  quar- 
rels and  civil  discord,  was  established,  by  the  Decretals,  into  a 
general  law  of  the  church.-^  The  judgments  of  God,  till  then 
used  in  the  tribttfals  of  justice,  trial  by  single  combat,  by  hot 
iron,  hot  and  coid  water,  the  cross,  &c.  were  gradually  abolished. 
The  restraints  of  the  Canon  law,  added  to  the  new  information 
which  had  diffused  its  light  over  the  human  mind,  were  instru- 
mental in  rooting  out  practices  which  served  only  to  cherish 
and  protract  the  ancient  ferocity  of  manners.  The  spirit  of 
order  and  method  v/hich  prevailed  in  the  new  jurisprudence, 
soon  communicated  itself  to  every  branch  of  legiskition  among 
the  nations  of  Europe.  The  feudal  law  was  reduced  to  syste- 
matic order:  and  the  usages  and  customs  of  the  provinces,  till 
then  local  and  uncertain,  were  collected  and  organized  into  a 
regular  form.-^ 

Jurisprudence,  having  now  become  a  complicated  science, 
demanded  a  long  and  laborious  course  of  study,  which  could  no 
onger  be  associated  with  the  profession  of  arms.  The  sword 
was  then  obliged  by  degrees  to  abandon  the  courts  of  justice, 
and  give  place  to  the  gown.  A  new  class  of  men  thus  arose, 
that  of  the  law,  who  contributed  by  their  influence  to  repress 
the  overgrown  power  of  the  nobility. 

The  rapid  progress  which  the  new  jurisprudence  made,  must 
be  ascribed  to  the  recent  foundation  of  universities,  and  the  en- 
couragements which  sovereigns  granted  these  literary  corpora- 
tions. Before  their  establishment,  the  principal  public  schools 
were  those  which  were  attached  either  to  monasteries,  or  cathe- 
dral and  collegiate  churches.     There  were,  however,  only  a  few 


132  CHAPTER    V. 

colleges  instituted  ;  and  these  in  large  cities,  such  as  Rome, 
Pari.^,  Angers,  Oxford,  Salamanca,  &c.  The  sciences  there 
tauglit  were  comprised  under  the  seven  liberal  arts,  viz.  Gran;- 
mar,  Rhetoric,  Dialectics  or  Logic,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Music, 
and  Astronom)^  The  first  three  were  known  by  the  name  of 
Trivium  ;  and  the  other  four,  which  make  part  of  mathematics, 
by  that  of  Quadrhnum.  As  for  Theology  and  Jurisprudence 
they  did  not  as  yet  figure  among  the  academic  sciences  ;  and 
there  was  no  school  of  medicine  prior  to  that  of  Salerno — the 
only  one  of  which  any  traces  are  discovered,  towards  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century.- 

These  schools  and  academies  cannot,  by  any  means,  be  put 
in  comparison  with  modern  universities  ;  w^hich  differ  from  thenr. 
essentially,  both  as  to  the  variety  of  sciences  which  are  pro- 
fessed, and  by  their  institutions  as  privileged  bodies,  enjoying  a 
system  of  government  and  jurisdiction  peculiarly  their  own. 
The  origin  of  these  Universities  is  coeval  with  the  revival  of 
the  Roman  law  in  Italy,  and  the  invention  of  academic  degrees. 
The  same  Irnerius  who  is  generally  acknowledged  as  the  re- 
storer of  the  Roman  law  at  Bologna,  was  also  the  first  that 
conceived  the  idea  of  conferring,  with  certain  solemnities,  doc- 
torial  degrees  ;  and  granting  license  or  diplomas  to  those  who 
excelled  in  the  study  of  jurisprudence.  Pope  Eugenius  III. 
(1153,)  when  he  introduced  the  code  of  Gratian  into  the  aca- 
demy of  Bologna,  gave  permission  to  confer  the  same  degrees 
in  the  Canon  law,  as  had  been  customary  in  the  Civil  law. 
These  degrees  were  much  coveted  and  esteemed  on  account  of 
the  honours,  immunities,  and  prerogatives  which  the  sovereign 
had  attached  to  them.  Nothing  however  contributed  more  to 
bring  universities  into  favour,  than  the  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties which  the  Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa  conferred  on  them 
(lloS,)  by  his  Authentic,  (or  rescript,  called  Hahita.)  The  ex- 
ample of  this  prince  was  speedily  followed  by  the  other  so- 
vereigns of  Europe. 

The  teaching  of  jurisprudence  passed  from  the  school  of 
Bologna  to  the  different  academies  of  Europe.  Theology  also 
was  soon  admitted,  as  well  as  medicine;  and  these  completed 
the  four  faculties,  as  they  were  called,  of  which  the  univer- 
sities were  composed.  That  of  Paris  was  the  first  which  com- 
bined all  the  faculties.  It  was  completed  under  the  reign  of 
Philip  Augustus,  from  whom  it  obtained  its  earliest  charter, 
about  the  year  1200.  Except  itself  there  are  only  the  univer- 
sities of  Bologna,  Padua,  Naples,  Toulouse,  Salamanca,  Coimbra, 
Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  that  date  their  origin  in  the  thirteenth 
century. ^^ 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300.  1J13 

The  downfall  of  the  Imperial  authority,  and  of  the  house  of 
Hohenslaufen,  and  the  new  power  usurped  by  the  princes  and 
States  of  the  Empire,  occasioned  a  long  series  of  troubles  in 
Germany,  and  that  frightful  state  of  anarchy,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Gra?id  Interregnum.  Strength  then  triumphed 
over  law  and  right;  the  government  was  altered  from  its  basis; 
and  no  other  means  were  found  to  remedy  this  want  of  public 
security,  than  by  forming  alliancies  and  confederations,  such  as 
that  of  the  Rhine,^-^  and  the  Hanseatic  League,  which  began 
to  appear  about  this  time  (1253.)  The  election  of  the  Empe- 
rors, in  which  all  the  princes  and  states  of  the  empire  had  for- 
merly concurred,  became  then  the  privilege  solely  of  the  great 
officers  of  the  crown,  who,  towards  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  claimed  for  themselves  exclusively  the  right  of  elect- 
ing, and  the  title  of  Electors.'^"*  The  princes  and  states  of  the 
Empire,  anxious  to  confirm  their  growing  power,  sought  to  pro- 
mote only  the  feeblest  emperors,  who  were  incapable  of  sup- 
porthig  the  rights  and  prerogatives  of  the  crown.  The  electors, 
in  particular,  had  no  other  object  in  view,  than  to  derive  a  lucra- 
tive traffic  from  elections  ;  bargaining  every  time  with  the  can- 
didates for  large  sums,  and  obtaining  grants  or  mortgages  c^ 
such  portions  of  the  Imperial  demesnes  as  suited  their  con- 
venience. One  only  of  these  weak  emperors,  Kodolph,  Count 
of  Hapsburg  in  Switzerland,  (1273)  disappointed  the  expecta- 
tions of  his  electors.  He  repressed  by  force  of  arms,  the  dis- 
orders of  anarchy,  restored  the  laws  and  tribunals  to  their 
pristine  vigour,  and  reconquered  several  of  the  Imperial  domains 
from  the  usurpers  who  had  seized  them. 

In  consequence  of  the  revolutions  which  we  have  now  detailed, 
we  find  veiy  important  and  memorable  changes  accom.plished  in 
the  different  provinces  of  the  Einpire.  The  princes  and  States 
of  the  Germanic  body,  regarding  as  their  own  patrimony  the 
provinces  and  fiefs  with  which  they  were  invested,  thought 
themselves  further  authorized  to  portion  them  out  among  their 
sons.  The  usage  of  these  partitions  became  general  after  the 
thirteenth  century  ;  and  this  wrought  the  downfall  of  some  of 
the  most  powerful  families,  and  tended  to  multiply  almost  to 
infinity  the  dutchies,  principalities,  and  earldoms  of  the  Em.pire. 
The  Emperoi^s,  far  from  condemning  this  practice,  which  by  no 
means  accorded  with  the  maxims  of  the  feudal  law,  on  the  con- 
trary gave  it  their  countenance,  as  appearing  to  them  a  proper 
mstrument  for  humbling  the  power  of  the  grandees,  and  acqui- 
jjng  for  themselves  a  preponderating  authority  in  the  Empire. 

The  ancient  dutchies  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony  experienced  a 
new  revolution  on  the  fall  of  the  powerful  house  of  the 
VOL.  I.  12 


134  CHAPTER  V 

Guelphs,  which  was  deprived  of  both  these  diitchies  by  the  sen- 
tence of  proscription  which  the  Einperor  Frederic  I.  pronounced 
against  Henry  the  Lion  (IISO,)  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony 
The  first  of  these  dutchies,  which  had  formerly  been  dismembered 
from  the  Margravate  of  Austria  l)y  Frederic  I.  (1156,)  and 
erected  into  a  dutchy  and  fief  holding  immediately  of  the  Em- 
pire, was  exposed  to  new  partitions  at  the  time  of  which  we 
now  speak.  The  bishoprics  of  Bavaria,  Stiria,  Carinthia,  Car- 
niola,  and  the  Tyrol,  broke  their  alliance  with  Bavaria;  and  the 
city  of  Ratisbonne,  which  had  been  the  residence  of  the  ancient 
dukes,  was  declared  immediate,  or  holding  of  the  crown.  It 
was  when  contracted  within  these  new  limits  that  Bavaria  was 
conferred,  by  Frederic  I.  (IISO,)  on  Otho,  Count  of  Wittelsbach, 
a  scion  of  the  original  house  of  Bavaria.  This  house  afterwards 
acquired  by  marriage  (1215)  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  it 
was  subsequently  divided  into  various  branches,  of  which  the 
two  principal  were  the  Palatine  and  the  Bavarian. 

As  to  the  dutchy  of  Saxony,  which  embraced,  under  the 
Guelphs,  the  greater  part  of  Lower  Germany,  it  completely 
changed  its  circumstances  on  the  decline  of  that  house.  Ber- 
nard of  Aschersleben,  younger  son  of  Albert  named  the  Bear, 
first  ]\Iargrave  of  Brandenburg,  a  descendant  of  the  Ascanian 
line,  had  been  invested  in  the  dutchy  of  Saxony  by  Frederic  I. 
(IISO,)  but  was  found  much  too  feeble  to  support  the  high  rank 
to  which  he  had  been  elevated.  In  consequence,  the  title,  or 
qualification  to  the  dutchy  of  Saxony  and  the  Electorate,  was 
restricted,  under  the  successors  and  descendants  of  that  prince, 
to  an  inconsiderable  district,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Elbe  ; 
called  since  the  Electoral  Circle,  of  which  Wittenberg  was  the 
capital.  The  princes  of  Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg,  the  Counts 
of  Holstein  and  Westphalia,  and  the  city  of  Lubeck,  took  advan- 
tage of  this  circumstance  to  revolt  from  the  authority  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxony,  and  render  themselves  immediate.  A  part  of  West- 
phalia was  erected  into  a  distinct  dutchy,  in  favour  of  the  Arcl 
bishop  of  Cologne,  v/ho  had  seconded  the  Emperor  in  his^schemes 
of  vengeance  against  the  Guelphic  princes.  This  latter  house, 
whos'''  vast  possessions  had  extended  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the 
Baltic  and  ui?  Northern  Ocean,  retained  nothing  more  of  its 
ancient  splendour  than  the  free  lands  which  it  possessed  in  Lower 
Saxony,  and  which  the  emperor  Frederic  II.  (1235)  converted 
into  a  dutchy,  and  immediate  fief  of  the  empire,  in  favour  of 
Otho  the  Infant,  grandson  of  Henry  the  Lion,  and  the  new 
founder  of  the  House  of  Brunswick. 

The  extinction  of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  having  occa- 
sioned a  vacancy  in  the  dutchies  of  Suabia  and  Franconia    the 


r-iiRioD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  135 

different  states  of  these  provinces,  both  secular  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal, found  means  to  render  themselves  also  immediate,  (1268.) 
A  number  of  cities  which  had  belonged  to  the  domains  of  the 
ancient  dukes,  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  free  and  imperial 
cities;  and  the  Houses  of  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  Hohen-ZoUern, 
and  Furstenberg,  date  their  celebrity  from  this  period.  The 
death  of  the  anti-emperor,  Henry  le  Raspon  (1247,)  last  land- 
grave of  Thuringia,  gave  rise  to  a  long  war  between  the  Mar- 
graves of  Misnia  and  the  Dukes  of  Brabant,  who  mutuallys 
contested  that  succession.  The  former  advanced  an  Expecta- 
tive,  or  deed  of  Reversion  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  as  well 
as  the  claims  of  Jutta,  sister  of  the  last  landgrave  ;  and  the  others 
maintained  those  of  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  langrave  Louis, 
elder  brother  and  predecessor  of  Henry  le  Raspon.  At  length, 
by  a  partition  which  took  place  (1264,)  Thuringia,  properly  so 
called,  was  made  over  to  the  house  of  Misnia;  and  Henry  of 
Brabant,  surnamed  the  Infant,  son  of  Henry  II.  Duke  of  Bra- 
bant, and  Sophia  of  Thuringia,  was  secured  in  the  possession  of 
Hesse,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty  of  landgraves — 
those  of  thaHouse  of  Hesse. 

The  ancient  dukes  of  Austria,  of  the  House  of  Bamberg,  hav- 
ing become  extinct  v/ith  Frederic  the  Valiant  (1246,)  the  suc- 
cession of  that  dutchy  was  keenly  contested  between  the  niece 
and  the  sisters  of  the  last  duke;  who,  though  females,  could  lay 
claim  to  it,  in  virtue  of  the  privilege  granted  by  the  emperor 
Frederic  Barbarossa.  Ottocar  II.,  son  of  Wenceslaus,  king  of 
Bohemia,  took  advantage  of  these  troubles  in  Austria,  to  possess 
himself  of  that  province  (1251.)  He  obtained  the  investiture  of 
it  (1262)  from  Richard,  son  of  John  king  of  England,  who  had 
purchased  the  title  of  Emperor  at  a  vast  expense ;  but  Rodolph 
of  Hapsbourg,  treating  him  as  a  usurper,  made  war  upon  him, 
defeated  and  slew  him  in  a  battle  which  was  fought  (1278)  at 
Marchfeld,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vienna.  The  dutchies  of 
Austria,  Sliria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola,  being  then  detached 
from  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  were  declared  vacant,  and  de- 
volved to  the  Empire.  The  investiture  of  these  the  Emperor 
conferred '( 1282)  on  Albert  and  Rodolph,  his  own  sons.  Al- 
bert, the  eldest  of  these  princes,  who  was  afterwards  Emperor, 
became  the  founder  of  the  Hapsbourg  dynasty  of  Austria. 

In  Italy,  a  great  number  of  republics  arose  about  the  end  of 
the  eleventh,  or  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  These  re- 
publics, though  they  had  cast  off  the  Imperial  authority,  and 
claimed  to  themselves  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  protested,  never- 
theless, their  fealty  to  the  Emperor,  whom  they  agreed  to  recog- 
nise as  their  supreme  head.     The   Emperors,  Henry  V.,  Lo 


136  CHAPTER    V. 

thaire  the  Saxon,  and  Conrad  III.,  saw  llien.seivea  comperied  to 
tolerate  ^n  usurpation  which  they  were  too  feeble  to  repress. 
But  Frederic  Barbarossa  being  determined  to  restore  the  royalty 
of  Italy  to  its  ancient  splendour,  led  a  powerful  army  into  that 
kingdom  (115S  ;)  and  in  a  diet  which  he  assembled  on  the  plains 
of  Roncjiglia,  in  the  territory  of  Placentia,  he  caused  a  strict  in- 
vestigation to  be  made  by  the  lawyers  of  Bologna,  into  the  rights 
on  which  he  founded  his  pretensions  to  the  title  of  King  of  Italy. 
The  opposition  which  the  execution  of  the  decrees  of  that  diet 
met  with  on  the  part  of  the  Milanese,  induced  the  Emperor  to 
undertake  the  siege  of  their  city.  He  made  himself  master  of  it 
in  1162,  razed  it  to  the  foundation,  and  dispersed  the  inhabitants. 

This  chastisement  of  the  Milanese  astonished  the  Italia'ns, 
but  without  abating  their  courage.  They  afterwards  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  reverses  of  the  Emperor,  and  the  schism  which 
had  arisen  in  the  Romish  Church,  to  form  a  league  with  the 
principal  cities  of  Lombardy  (1167,)  into  wdiich  they  drew  the 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  as  well  as  Pope  Alexander  III.,  whom 
the  Emperor  treated  as  a  schismatic.  The  city  of  Milan  was 
rebuilt  in  consequence  of  this  league  ;  as  also  that  of  Alexan- 
dria, called  della  Paglia.  The  war  was  long  protracted  ;  but 
the  Emperor  being  abandoned  by  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia and  Saxony,  the  most  powerful  of  his  vassals,  received  a 
defeat  at  Lignano,  which  obliged  him  to  make  an  accommoda- 
tion with  Pope  Alexander  III.,  and  to  sign,  at  Venice,  a  treaty 
of  six  years  with  the  confederate  cities  (1177.)  This  treaty  was 
afterwards  converted,  at  Constance,  into  a  definitive  peace 
(1183;)  by  virtue  of  which,  the  cities  of  Ital\^  were  guaranteed 
in  the  forms  of  government  they  had  adopted,  as  well  as  in  the 
exercise  of  the  regalian  rights  w^hich  they  had  acquired,  whether 
by  usage  or  prescription.  The  Emperor  reserved  for  himself 
the  investiture  of  the  consuls,  the  oath  of  allegiance,  which  was 
to  be  renewed  every  ten  years,  and  all  appeals,  in  civil  cases, 
where  the  sum  exceeded  the  value  of  twenty-five  imperial  livres, 
(about  1500  francs.) 

The  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  grandson  of  Frederic  I.,  and  heir, 
in  right  of  his  mother,  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  made 
new  efforts  to  restore  the  prerogatives  of  the  Empire  in  Italy. 
But  the  cities  of  Lombardy  renewed  their  league,  into  which 
they  drew  Pope  Gregory  IX.  (1226,)  whose  dignity  and  power 
would  be  endangered  if  the  Emperor,  being  possessor  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  should  succeed  in  conquering  the  cities  of  Lom- 
bardy. The  war  Avhich  ensued  (1236,)  Avas  long  and  bloody. 
The  Popes  Gregory  IX.  and  Innocent  IV.,  went  so  far  as  to 
preach  up  a  crusade  against  the  Emperor,  as  if  he  had  been  an 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074 — 1300.  127 

infidel ;  while  that  unfortunate  prince,  after  the  most  courageous 
and  indefatig-able  efforts,  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  troops 
once  more  discomfited  by  the  forces  of  the  League. 

The  cities  of  Italy  were  no  sooner  delivered  from  the  terror 
of  the  Emperors,  than  tiiey  let  loose  their  fury  against  each 
other ;  impelled  by  the  rage  of  conquest,  and  torn  by  the  inter- 
nal factions  of  the  GueJphs  and  the  Ghibellines,  as  well  as  by 
the  contests  which  had  arisen  between  the  noblesse  and  the  free 
cities.  The  partisans  of  the  nobles  in  these  cities,  were  strength- 
ened by  the  very  measures  which  had  been  taken  to  humble 
them.  The  chartered  towns  by  destroying  that  multitude  of 
seignories,  earldoms,  and  marquisates  wiin  which  Lombardy 
swarmed  before  the  twelfth  century,  and  by  incorporating  them* 
with  their  own  territories,  obliged  the  deserted  nobles  and  gran- 
dees to  seek  an  establishment  within  their  walls.  These  latter, 
finding  their  partisans  united  and  powerful,  soon  attempted  to 
seize  the  government;  and  hence  arose  an  interminable  source 
of  civil  discord,  which  ended  with  the  loss  of  liberty  in  the  greater 
part  of  these  communities. 

To  arrest  these  evils,  and  put  a  check  to  the  ambition  of  the 
powerful  citizens,  they  adopted  the  plan  of  intrusting  the  gov- 
ernment to  a  single  magistrate,  to  be  called  the  Podesta,  who 
should  be  chosen  in  the  neighbouring  cities.  This  scheme  was 
but  a  palliative  rather  than  a  remedy  ;  and  in  order  to  guarantee 
themselves  from  the  oppression  of  the  nobles,  the  corporations 
of  several  cities  gradually  adopted  the  plan  of  conferring  a  sort 
of  dictatorship  on  one  of  the  powerful  citizens,  or  on  some  prince 
or  nobleman,  even  though  he  were  a  stranger,  under  the  title  of 
Captain  ;  hoping,  in  this  way,  to  succeed  in  re-establishing 
peace  and  order.  These  chiefs  or  captains  contrived,  in  process 
of  time,  to  render  absolute  and  perpetual,  an  authority  which  at 
first  was  temporary,'  and  only  granted  on  certain  conditions. 
Hence  the  origin  of  several  new^  independent  sovereignties  which 
were  formed  in  Italy  during  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  century 

Venice  and  Genoa  at  that  time  eclipsed  all  the  republics  of 
Italy,  by  the  flourishing  state  of  their  navigation  and  commerce. 
The  origin  of  the  former  of  these  cities  is  generally  dated  as  fai 
back  as  the  invasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila  (4-52.)  The  cru- 
elty of  these  barbarians  having  spread  terror  and  flight  over  the 
whole  country,  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  ancient  Venetia,  took 
refuge  in  the  isles  and  lagoons  on  the  borders  of  the  Adriatic 
Gulf;  and  there  laid  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Venice,  which, 
v^hether  we  regard  the  singularity  of  its  construction,  cr  the 
splendour  to  which  it  rose,  deserves  to  be  numbered  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.     At  first  its  government  was  popular,  and 

12=^ 


138  CHAPTER    V. 

administered  by  a  bench  of  tribunes  whose  power  was  annual. 
The  divisions  which  arose  among  these  yearly  administrators, 
occasioned  the  election  of  a  chief  (697,)  who  took  the  title  of 
Duke  or  Doge.  This  dignity  was  for  life,  and  depended  on  the 
suffrages  of  the  community  ;  but  he  exercised  nevertheless  the 
rights  of  sovereignty,  and  it  was  not  till  after  a  long  course  ot 
time  that  his  authority  was  gradually  abridged  ;  and  the  govern- 
ment, which  had  been  monarchical,  became  again  democratical. 

Venice,  which  from  its  birth  was  a  commercial  city,  enjoyed 
in  the  middle  ages  nearly  the  same  renown  which  Tyre  had 
among  the  trading  cities  of  antiquity.  The  commencement  of 
its  grandeur  may  be  dated  from  the  end  of  the  tenth  century, 
and  under  the  magistracy  of  the  Doge  Peter  Urseolo  II.,  whom 
the  Venetians  regard  as  the  true  founder  of  their  state  (992.) 
From  the  Greek  emperors  he  obtained  for  them  an  entire  liberty 
and  immunity  of  commerce,  in  all  the  ports  of  that  empire  ;  and 
he  procured  them  at  the  same  time  several  very  important  ad- 
vantages, by  the  treaties  which  he  concluded  with  the  emperor 
Otho  III.  and  with  the  Caliphs  of  Egypt.  The  vast  increase  of 
their  commerce,  inspired  these  republicans  with  a  desire  to  ex- 
tend the  contracted  bounds  of  their  territory.  One  of  their  first 
conquests  was  the  maritime  cities  of  Istria,  as  well  as  those  of 
Dalmatia ;  both  of  which  occurred  under  the  magistracy  of  Peter 
Urseolo  II.,  and  in  the  year  997.  They  were  obliged  to  make 
a  surrender  of  the  cities  of  Dalmatia,  by  the  emperors  of  the 
East,  who  regarded  these  cities  as  dependencies  of  their  empire  ; 
while  the  kings  of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia  also  laid  claim  to  them. 
Croatia  having  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Kings  of  Hungary, 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  these  same  cities  became 
a  perpetual  source  of  troubles  and  wars  between  the  Kings  of 
Hungary  and  the  Republic  of  Venice  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
fifteenth  century  that  the  Republic  found  means  to  confirm  its 
authority  in  Dalmatia. 

The  Venetians  having  become  parties  in  the  famous  League 
of  Lombardy,  in  the  eleventh  century,  contributed  by  their  ef- 
forts, to  render  abortive  the  vast  projects  of  the  Emperor  Frede- 
ric i.  Pope  Alexander  III.,  as  a  testimony  of  his  gratitude, 
granted  them  the  sovereignty  of  the  Hadriatic  (1177,)-^  and  this 
circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  singular  ceremony  of  annually 
marrying  this  sea  to  the  Doge  of  Venice.  The  aggrandizement 
of  this  republic  was  greatly  accelerated  by  the  crusades,  espe- 
cially the  fourth  (1204,)  which  was  followed  by  the  dismem- 
berment of  the  Greek  empire.  The  Venetians,  who  had  joined 
this  crusade,  obtained  for  their  portion  several  cities  and  ports 
in  Dalmatia,  Albania,  Greece  and  the  Morea  •  as  also  the  Islands 


PERIOD  ir.     A.  D.  1074 — 1300.  139 

of  Corfu,  Cephalonia,  and  Candia  or  Crete.  At  length,  towards 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  this  republic  assumed  the  pe- 
culiar form  of  government  which  it  retained  till  the  day  of  its 
destruction.  In  the  earlier  ages  its  constitution  was  democratic, 
and  the  power  of  the  Doge  limited  by  a  grand  council,  which 
was  chosen  annually  from  among  the  different  classes  of  the 
citizens,  by  electors  named  by  the  people.  As  these  forms  gave 
occasion  to  troubles  and  intestine  commotions,  the  Doge  Pietro 
Gradenigo,  to  remove  all  cause  of  discontent  in  future,  passed 
a  law  (1298,)  which  abrogated  the  custom  of  annual  elections, 
and  fixed  irrevojably  in  their  office  all  those  who  then  sat  in 
the  grand  council,  and  this  to  descend  to  their  posterity  for 
ever.  The  hereditary  aristocracy  thus  introduced  at  Venice, 
did  not  fail  to  excite  the  disv^ontent  of  those  whose  families  this 
new  law  had  excluded  from  the  government ;  and  it  was  this 
which  afterwards  occasioned  various  insurrections,  of  which 
that  of  Tiepolo  (1310)  is  the  most  remarkable.  The  partisans 
of  the  ancient  government,  and  those  of  the  new,  attempted  to 
decide  the  matter  by  a  battle  in  the  city  of  Venice.  Tiepolo 
and  his  party  were  defeated,  and  Querini,  one  of  the  chiefs, 
^vas  killed  in  the  action.  A  commission  of  ten  members  was 
nominated  to  inform  against  the  accomplices  of  this  secret  con- 
spiracy. This  commission,  which  was  meant  to  be  but  tem- 
porary, was  afterwards  declared  perpetual ;  and,  under  the 
name  of  the  Coiaicil  of  Ten,  became  one  of  the  most  formida- 
ble supports  of  the  aristocracy. 

The  city  of  Genoa,  like  that  of  Venice,  owed  her  prosperity 
to  the  progress  of  her  commerce,  vrhich  she  extended  to  the 
Levant,  Constantinople,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  Governed  at  first 
by  Consuls,  like  the  rest  of  the  Italian  states,  she  afterwards 
1190)  chose  a  foreign  Podesta  or  governor,  to  repress  the  vio- 
lence of  faction,  and  put  a  check  on  the  ambition  of  the  nobles. 
This  governor  was  afterwards  made  subordinate  to  a  Captain  of 
the  people,  whom  the  Genoese  chose  for  the  first  time  in  1257, 
without  being  able  yet  to  fix  their  government,  which  ex- 
perienced frequent  variations  before  assuming  a  settled  and 
permanent  form.  These  internal  divisions  of  the  Genoese  did 
not  impede  the  progress  of  their  commerce  and  their  marine. 
The  crusades  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  the  powerful  suc- 
cours which  these  republicans  gave  to  the  crusaders,  and  to  the 
Greeks,  as  well  as  the  treaties  which  they  concluded  with  the 
Moorish  and  African  princes,  procured  them  considerable  esta- 
blishments in  the  Levant,  and  also  in  Asia  and  Africa.  CafFa, 
a  famous  seaport  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  port  of  Azoph,  the 
ancient  Tanais,  at  the  mouth   of  the  Don,  belonged  to  them  • 


140  CHAPTER    V. 

and  served  as  entrepots  for  their  commerce  with  China  and  the 
Indies.  Smyrna  in  Asia  Minor,  as  also  the  suburbs  of  Pera 
and  Galata  at  Constantinople,  and  the  isles  of  Scio,  Metelin 
and  Tenedos,  in  the  Archipelago,  were  ceded  to  them  by  the 
Greek  emperors.  The  kings  of  Cyprus  were  their  tributaries. 
The  Greek  and  German  emperors,  the  kings  of  Sicily,  Cas- 
tille  and  Arragon,  and  the  Sultans  of  Egypt,  jealously  sought 
their  alliance,  and  the  protection  of  their  marine.  Encouraged 
by  these  successes,  they  formed  a  considerable  territory  on  ^he 
continent  of  Italy,  after  the  12th  century,  of  which  nothing  but 
a  fragment  now  remains  to  them. 

Genoa  had  at  that  time,  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  a 
dangerous  rival  of  its  power  and  greatness.  This  rival  was 
Pisa,  a  flourishing  republic  on  the  coast  •of  Tuscany,  which 
owed  its  prosperity  entirely  to  the  increase  of  its  commerce  and 
marine.  The  proximity  of  these  two  states — the  similarity  of 
their  views  and  their  interests — the  desire  of  conquest — and 
the  command  of  the  sea,  which  both  of  them  desired,  created  a 
marked  jealousy  between  them,  and  made  them  the  natural  and 
implacable  enemies  of  each  other.  One  of  the  principal  sub- 
jects of  dispute  was  the  possession  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia,^^ 
which  the  two  republics  contested  at  the  point  of  the  sword, 
after  having,  by  means  of  their  combined  force,  expelled  the 
Moors,  toward  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century.  Pisa,  ori- 
ginally superior  to  Genoa  in  maritime  strength,  disputed  with 
her  the  empire  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  haughtily  forbade  the 
Genoese  to  appear  within  those  seas  with  their  ships  of  war. 
This  rivalry  nourished  the  animosity  of  the  two  republics,  and 
rendered  it  im.placable.  Hence  a  continual  source  of  mutual 
hostilities,  which  were  renewed  incessantly  for  the  space  of  200 
years,  and  only  terminated  in  1290  ;  when,  by  the  conquest  of 
Elba,  and  the  destruction  of  the  ports  of  Pisa  and  Leghorn, 
the  Genoese  effected  the  ruin  of  the  shipping  and  commerce  of 
the  Pisan  republic. 

Lower  Italy,  possessed  by  the  Norman  princes,  under  the  title 
of  Dutchy  and  Comte,  became  the  seat  of  a  new  kingdom  in  the 
eleventh  century — that  of  the  two  Sicilies.  On  the  extinction 
of  the  Dukes  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  descendants  of  Eobert 
Guiscard,  Roger,  son  of  Roger,  Count  of  Sicily,  and  sovereign 
of  that  island,  united  the  dominions  of  the  two  branches  of  the 
Norman  dynasty  (1127  ;)  and  being  desirous  of  procuring  for 
himself  the  royal  dignity,  he  attached  to  his  interest  the  Anti- 
pope  Anacletus  II.,  who  invested  him  with  royalty  by  a  bull 
(1130,)  in  which,  however,  he  took  care  to  reserve  the  territorial 
right  and  an  annual  tribute  to  the  Church  of  Rome.     This 


i-ii;RioD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  141 

prince  received  the  crown  of  Palermo  from  the  hands  of  a  car- 
dinal, whom  the  pope  had  deputed  for  the  express  purpose.  On 
ihe  death  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire,  he  succeeded  in  dispossess- 
ing- the  Prince  of  Capua,  and  subduing  the  dutchy  of  Naples 
(1139;)  thus  completing  the  conquest  of  all  that  is  now  deno- 
minated the  kingdom  of  Naples.  William  II.,  grandson  of 
Roger,  was  the  principal  support  of  Pope  Alexander  III. ;  and 
of  the  famous  League  of  Lombard y  formed  against  the  Empe- 
ror Frederic  Barbarossa.  The  male  line  of  the  Norman  princes 
having  become  extinct  in  William  II.,  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  passed  (1189)  to  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen,  by  the 
marriage  which  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  son  of  Frederic  Bar- 
barossa, contracted  with  the  Princess  Constance,  aunt  and  here- 
trix  of  the  last  king.  Henry  maintained  the  rights  of  his  wife 
against  the  usurper  Tancred,  and  transmitted  this  kingdom  to 
his  son  Frederic  II.,  who  acquired  by  his  marriage  with  Jolande, 
daughther  of  John  de  Brienne,  titular  King  of  Jerusalem,  the 
titles  and  arms  of  this  latter  kingdom.  The  efforts  which  Fre- 
deric made  to' annihilate  the  League  of  Lombardy,  and  confirm 
his  own  authority  in  Italy,  drew  down  upon  him  the  persecution 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  who  taking  advantage  of  the  minority  of 
the  young  Conradin,  grandson  of  Frederic  II.,  wrested  the 
crown  of  the  two  Sicilies  from  this  rival  house,  w^hich  alone 
was  able  to  check  its  ambitious  projects.  Mainfroi,  natural  son 
of  Frederic  II.,  disgusted  with  playing  the  part  of  tutor  to  the 
young  Conradin,  in  which  capacity  he  at  first  acted,  caused  him- 
self to  be  proclaimed  and  crowned,  at  Palermo,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  (125S.)  The  Popes  Urban  IV.,  and  Clem.ent  IV.,  dread- 
ing the  genius  and  talents  of  this  prince,  made  an  offer  of  that 
kingdom  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  Count  of  Provence,  and  brother  of 
St.  Louis.  Clement  IV.  granted  the  investiture  of  it  (1265)  to 
him  and  his  descendants,  male  and  female,  on  condition  of  his 
doing  fealty  and  homage  to  the  Holy  See,  and  presenting  him 
annually  with  a  white  riding  horse,  and  a  tribute  of  eight  million 
ounces  of  gold.  Charles,  after  being  crowned  at  Rome,  marched 
against  Mainfroi,  with  an  army  chiefly  composed  of  crusaders. 
He  defeated  that  prince,  who  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Bene- 
vento  (1268,)  v.^hich  was  soon  after  followed  by  the  reduction  of 
the  two  kingdoms.  One  rival  to  Charles  still  survived,--  the 
young  Conradin,  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 
Charles  vanquished  him  also,  two  years  afterwards,  in  the  plains 
of  Tagliacozzo  ;  and  having  made  him  prisoner,  together  with 
his  young  friend  Frederic  of  Austria,  he  caused  both  of  these 
princes  to  be  beheaded  at  Naples  (29th  October  126S.) 

Charles  did  not  long  enjoy  his  new  dignity.     While  he  was 


142  CHAPTER   V. 

preparing  to  undertake  a  crusade  against  Michael  Paleologus, 
a  schismatic  prince  who  had  expelled  the  Latins  from  Constan- 
tinople, he  had  the  mortification  to  see  himself  dispossessed  of 
Sicily,  on  the  occasion  of  the  famous  Sicilian  Vespers  (12S2.) 
This  event,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  the  result  of  a  con- 
spiracy, planned  with  great  address  by  a  gentleman  of  Salerno, 
named  John  de  Procida,  appears  to  have  been  but  the  sudden 
effect  of  an  insurrection,  occasioned  by  the  aversion  of  the  Sici- 
lians to  the  French  yoke.  During  the  hour  of  vespers,  on  the 
second  day  of  Easter  (30th  March,)  when  the  inhabitants  of 
Palermo  were  on  their  way  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
situated  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  it  happened  that  a 
Frenchman,  named  Drouette,  had  offered  a  private  insult  to  a 
Sicilian  woman  :  hence  a  quarrel  arose,  which  drew  on  a  gene- 
ral insurrection  at  Palermo.  All -the  French  who  were  in  the 
city  or  the  neighbourhood  were  massacred,  v/ith  the  exception 
of  one  gentleman  from  Provence,  called  William  Porcellet,  who 
had  conciliated  all  hearts  by  his  virtues.  This  revolt  gradually 
extended  to  the  other  Sicilian  cities.  Every  where  the  French 
were  put  to  death  on  the  spot.  Messina  was  the  last  that  caught 
the  infection ;  but  there  the  revolution  did  not  take  place  till 
thirty  days  after  the  same  event  at  Palermo,  (29th  April  12S2.) 
It  is  therefore  not  true,  that  this  massacre  of  the  French  hap- 
pened at  the  same  hour,  and  at  the  sound  of  the  vesper  bells, 
over  all  parts  of  the  island.  Nor  is  it  more  probable,  that  the 
plot  had  been  contrived  by  Peter  III.,  King  of  Arragon  ;  since 
the  Palermitans  displayed  at  first  the  banner  of  the  church, 
having  resolved  to  surrender  to  the  Pope ;  but  being  driven  from 
this  resolution,  and  dreading  the  vengeance  of  Charles,  they 
despatched  deputies  to  the  King  of  Arragon,  who  was  then 
cruising  with  a  fleet  off  the  African  coast,  and  made  him  an  ofTer 
of  their  crown.  This  prince  yielded  to  the  invitation  of  the 
Palermitans ;  he  landed  at  Trapani,  and  thence  passed  to  Pa- 
lermo, where  he  was  crowned  King  of  Sicily.  The  whole 
island  submitted  to  him;  and  Charles  of  Anjou  was  obliged  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Messina,  which  he  had  undertaken.  Peter 
entered  and  took  possession  of  the  place,  and  from  that  time 
Sicily  remained  under  the  power  of  the  Kings  of  Arragon;  it 
became  the  inheritance  of  a  particular  branch  of  the  Arragonese 
princes  ;  and  the  House  of  Anjou  were  reduced  to  the  single 
kingdom  of  Naples. 

Spain,  which  was  divided  into  several  sovereignties,  both  Chris- 
tian and  Mahometan,  presented  a  continual  spectacle  of  commo- 
tion and  carnage.  The  Christian  States  of  Castille  and  Arragon, 
were  gradually  increased  by  the  conquests  made  over  the  Maho« 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  143 

metans ;  while  the  king-dom  of  Navarre,  less  exposed  to  con- 
quest by  its  local  situation,  remained  nearly  in  its  original  state 
of  mediocrity.  This  latter  king-dom  passed  in  succession  to 
female  heirs  of  different  houses.  Blanche  of  Navarre,  daughter 
of  Sancho  VI.,  transferred  it  to  the  Counts  of  Champagne  (1234.) 
On  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  that  house,  in  Henry  I.  of 
Navarre  (1274,)  Joan  I.,  his  daughter  and  heiress,  conveyed  that 
kingdom,  tog-ether  with  the  Comtes  of  Champagne  and  Brie, 
to  the  crown  of  France.  Philip  the  Fair,  husband  of  that  prni- 
cess,  and  his  three  sons,  Louis  le  Hutin,  Philip  the  Long,  and 
Charles  the  Fair,  were,  at  the  same  time,  kings  both  of  France 
and  Navarre.  Finally,  it  was  Queen  Joan  II.,  daughter  of 
Louis  le  Hutin,  and  heretrix  of  Navarre,  who  transferred  that 
kingdom  to  the  family  of  the  Counts  d'Evreux,  and  relinquished 
the  Comtes  of  Champagne  and  Brie  to  Philip  of  Valois,  suc- 
cessor of  Charles  the  Fair  to  the  throne  of  France  (1336.) 

The  family  of  the  Counts  of  Barcelona  ascended  the  throne 
of  Arragon  (1131,)  by  the  marriage  of  Count  Raymond-Beren- 
guier  V.  w^ith  Donna  Petronilla,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Ramira 
II.,  King  of  Arragon.  Don  Pedro  II.,  grandson  of  Raymond- 
Berenguier,  happening  to  be  at  Rome  (1204,)  was  there  crowned 
king  of  Arragon  by  Pope  Innocent  IIL  On  this  occasion  he 
did  homage  for  his  kingdom  to  that  pontiff,  and  engaged,  for 
himself  and  successors,  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  to  the  Holy 
See.  Don  James  I.,  surnamed  the  Conqueror,  son  of  Don  Pedro 
11.,  gained  some  important  victories  over  the  Mahometans,  from 
whom  he  took  the  Balearic  Isles  (1230,)  and  the  kinsjdom  of 
Valentia,~7  (1238.)  Don  Pedro  III.  eldest  son  of  Don  James  I., 
had  dispossessed  Charles  I.  of  Anjou  and  Sicily,  which  drew 
down  upon  him  a  violent  persecution  on  the  part  of  Pope  Martin 
IV,,  who  w^as  on  the  eve  of  publishing  a  crusade  against  him, 
and  assigning  over  his  estates  to  Charles  of  Valois,  a  younger 
brother  of  Philip  called  the  Hardy,  king  of  France.  Don  James 
II.,  younger  son  of  Don  Pedro  III.,  succeeded  in  making  his 
peace  with  the  Court  of  Rome,  and  even  obtained  from  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.  (1297)  the  investiture  of  the  Island  of  Sardinia, 
on  condition  of  acknowledging  himself  the  vassal  and  tributary 
of  the  Holy  See  for  that  kingdom,  which  he  afterwards  obtained 
by  conquest  from  the  republic  of  Pisa. 

The  principal  victories  of  the  Christians  over  the  Mahome- 
tans in  Spain,  were  reserved  for  the  kings  of  Castillo,  whose 
history  is  extremely  fertile  in  great  events.  Alphonso  VI., 
whom  some  call  Alphonso  I.,  after  having  taken  Madrid  and 
Toledo  (1085,)  and  subdued  the  whole  kingdom  of  Toledo,  was 
on  the  point  of  altogether  expelling  the  Mahometans  from  Spain 


144  CHAPTER   V. 

when  a  revolution  which  happened  in  Africa  augmented  their 
forces  by  fresh  numbers,  and  thus  arrested  the  progress  of  the 
Castilian  prince. 

The  Zeirides,  an  Arab  dynasty,  descended  from  Zeiri,  son  of 
Mounad,  reigned  then  over  that  part  of  Africa  which  compre- 
hends Africa  properly  so  called  (viz.  Tripoli,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,) 
and  the  Mogreb  (comprehending  Fez  and  Morocco,)  which  they 
had  conquered  from  the  Fatimite  caliphs  of  Egypt.  It  hap- 
pened that  a  new  apostle  and  conqueror,  named  Aboubeker,  son 
of  Omer,  collected  some  tribes  of  Arabs  in  the  vicinity  of  Sugul- 
messa,  a  city  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez,  and  got  himself  proclaimed 
Commander  of  the  Faithful.  His  adherents  took  the  name  of 
MorahefJiin,  a  term  which  signifies  zealously  devoted  to  religion  ; 
and  whence  the  Spaniards  have  formed  the  w^m.Q's,  Ahnoravidrs 
and  Marahouths.  Having  made  himself  master  of  the  city  of 
Sngulmessa,  this  warlike  Emir  extended  his  conquests  in  the 
Mogreb,  as  well  as  in  Africa  Proper,  whence  he  expelled  the 
Zeirides.  His  successor,  YousufF,  or  Joseph,  the  son  of  Tas- 
chefin,  completed  the  conquest  of  these  countries  ;  and  built  the 
city  of  Morocco  (1069,)  which  he  made  the  capital  of  the  Mogreb, 
and  the  seat  of  his  new  empire.  This  prince  joined  the  Ma- 
hometans of  Seville,  to  whose  aid  he  marched  with  his  victorious 
troops,  defeated  the  king  of  Castille  at  the  battle  of  Badajos 
(1090,)  and  subdued  the  principal  Mahometan  states  of  Spain, 
such  as  Grenada  and  Seville,  &c. 

The  empire  of  the  Almoravides  was  subverted  in 'the  tv;elfth 
century  by  another  Mahometan  sect,  called  the  Moahedins,  or 
Almohades,  a  word  signifying  Unitarians.  An  upstart  fanatic, 
named  Ahdalmoum.en^  was  the  founder  of  this  sect.  He  was 
educated  among  the  mountains  of  Sous,  in  Mauritania,  and 
assumed  the  quality  of  F^mir  (1120,)  and  the  surname  of  Mo- 
hadi,  that  is,  the  Chief — the  leader  and  director  of  the  faithful. 
Having  subdued  Morocco,  Africa,  and  the  whole  of  the  Mogreb, 
he  annihilated  the  d^masty  of  the  Almoravides  (1146,)  and  at 
the  same  tim.e  vanquished  the  Mahometan  states  in  Spain.  He 
took  also  (1160)  from  the  Normans  Tunis,  Mohadie,  and  Tripoli, 
of  which  they  had  taken  possession.  One  of  his  successors, 
named  Naser-Moharnmed,  formed  the  project  of  re-conquering 
the  whole  continent  of  Spain.  The  immense  preparations  which 
he  made  for  this  purpose,  alarmed  Alphonso  VIII. ,  king  of  Cas- 
tille, who  immediately  formed  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Ar- 
ragon  and  Navarre,  and  even  engaged  Pope  Innocent  III.  to 
proclaim  a  crusade  against  the  Mahometans.  The  armJes  of 
Europe  and  Africa  met  on  the  confines  of  Castile  and  Andalusia 
(1£12;)  and  in  the  environs  of  the  city  Ubeda  was  fought  a 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  146 

bloody  battle,  which  so  crippled  the  power  of  the  Almohades,  as 
to  occasion  in  a  short  time  the  downfall  and  dismemberment  of 
their  empire.-^ 

About  this  period  (1269,)  the  Mahometans  of  Spain  revolted 
afresh  from  Africa,  and  divided  themselves  into  several  petty 
states,  of  which  the  principal  and  the  only  one  that  existed  for 
several  centuries,  was  that  of  the  descendants  of  Naser,  King's 
of  Grenada.  Ferdinand  III.,  King  of  Castille  and  Leon,  took 
advantage  of  this  event  to  renew  his  conquests  over  the  Ma- 
hometans. He  took  from  them  the  kingdoms  of  Cordova,  Mur- 
cia,  and  Seville  (1238,  et  seq.,)  and  left  them  only  the  single 
kingdom  of  Grenada. 

These  wars  against  the  Mahometans  were  the  occasion  of 
several  religious  and  military  orders  being  founded  in  Spain. 
Of  these,  the  most  ancient  was  that  founded  and  fixed  at  Alcan- 
tara (1156,)  whence  it  took  its  name;  having  for  its  badge  or 
decoration  a  green  cross,  in  form  of  the  lily,  ov  Jleur-de-lis.  The 
order  of  Calatrava  was  instituted  in  115S ;  it  was  confirmed  by 
Pope  Alexander  III.  (1164,)  and  assumed  as  its  distinctive  mark 
the  red  cross,  also  in  form  of  the  lily.  The  order  of  St.  James 
of  Campostella,  founded  in  1161,  and  confirmed  by  the  same 
Pope  (1175,)  was  distinguished  by  a  red  cross,  in  form  of  a 
sword'  Finally,  the  order  of  Montesa  (1317,)  supplanted  that 
of  the  Templars  in  the  kingdom  of  Arragon. 

The  Kings  of  Castille  and  Arragon  having  conquered  from 
the  Arabs  a  part  of  what  is  properly  called  Portugal,  formed  it 
into  a  distinct  government,  under  the  name  of  Portocalo,  or  Por- 
tugal. Henry  of  Burgundy,  a  French  prince,  grandson  of  Ro- 
bert, called  the  Old,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  great-grandson  of 
Robert  II.,  King  of  France,  having  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery  in  the  wars  between  the  Castillians  and  the  Mahome- 
tans, Alphonso  VI.,  King  of  Castille,  wished  to  attach  the  young 
prince  to  him  by  the  ties  of  blood  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  gave 
him  in  marriage  \iis  daughter  the  Infant  Donna  Theresa;  and 
created  him  Count  of  Portugal  (1090.)  This  State,  including 
at  first  merely  the  cities  of  Oporto,  Braga,  Miranda,  Lamego, 
Viseo,  and  Coimbra,  began  to  assume  its  present  form,  in  the 
reign  of  Alphonso  I.,  son  of  Count  Henry.  The  Mahometans, 
alarmed  at  the  warlike  propensities  of  the  young  Alphonso,  had 
marched  with  a  superior  force  to  attack  him  by  surprise.  Far 
from  being  intimidated  by  the  danger,  this  prince,  to  animate 
the  courage  of  his  troops,  pretended  that  an  apparition  from  hea- 
ven had  authorized  him  to  proclaim  himself  King  in  the  face  ot 
the  army,  in  virtue  of  an  express  order  which  he  said  he  had 
received  from  Christ.  ^^     He  then  marched  against  the  enemy, 

VOL.  I.  13 


146  CHAPTER  V. 

and  totally  routed  them  in  the  plams  of  Ourique  (1139.)     Thif? 

victory,  famous  in  the  annals  of  Portugal,  paved  the  way  for  the 
conquest  of  the  cities  Leiria,  Santarem,  Lisbon,  Cintra,  Alcazar 
do  Sal,  Evora,  and  Elvas,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  TagnS: 
Moreover,  to  secure  the  protection  of  the  Court  of  Rome  against 
the  Kings  of  Leon,  who  disputed  with  him  the  independence  of 
his  new  state,  Alphonso  took  the  resolution  of  acknowledging 
himself  vassal  and  tributary  to  the  Holy  See  (1142.)  He  after- 
wards convoked  the  estates  of  his  kingdom  at  Lamego,  and 
there  declared  his  independence  by  a  fundamental  law,  which 
also  regulated  the  order  of  succession  to  the  throne.  Sancho  I., 
son  and  successor  of  Alphonso,  took  from  the  Mahometans,  .he 
town  of  Silves  in  Algarve ;  and  Alphonso  III.,  soon  aftt 
(1249,)  completed  the  conquest  of  that  province. 

The  first  Kings  of  Portugal,  in  order  to  gain  the  protection  of 
the  Court  of  Rome,  were  obliged  to  grant  extensive  benefices  to 
the  ecclesiastics,  Avith  regalian  rights,  and  the  exemption  of  the 
clergy  from  the  secular  jurisdiction.  Their  successors,  how- 
ever, finding  themselves  firmly  established  on  the  throne,  soon 
changed  their  policy,  and  manifested  as  much  of  indifference  for 
the  clergy  as  Alphonso  I.  had  testified  of  kindness  and  attach- 
ment to  them.  Hence  originated  a  long  series  of  broils  and 
quarrels  Vv'ith  the  Court  of  Rome.  Pope  Innocent  IV.  deposed 
Sancho  II.  (1245,)  and  appointed  Alphonso  III.  in  his  place. 
Denys,  son  and  successor  of  this  latter  prince,  was  excommuni- 
cated for  ^he  same  reason,  and  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  (1289,) 
by  which  the  clergy  were  re-established  in  all  their  former  rights. 

In  France,  the  whole  policy  of  the  Kings  was  directed  against 
their  powerful  vassals,  who  shared  among  them  the  finest  pro- 
vinces of  that  kingdom.  The  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  Normandy, 
and  Aquitaine  ;  the  Counts  of  Flanders,  Champagne,  and  Tou- 
louse ;  the  Dukes  of  Bretagne,  the  Counts  of  Poitiers,  Bar, 
Blois,  Anjou  and  Maine,  Alenc^on,  Auvergne,  Angouleme,  Pe- 
rigord,  Carcassonne,  ^^  &;c.  formed  so  many  petty  sovereigns, 
equal  in  some  respects  to  the  electors  and  princes  of  the  Ger- 
manic empire.  Several  circumstances,  however,  contributed  to 
maintain  the  balance  in  favour  of  royalty.  The  crown  was  he- 
reditary, and  the  demesne  lands  belonging  to  the  king,  which, 
being  very  extensive,  gave  him  a  power  which  far  outweighed 
that  of  any  individual  vassal.  Besides,  these  same  demesnes 
being  situate  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  enabled  the  sovereign 
to  observe  the  conduct  of  his  vassals,  to  divide  their  forces,  and 
prevent  any  one  from  preponderating  over  another.  The  per- 
petual wars  which  they  waged  with  each  other,  the  tyranny 
which  they  exercised  over  their  dependants,  and  the  enlighten- 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  147 

ed  policy  of  several  of  the  French  kings,  by  degrees  re-estab- 
lished the  royal  authority,  which  had  been  almost  annihilated 
under  the  last  princes  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 

It  was  at  this  period  that  the  rivalry  between  France  and  Eng- 
land had  its  origin.  The  fault  that  Philip  I.  committed,  in 
making  no  opposition  to  the  conquest  of  England,  by  William 
Duke  of  Normandy,  hio  vassal,  served  to  kindle  the  flame  of  war 
between  these  princes.  The  war  which  took  place  in  1087,  was 
the  first  that  happened  between  the  two  nations  ;  it  was  renewed 
under  the  subsequent  reigns,  and  this  rivalry  was  still  more  in- 
creased, on  occasion  of  the  unfortunate  divorce  between  Louis 

VII.  and  Eleanor  of  Poitou,  heiress  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  and 
Gascogne.  This  divorced  Princess  married  (1152)  Henrj^,  sur- 
named  Plantagenet,  Duke  of  Normandy,  Count  of  Anjou  and 
Maine,  and  afterwards  King  of  England ;  and  brought  him,  in 
dowry,  the  whole  of  her  vast  possessiouL.  But  it  was  reserved 
for  Philip  Augustus  to  repair  the  faults  of  his  predecessors. 
This  great  monarch,  whose  courage  was  equal  to  his  prudence 
and  his  policy,  recovered  his  superiority  over  England  ;  he 
strengthened  his  power  and  authority  by  the  numerous  acces- 
sions which  he  made  to  the  crown-lands,  ^^  (llSO-1220.)  Be- 
sides Artois,  Vermandois,  the  earldoms  of  Evreux,  Auvergne, 
and  Alen9on,  which  he  annexed  under  different  titles,  he  took 
advantage  of  the  civil  commotions  which  had  arisen  in  England 
against  King  John,  to  dispossess  the  English  of  Normandy,  An- 
jou, Maine,  Lorraine,  and  Poitou  (1203;)  and  he  maintain.ed 
these  conquests  by  the  brilliant  victory  which  he  gained  at  Bou- 
vines  (1214,)  over  the  combined  forces  of  England,  the  Empe- 
ror Otho,  and  the  Count  of  Flanders.  ^^ 

Several  of  the  French  kings  were  exclusively  occupied  with 
the  crusades  in  the  East.  Louis  VII.,  Philip  Augustus,  and 
Louis  IX.  took  the  cross,  and  marched  in  person  to  the  Holy 
Land.  These  ultra-marine  expeditions  (1147,  1248,)  which  re- 
quired great  and  powerful  resources,  could  not  but  exhaust 
France  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  crusades  which  Louis  VIII. 
undertook  against  the  Albigenses  and  their  protectors,  the  Counts 
of  Toulouse  and  Carcassonne,  considerably  augmented  the  royal 
power.  Pope  Innocent  III,,  by  proclaiming  this  crusade  (1208,) 
raised  a  tedious  and  bloody  war,  which  desolated  Languedoc  ; 
and  during  which,  fanaticism  perpetrated  atrocities  which  make 
humanity  shudder,  Simon,  Count  Monfort,  the  chief  or  genera] 
of  these  crusaders,  had  the  whole  estates  of  the  counts  of  Tou- 
louse adjudged  him  by  the  Pope.  Amauri,  the  son  and  heir  ot 
Simon,  surrendered  his  claims  over  these  forfeitures  to  Louis 

VIII,  King  of  France  (1226  ;)  and  it  was  this  circumstance  that 


14S  CHAPTER   V. 

induced  Louis  to  march  in  person  at  the  head  of  the  crusaders, 
against  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  his  vassal  and  cousin.  He  died 
at  the  close  of  this  expedition,  leaving  to  his  son  and  successor, 
Louis  IX.,  the  task  of  finishing  this  disastrous  war.  By  the 
peace  which  was  concluded  at  Paris  (1229,)  between  the  King 
and  the  Count,  the  greater  part  of  Languedoc  was  allowed  to  re- 
main in  the  possession  of  Louis.  One  arrangement  of  this 
treaty  was  the  marriage  of  the  Count's  daughter  with  Al- 
phonso,  brother  to  the  King ;  with  this  express  clause,  that 
failing  heirs  of  this  marriage,  the  whole  territory  of  Toulouse 
should  revert  to  the  crown.  The  same  treaty  adjudged  to  the 
Pope  the  county  of  Venaissin,  as  an  escheat  of  the  Counts  of 
Toulouse  ;  and  the  Count  of  Carcassonne,  implicated  also  in 
the  cause  of  the  Albigenses,  was  compelled  to  cede  to  the  King 
all  right  over  the  viscounties  of  Beziers,  Carcassonne,  Agde, 
Rodez,  Albi,  and  Nismes.  One  consequence  of  this  bloody 
war  was  the  establishment  of  the  terrible  tribunal  of  the  In- 
quisition,^-^   and  the  founding  of  the  order  of  Dominicans.^^ 

Henry  II.,  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet,  having 
mounted  the  throne  of  England,  in  right  of  his  mother  Ma- 
tilda, annexed  to  that  crown  the  dutchy  of  Normandy,  the  coun- 
tries of  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Maine,  together  with  Guienne, 
Gascogne  and  Poitou.  He  afterwards  added  Ireland,  which  he 
subdued  in  1172.  This  island,  which  had  never  been  con- 
quered, either  by  the  Romans,  or  the  barbarians  who  had  deso- 
lated Europe,  was,  at  that  time,  divided  into  five  principal 
sovereignties,  viz.  Munster,  Ulster,  Connaught,  Leinster,  and 
Meath,  whose  several  chiefs  all  assumed  the  title  of  Kings. 
One  of  these  princes  enjoyed  the  dignity  of  monarch  of  the 
island;  but  he  had  neither  authority  sufficient  to  secure  inter- 
nal tranquillity,  nor  power  enough  to  repel  with  success  the 
attacks  of  enemies  from  without.  It  was  this  state  of  weakness 
that  induced  Henry  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  the  island.  He 
obtained  the  sanction  of  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  by  a  bull  in  1155,  and 
undertook,  in  a  formal  engagement,  to  subject  the  Irish  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See,  and  the  payment  oi  Peter^s  pence ?^ 
The  expulsion  of  Dermot,  king  of  Leinster,  who  had  rendered 
himself  odious  by  his  pride  and  his  tyranny,  furnished  Henry 
with  a  pretext  for  sending  troops  into  that  island,  to  assist  the 
dethroned  prince  in  recovering  his  dominions.  The  success  of 
the  English,  and  the  victories  which  they  gained  over  Roderic, 
King  of  Connaught,  who  at  that  time  was  chief  monarch  of  the 
island,  determined  Henry  to  undertake,  in  person,  an  expedition 
into  Ireland  (in  October  1172.)  He  soon  reduced  the  provinces 
of  Leinster  and  Munster  to  submission  ;  and  after  having  con- 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  149 

siructed  several  forts,  and  nommatea  a  viceroy  and  other  crown 
officers,  he  took  his  departure  without  completing  the  conquest 
of  the  island.  Eoderic,  Kingof  Connaught,  submitted  in  1175  ; 
but  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  that  the  entire 
reduction  of  Ireland  was  accomplished. 

In  England,  the  rashness  and  rapacity  of  John,  son  of  Henry 
II.  occasioned  a  mighty  revolution  in  the  government.  The 
discontented  nobles,  with  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  at  their 
head,  joined  in  a  league  against  the  King.  Pope  Innocent  III. 
formally  deposed  him,  made  over  his  kingdom  to  the  Crown  of 
France,  and  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  him  in  every  coun- 
try of  Europe.  John  obtained  an  accommodation  with  the 
Pope;  and  in  order  to  secure  his  protection,  he  consented  to  be- 
come a  vassal  of  the  Church,  both  for  England  and  Ireland  ; 
engaging  to  pay  his  Holiness,  besides  Peter's  pence,  an  annual 
tribute  of  a  thousand  marks.  But  all  in  vain ;  the  nobles  per- 
sisted in  their  revolt,  and  forced  the  King  to  grant  them  the 
grand  charter  of  Magna  Charta,  by  which  he  and  his  succes- 
sors were  for  ever  deprived  of  the  power  of  exacting  subsidies 
without  the  counsel  and  advice  of  Parliament ;  which  did  not 
then  include  the  Commons.  He  granted  to  the  city  of  London, 
and  to  all  cities  and  burghs  in  the  kingdom,  a  renewal  of 
their  ancient  liberties  and  privileges,  and  the  right  of  not  being 
taxed  except  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  common  coun- 
cil. Moreover,  the  lives  and  properties 'of  the  citizens  were 
secured  by  this  charter;  one  clause  of  which  expressly  pro- 
vided, that  no  subject  could  be  either  arrested,  imprisoned,  dis- 
possessed of  his  fortune,  or  deprived  of  his  life,  except  by  a 
legal  sentence  of  his  peers,  conform  to  the  ancient  law  of  the 
country.  This  charter,  which  was  renewed  in  various  subse- 
quent reigns,  forms,  at  this  day,  the  basis  of  the  English 
Constitution. 

King  John,  meantime,  rebelled  against  this  charter,  and 
caused  it  to  be  rescinded  by  Pope  Innocent' III.,  who  even  is- 
sued a  bull  of  excommunication  against  the  barons  ;  but  they, 
far  from  being  disconcerted  or  intimidated,  made  an  ofier  of 
their  crown  to  Louis,  son  of  Philip  Augustus  King  of  France. 
This  prince  repaired  to  England,  and  there  received  the  fealty 
and  homage  of  the  grandees  and  the  nation.  John,  abandoned 
by  all  his  subjects,  attempted  to  take  refuge  in  Scotland  ;  but 
he  died  in  his  flight  at  the  castle  of  Newark.  His  death  made 
a  sudden  change  in  the  minds  and  sentiments  of  the  English. 
The  barons  forsook  the  standard  of  the  French  prince,  and 
rallied  round  that  of  young  Henry,  son  of  King  John,  whose 
long  and  unfortunate  reign  was  a  succession  of  troubles  and 

13  # 


150  CHAPTER  V. 

intestine  wars.  Edward  I.,  son  and  successor  of  Henry  III.,  as 
determined  and  courageous  as  his  father  had  been  weak  and 
indolent,  restored  tranquillity  to  England,  and  made  his  name 
illustrious  by  the  conquest  which  he  made  of  the  principality  of 
W  ales. 

This  district,  from  the  most  remote  antiquity,  was  ruled  by 
its  own  native  princes,  descended  from  the  ancient  British  kings. 
Although  they  had  been  vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  kings  of 
England,  they  exercised,  nevertheless,  the  rights  of  sovereignty 
in  their  own  country.  Lewellyn,  prince  of  Wales,  having  es- 
poused the  cause  of  the  insurgents  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III., 
and  made  some  attempts  to  withdraw  from  the  vassalage  of  the 
English  crown,  Edward  I.  declared  war  against  hirn  (1282;) 
and  in  a  battle  fought  near  the  Menau,  Lewellyn  was  defeated 
and  slain,  with  two  thousand  of  his  followers.  David,  his  bro- 
ther and  successor,  met  with  a  fate  still  more  melancholy.  Hav- 
ing been  taken  prisoner  by  Edward,  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  like  a  traitor  (1283.)  The  territory  of  Wales  was 
annexed  to  the  crown;  the  king  created  his  eldest  son  Edward, 
Prince  of  Wales ;  a  title  which  has  since  been  borne  by  the 
eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  England. 

At  this  period,  the  kingdoms  of  the  North  presented,  in  gen- 
eral, little  else  than  a  spectacle  of  horror  and  carnage.  The 
warlike  and  ferocious  temper  of  the  Northern  nations,  the  want 
of  fixed  and  specific  laws  in  the  succession  of  their  kings,-^*^  gave 
rise  to  innumerable  factions,  encouraged  insolence,  and  foment- 
ed troubles  and  intestine  wars.  An  extravagant  and  supersti- 
tious devotion,  by  loading  the  church  with  wealth,  aggravated 
still  more  the  evils  with  which  these  kingdoms  were  distracted. 
The  bishops  and  the  new  metropolitans,^"  enriched  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  crown-lands,  and  rendered  bold  by  their  power, 
and  the  strength  of  their  castles,  domineered  in  the  senate  and 
the  assemblies  of  the  states,  and  neglected  no  opportunity  of 
encroaching  on  the  sovereigTi's  authority.  They  obtained,  by 
compulsion,  the  introduction  of  tithes,  and  the  immunity  of  the 
ecclesiastics  ;  and  thus  more  and  more  increased  and  cemented 
the  sacerdotal  power. -^^  This  state  of  trouble  and  internal  com- 
motion tended  to  abate  that  ardour  for  maritime  incursions 
which  had  so  long  agitated  the  Scandinavian  nations.  It  did 
not,  however,  prevent  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Sweden  from 
undertaking,  from  time-  to  time,  expeditions  by  sea,  under  the 
name  of  Crusades,  for  the  conversion  of  the  Pagan  nations  of 
he  North,  whose  territories  they  were  ambitious  to  conquer. 

The  Siavians,  who  inhabited  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  were 
then  constantly  committing  piracies,  in  imitation  of  the  ancient 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074—1300.  16'1 

Normans,  plundering-  and  ravaging  the  provinces  and  islands 
of  Denmark.  Valdemar  I.,  wishing  to  put  an  end  to  these  de- 
vastations, and  thirsting  moreover  for  the  glory  of  converting  to 
Christianity  those  nations  against  whom  all  the  efforts  of  the 
Germans  had  failed,  attacked  them  at  different  times  with  his 
numerous  flotillas.  He  took  and  pillaged  several  of  their  towns, 
such  as  Arcona  and  Carentz  or  Gariz,  in  the  isle  of  Rugen 
(1168,)  Julin,  now  called  Wollin,  and  Stettin,  two  seaports  in 
Pomerania  (1175-6.)  He  m.ade  the  princes  of  Rugen  his  vas- 
sals and  tributaries,  and  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
Dantzic  (1165,)  which  originally  was  merely  a  fort  constructed 
by  the  Danes.  Canute  VL,  son  and  successor  of  Valdemar  I., 
followed  the  example  of  his  father ;  he  reduced  the  princes  of 
Pomerania  (1183)  and  Mecklenburg  (1186,)  and  the  Counts  of 
Schwerin  (1201,)  to  a  state  of  dependence;  he  made  himself 
master  of  Hamburg  and  Lubec,  and  subdued  the  whole  of  Hol- 
stein.  Valdemar  II.  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the  Slavians, 
and  Lord  of  Nordalbingia.  He  added  Lauenburg,  a  part  of 
Prussia,  Esthonia,  and  the  Isle  of  Oesel,  to  the  conquests  of  his 
predecessors,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  cities  of  Stralsund 
and  Revel  (1209  and  1222.) 

This  prince,  master  of  nearly  the  whole  southern  coast  of  the 
Baltic,  and  raised  to  the  summit  of  prosperity  by  the  superiority 
of  his  commercial  and  maritime  power,  commanded  for  a  time 
the  attention  of  all  Europe  ;  but  an  unforeseen  event  eclipsed 
his  glory,  and  deprived  him  of  all  the  advantages  of  his  victories 
and  his  conquests.  Henry,  Count  of  Schwerin,  one  of  the  vas- 
sals of  Valdemar,  wishing  to  avenge  an  outrage  which  he  pre- 
tended to  have  received  from  him,  seized  that  prince  by  surprise 
(1223,)  and  detained  him  for  three  years  prisoner  in  the  castle 
of  Schwerin.  This  circumstance  aroa'sed  the  courage  of  the 
Other  vanquished  nations,  who  instantly  took  to  arms.  Adol- 
phus.  Count  of  Schauenburg,  penetrated  into  Holstein,  and 
subdued  the  princes  of  Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania,  with  the 
cities  of  Hamburg  and  Lubec.  Valdemar,  restored  to  liberty, 
made  several  efforts  to  reconquer  his  revolted  provinces  ;  but  a 
powerful  confederacy  being  formed  against  him,  he  was  defeat- 
ed in  a  battle  fought  (1227,)  at  Bornhoevet,  near  Segeberg,  in 
Holstein.  Of  all  his  conquests,  he  retained  only  the  Isle  of 
Rugen,  Esthonia,  and  the  town  of  Revel,  which,  in  course  of 
time,  were  lost  or  abandoned  by  his  successors. 

Sweden,  which  had  been  governed  in  succession  by  the  dy- 
nasties of  Ste7ikil,  Swerkar,  and  St.  Eric,  was  long  a  prey  co 
internal  dissensions,  which  arose  principally  from  the  two  dif- 
ferent forms  of  worship  professed  and  authorized  by  the  state. 


152  CHAPTER  V. 

The  whole  nation,  divided  in  their  religious  sentiments,  saw 
themselves  arranged  into  two  factions,  and  under  two  reigning 
families,  mutually  hating  and  exasperated  against  each  other, 
for  nearly  half  a  century.  Two,  and  sometimes  more,  princes 
were  seen  reigning  at  once  from  lOSO  till  1133,  when  the  throne 
began  to  be  occupied  ultimately  by  the  descendants  of  Sweyn 
and  St.  Eric.  During  all  this  time,  violence  usurped  the  place 
of  right,  and  the  crown  of  Sweden  was  more  than  once  the 
prize  of  assassination  and  treason. 

In  the  mid§t  of  these  intestine  disorders,  we  find  the  Swedes 
even  attempting  foreign  conquests.  To  these  they  were  insti- 
gated both  by  the  genius  of  the  age,  which  encouraged  crusades 
and  military  missions,  as  well  as  by  the  desire  of  avenging  the 
piracies  which  the  Finlanders,  and  other  Pagan  tribes  of  the 
North,  committed  from  time  to  time  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden. 
St.  Eric  became  at  once  the  apostle  and  the  conqueror  of  Fin- 
land (1157;)  he  established  also  a  Swedish  colony  in  Nyland, 
and  subdued  the  provinces  of  Helsingland  and  Jamptland. 
Charles  I.,  son  of  Swerkar,  united  the  kingdom  of  Gothland  to 
Sweden,  and  was  the  first  that  took  the  title  of  these  two  king- 
doms. Eric,  surnamed  Laspe,  or  the  Lisper,  resumed  the  cru- 
sading system  of  warfare  ;  and,  in  the  character  of  a  missionary, 
conquered  Tavastland  and  the  eastern  part  of  Bothnia.  Birger, 
a  prince  of  the  Folkungian  dynasty,  wl\p  ascended  the  throne 
of  Sweden  in  1250,  conquered,  under  the  same  pretext,  Carelia 
and  Savolax,  and  fortified  Viburg.  He  compelled  the  inhabit- 
ants of  these  countries  to  em.brace  the  Christian  religion  (1293,) 
and  annexed  them  to  Finland.  We  find,  also,  several  of  the 
Swedish  kings  undertaking  missionary  expeditions  against  their 
Pagan  neighbours  the  Esthonians,  who,  from  time  to  time,  com- 
mitted dreadful  ravages  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden.  These  ex- 
peditions, which  were  always  esteemed  sacred,  served  as  an 
excuse  for  the  sovereigns  of  the  North  in  avoiding  the  crusades 
to  the  Holy  Land,  in  which  they  took  no  part.^^ 

Prussia  and  the  Prussians  are  totally  unknown  in  history  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  tenth  century. "^^  The  author  of  the  Life  of 
St.  Adelbert  of  Prague,  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  Prussia  in 
the  reign  of  Olho  IIL,  is  the  first  that  mentions  them  under  this 
new  name  (997.)  Two  hundred  years  after,  the  Abbe  of  Oliva, 
surnamed  the  Christian,  became  the  apostle  of  the  Prussians, 
and  was  appointed  by  Pope  Innocent  HI.  the  first  bishop  ol 
Prussia  (1215.)  This  idolatrous  nation,  haughty  and  indepen- 
dent, and  attached  to  the  reigning  superstition,  having  repulsed 
all  the  efforts  that  were  repeatedly  made  to  convert  them  to 
Christianity,  Pope  Honorius  III.,  in  the  true  spirit  of  his  age, 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  152 

published  a  Crusade  against  them  (1218,)  to  proselytize  thein 
by  force.  Armies  of  crusaders  were  poured  into  Prussia,  and 
overran  the  whole  country  with  fire  and  sword.  The  Prussians 
took  cruel  vengeance  on  the  Polonese  of  Masovia,  who  had 
made  common  cause  against  them  with  the  crusaders  of  the 
East.  At  length,  Conrad,  duke  of  Masovia,  finding  himself  too 
weak  to  withstand  the  fury  of  the  Prussians,  called  in  the  Teu- 
tonic knights  to  his  aid  ;  and,  anxious  to  secure  for  ever  the  as- 
sistance and  protection  of  that  order,  he  made  them  a  grant  of 
the  territory  of  Culm  ;  and  moreover,  promised  them  whatever 
lands  he  might  conquer  from  the  common  enemy  (1226.)  This 
contract  having  been  sanctioned  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  IT., 
the  knights  speedily  came  into  possession  of  their  new  domin- 
ions (1230.)  They  extended  themselves  by  degrees  over  all 
Prussia,  after  a  long  and  murderous  war,  which  they  had  car- 
ried on  against  the  idolatrous  natives.  That  country,  which 
had  been  peopled  by  numerous  German  colonies  in  succession, 
did  not  submit  to  the  yoke  of  the  Teutonic  order,  until  the 
greater  part  of  its  ancient  inhabitants  had  been  destroyed.  The 
Knights  took  care  to  confirm  their  authority  and  their  religion 
in  Prussia,  by  constructing  cities  and  forts,  and  founding 
bishoprics  and  convents.  The  city  of  Koninsberg  ^^  on  the 
Pregel,  was  built  in  1255;  and  that  of  Marienburg  on  the  No- 
gat,  which  became  the  capital  of  the  Order,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  in  1280. 

The  Teutonic  knights  completed  the  conquest  of  that  coun- 
try (1283,)  by  the  reduction  of  Sudavia,  the  last  of  the  eleven 
provinces  which  composed  ancient  Prussia.  We  can  scarcely 
conceive  how  a  handful  of  these  knights  should  have  been  able, 
in  so  short  a  time,  to  vanquish  a  warlike  and  powerful  nation, 
inspired  with  the  love  of  liberty,  and  emboldened  by  fanaticism 
to  make  the  most  intrepid  and  obstinate  defence.  But  we  ought 
to  take  into  consideration,  that  the  indulgences  of  the  court  of 
Rome  allured  continually  into  Prussia  a  multitude  of  crusaders 
from  all  the  provinces  of  the  Empire;  and  that  the  knights 
gained  these  over  to  their  ranks,  by  distributing  among  them 
the  lands  which  they  had  won  by  conquest.  In  this  way,  their 
numbers  were  incessantly  recruited  by  new  colonies  of  crusa- 
ders, and  the  nobles  fi^ocked  in  crowds  to  their  standard,  to  seek 
territorial  acquisitions  in  Prussia. 

The  increase  of  commerce  on  the  Baltic,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, led  the  Germans  to  discover  the  coasts  of  Livonia.  Some 
merchants  from  Bremen,  on  their  way  to  Wisby,  in  the  island 
of  Gothland,  a  seaport  on  the  Baltic  very  much  frequented  at 
that  time,  were  thrown  by  a  tempest  on  the  coast  near  the  mouth 


154  CHAPTER    V. 

of  the  Dwina  (1158.)  The  desire  of  gain  induced  them  to  enter 
into  a  correspondence  with  the  natives  of  the  country  ;  and, 
from  a  wish  to  give  stability  to  a  branch  of  commerce  which 
might  become  very  lucrative,  they  attempted  to  introduce  the 
Christian  religion  into  Livonia.  A  monk  of  Segeberg  in  Hol- 
stein,  named  Mainard,  undertook  this  mission.  He  was  the  first 
bishop  of  Livonia  (1192,)  and  fixed  his  residence  at  the  castle  of 
UxkuU,  which  he  strengthened  by  fortifications.  Berthold,  his 
successor,  wishing  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  Christianity,  as 
well  as  to  avoid  the  dangers  to  which  his  mission  exposed  him, 
caused  the  Pope  to  publish  a  crusade  against  the  Livonians. 
This  zealous  prelate  perished  sword  in  hand,  fighting  against 
the  people  whom  he  intended  to  convert.  The  priests,  after 
this,  were  either  massacred  or  expelled  from  Livonia ;  but,  in  a 
short  time,  a  new  army  of  crusaders  marched  into  the  country, 
under  the  banner  of  Albert,  the  third  bishop,  who  built  the  city 
of  Riga,  (1200)  which  became  the  seat  of  his  bishopric,  and  after- 
wards the  metropolitan  see  of  all  Prussia  and  Livonia.  The 
same  prelate  founded  the  military  order  of  the  Knighls  of  CJwist 
or  Sword-hearers,  to  whom  he  ceded  the  third  of  all  the  coun- 
tries he  had  conquered.  This  order,  confirmed  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent in.  (1204,)  finding  themselves  too  weak  to  oppose  the 
Pagans  of  Livonia,  agreed  to  unite  Avith  the  Teutonic  order 
(1237,)  who,  at  that  time,  nominated  the  generals  or  provincial 
masters  in  Livonia,  knov/n  by  the  names  of  Heermeister  and 
Landvieister.  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  in  confirming  the  union  of 
these  two  orders,  exacted  the  surrender  of  the  districts  of  Revel, 
Wesemberg,  Weisenstein,  and  Hapsal,  to  Valdemar  II.,  which  the 
knights,  with  consent  of  the  Bishop  of  Dorpat,  had  taken  from  him 
during  his  captivity.  This  retrocession  was  made  by  an  act  pass- 
ed at  Strensby,  (1238.)  Several  documents  which  still  exist  in 
the  private  archives  of  the  Teutonic  order  at  Koningsberg,  and 
especially  two,  dated  1249  and  1254,  prove  that,  at  this  period, 
the  bishops  of  Riga  still  exercised  superiority,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual,  over  these  Knights  Sword-bearers,  although  they  were 
united  with  the  Teutonic  order,  which  was  independent  of  these 
bishops.  The  combination  of  these  two  orders  rendered  them  so 
powerful,  that  they  gradually  extended  their  conquests  over  all 
Prussia,  Livonia,  Courland,  and  Semigallia;  but  they  could 
never  succeed  farther  than  to  subject  these  nations  to  a  rigorous 
servitude,  under  pretence  of  conversion. 

Before  we  speak  of  Russia  and  the  other  Eastern  countries  of 
Europe,  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  our  attention  for  a  little  to 
the  Moguls,  whose  conquests  and  depredations  extended,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  from  the  extremity  of  northern  Asia,  ovei 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  155' 

Russia  and  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  The  native  country  of 
this  people  is  found  to  be  those  same  regions  which  they  still 
inhabit  in  our  day,  and  which  are  situated  to  the  north  of  the 
great  wall  of  China,  between  Eastern  Tartary  and  modern  Buk- 
haria.  They  are  generally  confounded  with  the  Tartars,  from 
whom  they  differ  essentially,  both  in  their  appearance  and  man- 
ners, as  well  as  in  their  religion  and  political  institutions.  This 
nation  is  divided  into  two  principal  branches,  the  Eluths  or 
Oelots,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Calmucs,  and  the  Mogids, 
properly  so  called.  These  latter,  separated  from  the  Calmucs 
by  the  mountains  of  Altai,  are  now  subject  to  the  dominion  of 
China. 

The  Moguls,  scarcely  known  at  present  in  the  history  of  Eu- 
rope, owe  their  greatness  to  the  genius  of  one  man — the  famous 
Zinghis  Khan.  This  extraordinary  person,  whose  real  name 
was  Tevuidgin,  or,  according  to  Pallas,  DcBinutschin,  was  born 
in  the  year  1163,  and  originally  nothing  more  than  the  chief  of 
a  particular  horde  of  Moguls,  who  had  settled  on  the  banks  of 
the  rivers  Onon  and  Kerlon,  and  were  tributary  to  the  empire  of 
Kin.  His  first  exploits  were  against  the  other  hordes  of  Mo- 
guls, whom  he  compelled  to  acknowledge  his  authority.  Em- 
boldened by  success,  he  conceived  the  romantic  idea  of  aspiring 
to  be  the  conqueror  of  the  world.  For  this  purpose,  he  assem- 
bled near  the  source  of  the  river  Onon,  in  1206,  all  the  chiefs 
of  the  Mogul  hordes,  and  the  generals  of  his  armies.  A  certain, 
pretender  to  inspiration,  whom  the  people  regarded  as  a  holy 
man,  appeared  in  the  assembly,  and  declared  that  it  was  the  will 
of  God  that  Temudgin  should  rule  over  the  whole  earth, — that 
all  nations  should  submit  to  him, — and  that  henceforth  he  should 
bear  the  title  of  Tschinghis-Khaii,  or  Most  Great  EmperorJ^ 

In  a  short  time,  this  new  conqueror  subdued  the  two  great 
empires  of  the  Tartars  ;  one  of  which,  called  also  the  empire  of 
Kin,  embraced  the  whole  of  Eastern  Tartary,  and  the  northern 
part  of  China  ;  the  other,  that  of  Kara-Kitai,  or  the  Khitans,  ex- 
tended over  Western  Tartary,  and  had  its  capital  at  Kaschgar 
in  Bukharia.^"^  He  afterwards  attacked  the  Carismian  Sultans 
who  ruled  over  Turkestan,  Transoxiana,  Charasm,  Chora- 
san,  and  all  Persia,  from  Derbent  to  Irak- Arabia  and  the  Indies. 
This  powerful  monarchy  was  overturned  by  Zinghis-Khan,  in 
the  course  of  six  campaigns ;  and  it  was  during  this  war  that 
the  Moguls,  while  marching  under  the  conduct  of  Toushi,  the 
eldest  son  of  Zinghis-Khan,  against  the  Kipzacs  or  Capchacs, 
to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  made  their  first  inroad  into 
the  Russian  empire.  Zinghis,  after  having  subdued  the  whole 
of  Tangout,  died  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age  (1227.)     His» 


156  CHAPTER  V. 

torians  have  remarked  in  him  the  traits  of  a  great  man,  born 
to  command  others,  but  whose  noble  qualities  were  tarnished  by 
the  ferocity  of  his  nature,  which  took  delight  in  carnage,  plun- 
der, and  devastation.  Humanity  shudders  at  the  recital  of  the 
inexpressible  horrors  exercised  by  this  barbarian,  whose  maxim 
was  to  exterminate,  without  mercy,  all  v/ho  offered  the  least  re- 
sistance to  his  victorious  arms. 

The  successors  of  this  Mogul  conqueror  followed  him  in  his 
career  of  victory.  They  achieved  the  conquest  of  all  China, 
overturned  the  caliphate  of  Bagdat,  and  rendered  the  sultans  of 
iconiam  their  tributaries.'^'*  Octai-Khan,  the  immediate  succes- 
sor of  Zinghis,  despatched  from  the  centre  of  China  two  pow- 
erful armies,  the  one  against  Corea,  and  the  other  against  the 
nations  that  lie  to  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
This  latter  expedition,  which  had  for  its  chiefs  Gayouk,  son  of 
Octal,  and  Batou,  eldest  son  of  Toushi,  and  grandson  of  Zinghis- 
Khan,  after  having  subdued  all  Kipzak,  penetrated  into  Eussia, 
which  they  conquered  in  1237.  Hence  they  spread  over  Poland, 
Silesia,  Moravia,  Hungary,  and  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea;  they  plundered  cities,  laid  waste  the  country, 
and  carried  terror  and  destruction  wherever  they  went.'*^  All 
Europe  trembled  at  the  sight  of  these  barbarians,  who  seemed 
as  if  they  wished  to  make  the  whole  earth  one  vast  empire  of 
desolation.  The  empire  of  the  Moguls  attained  its  highest  point 
of  elevation  under  Cublai,  grandson  of  Zinghis,  towards  the  end 
of  the  13th  century.  From  south  to  north,  it  extended  from 
the  Chinese  Sea  and  the  Indies,  to  the  extremity  of  Siberia ; 
and  from  east  to  west,  from  Japan  to  Asia  Minor,  and  the  fron- 
tiers of  Poland  in  Europe.  China,  and  Chinese  Tartary  formed 
the  seat  of  the  empire,  and  the  residence  of  the  Great  Khan  ; 
while  the  other  parts  of  the  dominions  were  governed  by  princes 
of  the  family  of  Zinghis  Khan,  who  either  acknowledged  the 
Great  Khan  as  their  supreme  master,  or  had  their  own  particular 
kings  and  chiefs  that  paid  him  tribute.  The  principal  subordi- 
nate Khans  of  the  race  of  Zinghis,  were  those  of  Persia,  Zagatai, 
and  Kipzac.  Their  dependence  on  the  Great  Khan  or  emperor 
of  China,  ceased  entirely  on  the  death  of  Cublai  (1294,)  and  the 
power  of  the  Moguls  soon  became  extinct  in  China. "^^ 

As  for  the  Moguls  of  Kipzac,  their  dominion  extended  over 
all  the  Tartar  countries  situated  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  and 
the  Euxine,  as  also  over  Russia  and  the  Crimea.  Batou-Khan, 
eldest  son  of  Toushi,  was  the  founder  of  this  dynasty.  Being 
addicted  to  a  wandering  life,  the  Khans  of  Kipzac  encamped  on 
the  banks  of  the  Wolga,  passing  from  one  place  to  another  with 
their  tents  and  flocks,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Mogul  and 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  157 

Tartar  nations.^'''  The  principal  sect  of  these  Khans  was  called 
the  Grand  or  Golden  Horde  or  the  Horde  of  Kipzac,  which  was 
long-  an  object  of  the  greatest  terror  to  the  Russians,  Poles, 
Lithuanians  and  Hungarians.  Its  glory  declined  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  entirely  disappeared  under 
the  last  Khan  Achmet,  in  1481.  A  few  separate  hordes  were 
all  that  remained,  detached  from  the  grand  horde,  such  as  those 
of  Cassan,  Astracan,  Siberia  and  the  Crimea ; — all  of  which  were 
m  their  turn  subdued  or  extirpated  by  the  Russians. "^^ 

A  crowd  of  princes,  descendants  of  Vlademir  the  Great,  had 
shared  among  them  the  vast  dominions  of  Russia.  One  of  these 
princes  invested  with  the  dignity  of  Grand  Duke,  exercised  cer- 
tain rights  of  superiority  over  the  rest,  who  nevertheless  acted 
the  part  of  petty  sovereigns,  and  made  war  on  each  other.  The 
capital  of  these  Grand  Dukes  was  Kiow,  which  was  also  regard- 
ed as  the  metropolis  of  the  empire.  Andrew  I.  prince  of  Suzdal, 
having  assumed  the  title  of  Grand  Duke  (1157,)  lixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Vlademir  on  the  river  Kliazma,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  a 
kind  of  political  schism,  the  consequences  of  which  were  most 
fatal  to  the  Russians.  The  Grand  Dutchy  of  Kiow,  with  its 
dependent  principalities,  detached  themselves  by  degrees  from 
the  rest  of  the  empire,  and  finally  became  a  prey  to  the  Lithu- 
anians and  Poles. 

In  the  midst  of  these  divisions  and  intestine  broils,  and  when 
Russia  was  struggling  with  difficulty  against  the  Bulgarians, 
Polowzians,'*^  and  other  barbarous  tribes  in  the  neighbourhood, 
she  had  the  misfortune  to  be  attacked  by  the  Moguls  under 
Zinghis  Khan.  Toushi,  eldest  son  of  that  conqueror,  having 
marched  round  the  Caspian,  in  order  to  attack  the  Polowzians, 
encountered  on  his  passage  the  Princes  of  Kiow,  who  were 
allies  of  that  people.  The  battle  which  he  fought  (1223,)  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Kalka,  was  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
lecorded  in  history.  The  Russians  were  totally  defeated;  six 
of  their  princes  perished  on  the  field  of  battle  ;  and  the  whole 
of  Western  Russia  was  laid  open  to  the  conqueror.  The  Mo- 
guls penetrated  as  far  as  Novogorod,  wasting  the  whole  country 
on  their  march  with  fire  and  sword.  They  returned  by  the  same 
route,  but  without  extending  their  ravages  farther.  In  1237 
they  made  a  second  invasion,  under  the  conduct  of  Batou,  son 
of  Toushi,  and  governor  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  Mogul 
empire.  This  prince,  after  having  vanquished  the  Polow- 
zians and  Bulgarians,  that  is,  the  whole  country  of  Kipzac. 
entered  the  north  of  Russia,  where  he  took  Rugen  and  Moscow, 
and  cut  to  pieces  an  army  of  the  Russians  near  Kolomna. 
Several  other  towns  in  this  part  of  Russi-'  were  sac*  5d  by  :he 

VOL.  ;.  14 


158  CHAPTER    V. 

Moguls,  in  the  commencement  of  the  following  year.  The 
family  of  the  Grand  Duke,  Juri  II.,  perished  in  the  sack  of  Vla- 
demir;  and  he  himself  fell  in  the  battle  which  he  fought  with 
the  Moguls  near  the  river  Sita.  Batou  extended  his  conquests 
in  Northern  Russia  as  far  as  the  city  Torshok,  in  the  territory  of 
Novogorod.  For  some  years  he  continued  his  ravages  over  the 
whole  of  Western  Russia  ;  where,  among  others,  he  took  Kiow, 
Kaminiec  in  Podolia,  Vlademir  and  Halitsch.  From  this  we 
may  date  the  fall  of  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Kiow,  or  Western 
Russia,  which,  with  its  dependent  principalities  in  the  following 
century,  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Lithuanians  and  Poles. 
As  for  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Vlademir,  which  comprehended 
Eastern  and  Northern  Russia,  it  was  subdued  by  the  Moguls 
or  Tartars,  whose  terrible  yoke  it  wore  for  more  than  tvvc 
hundred  years. ^'^ 

An  extraordinary  person  who  appeared  at  this  disastrous 
crisis,  preserved  that  part  of  Russia  from  sinking  into  total 
ruin.  This  was  Prince  Alexander,  son  of  the  Grand  Duke, 
Jaroslaus  II.,  who  obtained  the  epithet  or  surname  of  Newski, 
from  a  victory  which  he  gained  over  the  Knights  of  Livonia 
near  the  Neva,  (1241.)  Elevated  by  the  Khan  Batou,  to  the 
dignity  of  Grand  Duke  (1245,)  he  secured,  by  his  prudent  con- 
duct, his  punctuality  in  paying  tribute,  and  preserving  his  al- 
legiance to  the  Mogul  emperors,  the  good  will  of  these  new 
masters  of  Russia,  during  his  whole  reign.  When  this  great 
prince  died  in  1261,  his  name  was  enrolled  in  their  calendar  of 
saints.  Peter  the  Great  built,  in  honour  of  his  memory,  a  con- 
vent on  the  banks  of  the  Neva,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Alexander  Newski  ;  and  the  Empress  Catherine  I.,  instituted 
an  order  of  knighthood  that  was  also  called  after  the  name  of 
that  prince. 

Poland,  which  was  divided  among  several  princes  of  the 
Piast  dynasty,  had  become,  at  the  time  of  which  we  speak,  a 
prey  to  intestine  factions,  and  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  the 
neighbouring  barbarians.  These  divisions,  the  principal  source 
of  all  the  evils  that  afflicted  Poland,  continued  down  to  the 
death  of  Boleslaus  II.  (1138,)  who,  having  portioned  his  es- 
tates among  his  sons,  ordered  that  the  eldest  should  retain  the 
district  of  Cracow,  under  the  title  of  Monarch,  and  that  he 
should  exercise  the  rights  of  superiority  over  the  provincial 
dukes  and  princes,  his  brothers.  This  clause,  which  might 
have  prevented  the  dismemberment  of  the  state,  served  only  lo 
kindle  the  flame  of  discord  among  these  collegatory  princes. 
T'ladislaus,  who  is  generally  considered  as  the  eldest  of  these 
:50ns,  having  attempted  to  dispossess  his  brothers  (1146,)  they 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  159 

rose  in  arms,  expelled  him  from  Poland,  and  obliged  his  de- 
scendants to  content  themselves  u'ith  Silesia.  His  sons  founded, 
in  that  country,  numerous  families  of  dukes  and  princes,  who 
introduced  German  colonies  into  Silesia  ;  all  of  which,  in  course 
of  time,  became  subject  to  the  kings  of  Bohemia.  Conrad,  son 
of  Casimir  the  Just,  and  grandson  of  Boleslaus  III.,  was  the 
ancestor  of  ihe  Dukes  of  Cujavia  and  Masovia.  It  was  this 
prince  who  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
against  the  Pagans  of  Prussia,  and  established  that  order  in 
the  territory  of  Culm  (1230.) 

The  Moguls,  after  having  vanquished  Russia,  took  posses- 
sion of  Poland  (1240.)  Having  gained  the  victory  at  the  battle 
of  Schiedlow,  they  set  fire  to  Cracow,  and  then  marched  to 
Lig'nilz  in  Silesia,  where  a  numerous  army  of  crusaders  were 
assembled  under  the  command  of  Henry,  duke  of  Breslau. 
This  prince  was  defeated,  and  slain  in  the  action.  The  whole 
of  Silesia,  as  well  as  Moravia,  was  cruelly  pillaged  and  deso- 
lated by  the  Moguls. 

Hungary,  at  this  period,  presented  the  spectacle  of  a  warlike 
and  barbarous  nation,  the  ferocity  of  whose  manners  cannot  be 
better  attested  than  by  the  laws  passed  in  the  reigns  of  Ladis- 
laus  and  Coloman,  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  and  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century.  Crimes  were  then  punished  either  with 
the  loss  of  liberty,  or  of  some  member  of  the  body,  such  as  the 
eye,  the  nose,  the  tongue,  &;c.  These  laws  were  published  in 
their  general  assemblies,  which  were  composed  of  the  king, 
the  great  officers  of  the  crown,  and  the  representatives  of  the 
clergy  and  the  free  men.  All  the  other  branches  of  the  execu- 
tive power  pertained  to  the  kings,  who  made  war  and  peace  at 
their  pleasure  ;  while  the  counts  or  governors  of  provinces 
claimed  no  power  either  personal  or  hereditary.^^ 

Under  a  government  so  despotic,  it  was  easy  for  the  kings 
of  Hungary  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  their  states.  Ladis- 
laus  took  from  the  Greeks  the  dutchy  of  Sirmium  (lOSO,)  com- 
prising the  lower  part  of  Sclavonia.  This  same  prince  extend- 
ed his  conquests  into  Croatia,  a  country  which  was  governed 
for  several  ages  by  the  Slavian  princes,  who  possessed  Upper 
Sclavonia,  and  ruled  over  a  great  part  of  ancient  Illyria  and 
Dalmatia,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Croatia.  Dircislaus 
was  the  first  of  these  princes  that  took  the  title  of  king  (in  9S4.) 
Demetrius  Swinimir,  one  of  his  successors,  did  homage  to  the 
Pope,  in  order  to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  Holy  See  (1076.) 
The  line  of  these  kings  having  become  extinct  some  time  after, 
Ladislaus,  whose  sister  had  been  married  to  Demetrius  Swini- 
mir, took  advantaire  of  the  commotion  that  had  arisen  in  Croatia. 


160 


CHAPTER    V. 


and  conquered  a  great  part  of  that  kingdom  (1091,)  and  es- 
pecially Upper  Sclavonia,  which  was  one  of  its  dependencies. 
Coloman  completed  their  conquest  in  1102,  and  the  same  year 
he  was  crowned  at  Belgrade  king  of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia.  In 
course  of  a  few  years,  he  subdued  the  maritime  cities  of  Dal- 
matia, such  as  Spalatro,  Trau,  and  Zara,  which  he  took  from 
the  republic  of  Venice.^-  The  kingdom  of  Rama  or  Bosnia, 
fell  at  the  same  time  under  his  power.  He  took  the  title  of 
King  of  Rama  (1103;)  and  Bela  II.,  his  successor,  made  over 
the  dutchy  of  Bosnia  to  Ladislaus,  his  younger  son.  The  so- 
vereignty of  the  Kings  of  Hungary  was  also  occasionally  ac- 
knowledged by  the  princes  and  kings  of  Bulgaria  and  Servia, 
and  even  by  the  Russian  princes  of  Halitsch'  and  Wolodimir. 

These  conquests  gave  rise  to  an  abuse  which  soon  proved 
fatal  to  Hungary.  The  kings  claimed  for  themselves  the  right 
of  disposing  of  the  newly  conquered  provinces  in  favour  of  their 
j'-ounger  sons,  to  whom  they  granted  them  under  the  title  of 
dutchies,  and  with  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  These  latter  made 
use  of  their  supreme  power  to  excite  factions  and  stir  up  civil  wars. 

The  reign  of  King  Andrew  II.  was  rendered  remarkable  by  a 
revolution  which  happened  in  the  government  (1217.)  This 
prince  having  undertaken  an  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land,  which 
he  equipped  at  an  extravagant  and  ruinous  expense,  the  nobles 
availed  themselves  of  his  absence  to  augment  their  own  power, 
and  usurp  the  estates  and  revenues  of  the  crown.  Corruption 
had  pervaded  every  branch  of  the  administration  ;  and  the  king, 
after  his  return,  made  several  ineffectual  efforts  to  remedy  the 
disorders  of  the  government,  and  recruit  his  exhausted  finances. 
At  length  he  adopted  the  plan  of  assembling  a  general  Diet 
(1222,)  in  which  was  passed  the  famous  decree  or  Golden  Bull 
which  forms  the  basis  of  that  defective  constitution  which  pre- 
vails in  Hungary  at  this  day.  The  property  of  the  clergy  and 
the  noblesse  were  there  declared  exempt  from  taxes  and  military 
cess;  the  nobles  acquired  hereditary  possession  ot  the  royal 
grants  which  they  had  received  in  recompense  for  thejr  services  ; 
they  were  freed  from  the  obligation  of  marching  at  their  own 
expense  on  any  expedition  out  of  the  kingdom ;  and  even  the 
right  of  resistance  was  allowed  them,  in  case  the  king  should 
infringe  any  article  of  the  decree.  It  was  this  king  also  (An- 
drew II.)  that  conferred  several  important  privileges  and  immu- 
nities on  the  Saxons,  or  Germans  of  Transylvania,  who  had  been 
invited  thither  by  Geisa  II.  about  the  year  1142. 

Under  the  reign  of  Bela  IV.  (1241,)  Hungary  was  suddenly 
inundated  with  an  army  of  Moguls,  commanded  by  several  chiefs, 
the  principal  of  whom  were  Baton,  the  son  of  Toushi,  and  Ga- 


PERIOD  IV.      A.  D.  1074-1300.  161 

youk,  son  of  the  great  Khan  Octai.  The  Hungarians,  sunk  in 
effeminac}''  and  living  in  perfect  security,  had  neglected  to  pro- 
vide in  time  for  their  defence.  Having  at  length  rallied  round 
the  banner  of  their  king,  they  pitched  their  camp  very  negli- 
gently on  the  banks  of  the  Sajo,  where  they  were  surprised  by 
the  Moguls,  who  made  terrible  havoc  of  them.  Coloman,  the 
king's  brother,  was  slain  in  the  action  ;  and  the  king  himself 
succeeded  with  difficulty  in  saving  himself  among  the  isles  of 
Dalmatia.  The  whole  of  Hungary  was  now  at  the  mercy  of 
the  conqueror,  w^ho  penetrated  with  his  victorious  troops  into 
Sclavonia,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  Bosnia,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria; 
ev<;ry  where  glutting  his  fury  with  the  blood  of  the  people, 
i/nich  he  shed  in  torrents.  These  barbarians  seemed  determin- 
ed to  fix  their  residence  in  Hungary,  when  the  news  of  the  death 
of  the  Khan  Octai,  and  the  accession  of  his  son  Gayouk  to  the 
throne  of  China,  induced  them  to  abandon  their  conquest  in  less 
than  three  years,  and  return  to  the  East  loaded  with  immense 
booty.  On  hearing  this  intelligence,  Bela  ventured  from  his 
place  of  retreat  and  repaired  to  Hungary,  where  he  assembled 
the  remains  of  his  subjects,  w4io  were  wandering  in  the  forests, 
or  concealed  among  the  mountains.  He  rebuilt  the  cities  that 
were  laid  in  ashes,  imported  new  colonies  from  Croatia,  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  and  Saxony;  and,  by  degrees,  restored  life  and 
vigour  to  the  state,  which  had  been  almost  annihilated  by  the 
Moguls. 

The  Empire  of  the  Greeks,  at  this  time,  was  gradually  verg- 
ing towards  its  downfall.  Harassed  on  the  east  by  the  Selju- 
kian  Turks,  infested  on  the  side  of  the  Danube  by  the  Hunga- 
rians, the  Patzinacites,  the  Uzes  and  the  Cumans  ;  ^^  and  torn 
to  pieces  by  factious  and  intestine  w^ars,  that  Empire  was  making 
but  a  feeble  resistance  to  the  incessant  attacks  of  its  enemies, 
when  it  was  suddenly  threatened  wiih  entire  destruction  by  the 
efTects  of  the  fourth  crusade.  The  Emperor  Isaac  Angelus  had 
been  dethroned  by  his  brother,  Alexius  III.  (1195,)  who  had 
cruell}^  caused  his  eyes  to  be  put  out.  The  son  of  Isaac,  called 
also  Alexius,  found  means  to  save  his  life  ;  he  repaired  to  Zara, 
in  Dalmatia  (1203,)  to  implore  the  aid  of  the  Crusaders,  who, 
after  having  assisted  the  Venetians  to  recover  that  rebellious 
city,  were  on  the  point  of  setting  sail  for  Palestine.  The  young 
Alexius  offered  to  indemnify  the  Crusaders  for  the  expenses  of 
any  expedition  which  they  might  undertake  in  his  favour  ;  he 
gave  them  reason  to  expect  a  reunion  of  the  two  churches,  and 
considerable  supplies,  both  in  men  and  money,  to  assist  them  in 
reconquering  the  Holy  Land.  Yielding  to  these  solicitations, 
the  allied  chiefs,  instead  of  passing  directly  to  Syria,  set  sail  for 

14  ^ 


162  CHAPTER  V. 

Constantinople.  They  immediately  laid  siege  to  the  city,  ex- 
pelled the  usurper,  and  restored  Isaac  to  the  throne,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  son  Alexius. 

Scarcely  had  the  Crusaders  quitted  Constantinople,  when  a 
new  revolution  happened  there.  Another  Alexius,  surnamed 
Moiirzoujie^  excited  an  insurrection  among  the  Greeks ;  and 
having  procured  the  death  of  the  Emperors  Isaac  and  Alexius, 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  throne.  The  Crusaders  imme- 
diately returned,  again  laid  siege  to  Constantinople,  which  they 
took  by  assault ;  and  after  having  slain  the  usurper,  they  elected 
a  new  Emperor  in  the  person  of  Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flanders,  and 
one  of  the  noble  Crusaders.  ^^  This  event  transferred  the  Greek 
Empire  to  the  Latins  (1204.)  It  was  followed  by  a  union  of 
the  two  churches,  which,  however,  was  neither  general  nor  per- 
manent, as  it  terminated  with  the  reign  of  the  Latins  at  Con 
stantinople. 

Meantime,  the  Crusaders  divided  among  themselves  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Greek  Empire, — both  those  which  they  had  al- 
ready seized,  and  those  which  yet  remained  to  be  conquered. 
The  greater  part  of  the  maritime  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  Greece, 
the  Archipelago,  the  Propontis,  and  the  Euxine;  the  islands  of 
the  Cyclades  and  Sporades,  and  those  of  the  Adriatic,  were  ad- 
judged to  the  republic  of  Venice.  Boniface,  Marquis  of  Mont- 
ferrat,  and  commander-in.-chief  of  the  crusade,  obtained  for  his 
share  the  island  of  Crete  or  Candia,  and  all  that  belonged  to  the 
Empire  beyond  the  Bosphorus.  He  afterwards  sold  Candia  to 
the  Venetians,  who  took  possession  of  it  in  1207.  The  other 
chiefs  of  the  Crusaders  had  alt^o  their  portions  of  the  dismem- 
bered provinces.  None  of  them,  however,  were  to  possess  the 
countries  that  were  assigned  them,  except  under  the  title  of  vas- 
sals to  the  Empire,  and  by  acknowledging  the  sovereignty  of 
Baldwin. 

In  the  midst  of  this  general  overthrow,  several  of  the  Greek 
princes  attempted  to  preserve  the  feeble  remains  of  their  Em- 
pire. Theodore  Lascaris,  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor  Alexius 
III.,  resolved  on  the  conquest  of  the  Greek  provinces  in  Asia. 
He  had  made  himself  master  of  Bithynia,  Lydia,  part  of  the 
coasts  of  the  Archipelago,  and  Phrygia,  and  was  crov/ned  Em- 
peror at  Nice  in  1206.  About  the  same  period,  Alexius  and 
David  Commenus,  grandsons  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  I., 
having  taken  shelter  in  Pontus,  laid  there  the  foundation  of  a 
new  Empire,  which  had  for  its  capital  the  city  of  Trebizond. 

At  length  Michael  Angelus  Commenus  took  possession  of 
Durazzo,  which  he  erected  into  a  considerable  state,  extending 
from  Durazzo  to  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  and  comprehending  Epi 


PERIOD  IV.     A.  D.  1074—1300.  163 

rus.  Acarnania,  Etolia,  and  part  of  Thessaly.  All  these  princes 
assumed  the  rank  and  dignity  of  Emperors.  The  most  power- 
ful among  them  was  Theodore  Lascaris,  Emperor  of  Nice.  His 
successors  found  little  difHcuUy  in  resuming,  by  degrees,  their 
superiority  over  the  Latin  Emperors.  They  reduced  them  at 
last  to  the  single  city  of  Constantinople,  of  which  Michael  Pa- 
leologus,  Emperor  of  Nice,  undertook  the  siege  ;  and,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Genoese  vessels,  he  made  himself  master  of  it 
in  1261.  Baldwin  II.,  the  last  of  the  Latin  Emperors,  fled  to 
the  Isle  of  Negropont,  whence  he  passed  into  Italy ;  and  his 
conqueror  became  the  ancestor  of  all  the  Emperors  of  the  House 
of  Paleologus,  that  reigned  at  Constantinople  until  the  taking  ot 
^lat  capital  by  the  Turks  in  1453. 

It  now  remains  for  us  to  cast  a  glance  at  the  revolutions  of 
Asia,  closely  connected  with  those  of  Europe,  on  account  of  the 
crusades  and  expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  Empire  of 
the  Seljukian  Turks  had  been  divided  into  several  dynasties  or 
distinct  sovereignties  ;  the  Atabeks  of  Irak,  and  a  number  of 
petty  princes,  reigned  in  Syria  and  the  neighbouring  countries  ; 
the  Fatimite  Caliphs  of  Eg3qDt  were  masters  of  Jerusalem,  and 
part  of  Palestine,  when  the  mania  of  the  crusades  converted  that 
region  of  the  East  into  a  theatre  of  carnage  and  devastation. 
For  two  hundred  years  Asia  was  seen  contending  with  Europe, 
and  the  Christian  nations  making  the  most  extraordinary  efforts 
to  maintain  the  conquest  of  Palestine  and  the  neighbouring 
states,  against  the  arms  of  the  Mahometans. 

At  length  there  arose  among  the  Mussulmans  a  man  of  su- 
perior genius,  who  rendered  himself  formidable  by  his  warlike 
prowess  to  the  Christians  in  the  East,  and  deprived  them  of  the 
fruits  of  their  numerous  victories.  This  conqueror  was  the 
famous  Saladin,  or  Salaheddin,  the  son  of  Ayoub  or  Job,  and 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ayoubites.  The  Atabek  Noured- 
din,  son  of  Amadoddin  Zenghi,had  sent  him  into  Egypt  (1168) 
to  assist  the  Fatimite  Caliph  against  the  Franks,  or  Crusaders 
of  the  West.  While  there,  he  was  declared  vizier  and  general 
of  the  armies  of  the  Caliph  ;  and  so  well  had  he  established  his 
power  in  that  country,  that  he  effected  the  substitution  of  the 
Abassidian  Caliphs  in  place  of  the  Fatimites  ;  and  ultimately 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Sultan  on  the  death  of  Noured- 
din  (1171,)  under  whom  he  had  served  in  the  quality  of  lieu- 
tenant. Having  vanquished  Egypt,  he  next  subdued  the 
dominions  of  Noureddin  in  Syria;  and,  after  having  extended 
his  victories  over  this  province,  as  well  as  Mesopotamia,  Assyria, 
Armenia  and  Arabia,  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  Christians 
in  Palestine,  whom  he  had  hemmed  in,  as  it  were,  with  his 


164 


CHAPTER   V. 


conquests.  These  princes,  separated  into  petty  sovereignties, 
divided  by  mutual  jealousy,  and  a  prey  to  the  distractions  of 
anarchy,  soon  yielded  to  the  valour  of  the  heroic  Mussulman. 
The  battle  which  they  fought  (1187,)  at  Hittin,  near  Tiberias 
(or  Tabaria,)  was  decisive.  The  Christians  sustained  a  total 
defeat ;  and  Guy  of  Lusignan,  a  weak  prince  without  talents, 
and  the  last  King  of  Jerusalem,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror. All  the  cities  of  Palestine  opened  their  gates  to  Saladin, 
either  voluntarily  or  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  Jerusalem  sur- 
rendered after  a  siege  of  fourteen  days.  This  defeat  rekindled 
the  zeal  of  the  Christians  in  the  West ;  and  the  most  powerful 
sovereigns  in  Europe  were  again  seen  conducting  innumerable 
armies  to  the  relief  of  the  Holy  Land.  But  the  talents  and 
bravery  of  Saladin  rendered  all  their  efforts  unavailing  ;  and  it 
was  not  till  after  a  murderous  siege  for  three  years,  that  they 
succeeded  in  retaking  the  city  of  Ptolemais  or  Acre  ;  and  thus 
arresting  for  a  short  space  the  total  extermination  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  East. 

On  the  death  of  Saladin,  whose  heroism  is  extolled  by  Chris 
tian  as  well  as  Mahometan  authors,  his  Empire  was  divided 
among  his  sons.  Several  princes,  his  dependants,  and  known 
by  the  name  of  Ayoubites,  reigned  afterwards  in  Egypt,  Syria^ 
Armenia,  and  Yemen  or  Arabia  the  Happy.  These  princes 
quarrelling  and  making  war  with  each  other,  their  territories 
fell,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Mamc 
lukes.  These  Mamelukes  (an  Arabic  word  which  signifies  a 
slave)  were  Turkish  or  Tartar  captives,  whom  the  Syrian  mer- 
chants purchased  from  the  Moguls,  and  sent  into  Egypt  under 
the  reign  of  the  Sultan  Saleh,  of  the  Ayoubite  dynasty.  That 
prince  bought  them  in  vast  numbers,  and  ordered  them  to  be 
trained  to  the  exercise  of  arms  in  one  of  the  maritime  cities  of 
Egypt. •''•^  From  this  school  he  raised  them  to  the  highest  offices 
of  trust  in  the  state,  and  even  selected  from  them  his  own  body 
guard.  In  a  very  short  time,  these  slaves  became  so  numerous 
and  so  powerful,  that,  in  the  end,  they  seized  the  government, 
after  having  assassinated  the  Sultan  Touran  Shah,  (son  and 
successor  of  Saleh,)  who  had  in  vain  attem.pted  to  disentangle 
himself  of  their  chains,  and  recover  the  authority  which  they 
had  usurped  over  him.  This  revolution  (1250)  happened  in  the 
very  presence  of  St.  Louis,  who,  having  been  taken  prisoner  at 
the  battle  of  Mansoura,  had  just  concluded  a  truce  often  years 
with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  The  Mameluke  Ibeg,  who  was  at 
first  appointed  regent  or  Atabek,  was  soon  after  proclaimed  Sul- 
tan of  Egypt. 

The  dominion  of  the  Mamelukes  existed  in  Egypt  for  the 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  165 

space  of  263  years.  Their  numbers  being-  constantly  recruited 
by  Turkish  or  Circassian  slaves,  they  disposed  of  the  throne  of 
Egypt  at  their  pleasure ;  and  the  crown  generally  fell  to  the 
share  of  the  most  audacious  of  the  gang,  provided  he  was  b  na- 
tive of  Turkistan.  These  Mamelukes  had  even  the  courage  lo 
'ittack  the  Moguls,  and  look  from  them  the  kingdoms  of  Damas- 
cus and  Aleppo  in  Syria  (1210,)  of  which  the  latter  had  dispos- 
sessed the  Ayoubite  princes.  All  the  princes  of  this  latter 
dynasty,  with  those  of  Syria  and  Yemen,  adopted  the  expedient 
of  submitting  to  the  Mamelukes  ;  who,  in  order  to  become  mas- 
ters of  all  Syria,  had  only  to  reduce  the  cities  and  territories 
which  the  Franks,  or  Christians  of  the  West,  still  retained  in 
their  possession.  They  first  attacked  the  principality  of  Antioch, 
which  they  soon  conquered  (1268.)  They  next  turned  their 
ariiiS  against  the  county  of  Tripoli,  the  capital  of  which  they 
took  by  assault  (12S9,)  The  city  of  Plolemais  shared  the  same 
fate  ;  after  an  obstinate  and  murderous  siege,  it  was  carried 
sword  in  hand.  Tyre  surrendered  on  capitulation  ;  and  the 
Franks  were  entirely  expelled  from  Syria  and  the  East  in  the 
year  1291. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

PERIOD    V. 

From  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  the  taking -of  Const  anti^iople  by 
the  Turks,  a.  d.  1300—1453. 
At  the  commencement  of  this  period,  the  Pontifical  power 
was  in  the  zenith  of  its  grandeur.  The  Popes  proudly  assumed 
the  title  of  Masters  of  the  World  ;  and  asserted  that  their  author- 
ity, by  divine  right,  comprehended  every  other,  both  spiritual 
and  temporal.  Boniface  VIII.  went  even  farther  than  his  pre- 
decessors had  done.  According  to  him,  the  secular  power  was 
nothing  else  than  a  mere  emanation  from  the  ecclesiastical ; 
and  this  double  power  of  the  Pope  was  even  m.ade  an  article  of 
belief,  and  founded  on  the  sacred  scriptures.  "  God  has  in- 
trusted," said  he,  "  to  St.  Peter  and  his  successors,  two  swords, 
the  one  spiritual,  and  the  other  temporal.  The  former  can  be 
exercised  by  the  church  alone;  the  other,  by  the  secular  princes, 
for  the  service  of  the  church,  and  in  subihission  to  the  will  of 
the  Pope.  This  latter,  that  is,  the  temporal  sword,  is  subordi- 
nate to  the  former;  and  all  temporal  authority  necessarily  de- 
pends on  the  spiritual,  which  judges  it ;  whereas  God  alone  can 
judge, the  spiritual  power.     Finally,"  added  he,  "  it  is  absolutely 


166  CHAPTER  VI. 

indispensable  to  salvation,  that  every  human  creature  be  subject 
to  the  Pope  of  Rome."  This  same  Pope  published  the  first 
Jubilee  (1300,)  vviih  plenary  indulgence  for  all  who  should  visit 
the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  at  Rome.  An  immense 
crowd  from  all  parts  of  Christendom  flocked  to  this  capital  of 
the  Western  world,  and  filled  its  treasury  with  their  pious 
contributions.^ 

The  spiritual  power  of  the  Popes,  and  their  jurisdiction  over 
the  clergy,  was  moreover  increased  every  day,  by  means  of 
dispensations  and  appeals^  which  had  multiplied  exceedingly 
since  the  introduction  of  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX.  They 
disposed,  in  the  most  absolute  manner,  of  the  dignities  and  be- 
nefices of  the  Church,  and  imposed  taxes  at  their  pleasure  on 
dU  the  clergy  in  Christendom.  Collectors  or  treasurers  were 
established  by  them,  w^ho  superintended  the  levying  of  the 
dues  they  had  found  means  to  exact,  under  a  multitude  of  dif- 
ferent denominations.  These  collectors  were  empowered,  by 
means  of  ecclesiastical  censure,  to  proceed  against  those  who 
should  refuse  to  pay.  They  were  supported  by  the  authority 
of  the  legates  who  resided  in  the  ecclesiastical  provinces,  and 
seized  with  avidity  every  occasion  to  extend  the  usurpation  of 
the  Pope.  Moreover,  in  support  of  these  legates  appeared  a 
vast  number  of  Religious  and  Mendicant  Orders,  founded  in 
those  ages  of  ignorance  ;  besides  legions  of  monks  dispersed 
over  all  the  states  of  Christendom. 

Nothing  is  more  remarkable  than  the  influence  of  the  papal 
authority  over  the  temporalities  of  princes.  We  find  them  in- 
terfering in  all  their  quarrels — addressing  their  commands  to 
all  without  distinction — enjoining  some  to  lay  down  their 
arms— receiving  others  under  their  protection — rescinding  and 
annulling  their  acts  and  proceedings — summoning  them  to  their 
court,  and  acting  as  arbiters  in  their  disputes.  The  history  of 
the  Popes  is  the  history  of  all  Europe.  They  assumed  the 
privilege  of  legitimating  the  sons  of  kings,  in  order  to  quafify 
them  for  the  succession  ;  they  forbade  sovereigns  to  tax  the 
clergy  ;  they  claimed  a  feudal  superiority  over  all,  and  exer- 
cised it  over  a  very  great  number  ;  they  conferred  royalty  on 
those  who  were  ambitious  of  power  ;  they  released  subjects 
from  their  oath  of  allegiance  ;  dethroned  sovereigns  at  their 
pleasure  ;  and  laid  kingdoms  and  empires  under  interdict,  to 
avenge  their  own  quarrels.  We  find  them  disposing  of  the 
states  of  excommunicated  princes,  as  w^ell  as  those  of  heretics 
and  their  followers  ;  of  islands  and  kingdoms  newly  discovered  ; 
of  the  property  of  infidels  or  schismatics  ;  and  even  of  Catholics 
who  refused  to  bow  before  the  insolent  tyranny  of  the  Popes.* 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  167 

Thus,  it  is  obvious  that  the  Court  of  Rome,  at  the  time  of  which 
we  speak,  enjoyed  a  conspicuous  preponderance  in  the  political 
svstem  of  Europe.  But  in  the  ordinary  course  of  human  af- 
fairs, this  power,  vast  and  formidable  as  it  was,  began,  from  the 
fourteenth  century,  gradually  to  diminish.  The  mightiest  em- 
pires have  their  appointed  term  ;  and  the  highest  stage  of  their 
elevation  is  often  the  first  step  of  their  decline.  Kings,  be- 
coming more  and  more  enlightened  as  to  their  true  interests, 
learned  to  support  the  rights  and  the  majesty  of  their  crowns, 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Popes.  Those  who  were 
vassals  and  tributaries  of  the  Holy  See,  gradually  shook  off  the 
yoke  ;  even  the  clergy,  Avho  groaned  under  the  weight  of  this 
spiritual  despotism,  joined  the  secular  princes  in  repressing 
these  abuses,  and  restraining  within  proper  bounds  a  power  which 
was  making  incessant  encroachments  on  their  just  prerogatives. 

Among  the  causes  which  operated  the  downfall  of  the  Pon- 
tifical power,  may  be  ranked,  the  excess  of  the  power  itself, 
and  the  abuses  of  it  made  by  the  Popes.  By  issuing  too  often 
their  anathemas  and  interdicts,  they  rendered  them  useless  and 
contemptible  ;  and  by  their  haughty  treatment  of  the  greatest 
princes,  they  learned  to  become  inflexible  and  boundless  in  their 
own  pretensions.  An  instance  of  this  may  be  recorded,  in  the 
famous  dispute  which  arose  between  Boniface  VIII,  and  Philip 
the  Fair,  King  of  France.  Not  content  with  constituting  him- 
self judge  between  the  King  and  his  vassal  the  Count  of  Flan- 
ders, that  Pontiff  maintained,  that  the  King  could  not  exact 
subsidies  from  the  clergy  without  his  permission  ;  and  that  the 
right  of  Regale  (or  the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics)  which 
the  Crown  enjoyed,  was  an  abuse  which  should  not  be  tolera- 
ted.*^ He  treated  as  a  piece  of  insanity  the  prohibition  of 
Philip  against  exporting  either  gold  or  silver  out  of  the  king- 
dom ;  and  sent  an  order  to  all  the  prelates  in  France  to  repair 
in  person  to  Rome  on  the  1st  of  November,  there  to  advise 
measures  for  correcting  the  King  and  reforming  the  State.  He 
declared,  formally,  that  the  King  was  subject  to  the  Pope,  as 
well  in  temporal  as  spiritual  matters  ;  and  that  it  was  a  fool- 
ish persuasion  to  suppose  that  the  King  had  no  superior  on 
earth,  and  was  not  dependent  on  the  supreme  Pontiff^. 

Philip  ordered  the  papal  bull  which  contained  these  ex- 
travagant assertions  to  be  burnt ,  he  forbade  his  ecclesiastics  to 
leave  the  realm  ;  and  having  twice  assembled  the  States-Ge- 
neral of  the  kingdom  (1302 — 3,)  he  adopted,  with  their  advice 
and  approbation,  measures  against  these  dangerous  pretensions 
of  the  Court  of  Rome.  The  Three  Estates,  who  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  these  Assemblies,  declared  themselves  strongly 


16S  CHAPTER   VI. 

in  favour  of  the  King,  and  the  independence  of  the  crown.  In 
consequence,  the  excommunication  which  the  Pope  had  threat- 
ened against  the  King  proved  ineffectual.  Philip  made  his 
appeal  to  a  future  assembly,  to  v»diich  the  three  orders  of  the 
State  adhered."* 

The  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  a  prince  of  superior  merit, 
having  incurred  the  censures  of  the  Church  for  defending  the 
rights  and  prerogatives  of  his  crown,  could  not  obtain  absolu- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  most  humiliating  condescensions,  and 
the  offer  which  he  made  to  resign  the  Imperial  dignity,  and 
surrender  himself,  his  crown  and  his  property,  to  the  discretion 
of  the  Pope.  He  was  loaded  with  curses  and  anathemas,  after 
a  series  of  various  proceedings  which  had  been  instituted 
against  him.  The  bull  of  Pope  Clement  VI.,  on  this  occasion, 
far  surpassed  all  those  of  his  predecessors.  "May  God  (said 
he,  in  speaking  of  the  Emperor)  smite  him  with  madness  and 
disease ;  may  heaven  crush  hin^  with  its  thunderbolts ;  may 
the  wrath  of  God,  and  that  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  fall  on 
him  in  this  world  and  the  next;  may  the  whole  universe  com- 
bine against  him  ;  may  the  earth  swallow  him  up  alive ;  may 
his  name  perish  in  the  first  generation,  and  his  memory  disap- 
pear from  the  earth  ;  may  all  the  elements  conspire  against 
him  ;  may  his  children,  delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
be  massacred  before  the  eyes  of  their  father."  The  indignity 
of  such  proceedings  roused  the  attention  of  the  princes  and 
states  of  the  Empire  ;  and  on  the  representation  of  the  Electo- 
ral College,  they  thought  proper  to  check  these  boundless  pre- 
tensions of  the  Popes,  by  a  decree  which  was  passed  at  the  Diet 
of  Frankfort  in  1338.  This  decree,  regarded  as  the  fundamen- 
tal law  of  the  Empire,  declared,  in  substance,  that  the  Imperial 
dignity  held  only  of  God  ;  that  he  whom  the  Electors  had 
chosen  emperor  by  a  plurality  of  suffrages,  was,  in  virtue  of  that 
election,  a  true  king  and  emperor,  and  needed  neither  confirma- 
tion nor  coronation  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope ;  and  that  all 
persons  who  should  maintain  the  contrary,  should  be  treated  as 
guilty  of  high  treason. 

Among  other  events  prejudicial  to  the  authority  of  the  Popes, 
one  was,  the  translation  of  the  Pontilical  See  from  Rome  to 
Avignon.  Clement  V.,  archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  having  been 
advanced  to  the  papacy  (1305,)  instead  of  repairing  to  Rome, 
had  his  coronation  celebrated  at  Lyons  ;  and  thence  he  trans- 
ferred his  residence  to  Avignon  (1309,)  out  of  complaisance 
to  Philip  the  Fair,  to  whom  he  owed  his  elevation.  The  suc- 
cessors of  this  Pope  continued  their  court  at  Avignon  until 
1367,  when  Gregory  XI.  again   removed  the   See  to  Rome. 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  169 

This  sojourn  at  Avignon  tended  to  weaken  the  authority  of  the 
Popes,  and  diminish  the  respect  and  veneration  which  till  ther. 
had  been  paid  them.  The  prevailing  opinion  beyond  the  Alps 
admitted  no  other  city  than  that  of  Rome  for  the  true  capital  o 
St.  Peter  ;  and  they  despised  the  Popes  of  Avignon  as  aliens 
who,  besides,  w^ere  there  surrounded  with  powerful  princes,  t« 
whose  caprice  they  were  often  obliged  to  yield,  and  to  make 
condescensions  prejudicial  to  the  authority  they  had  usurped 
This  circumstance,  joined  to  the  lapse  of  nearly  seventj^  years 
caused  the  residence  at  Avignon  to  be  stigmatized  by  the  Italians 
under  the  name  of  the  Babylonish  Captivity.  It  occasioned  alsa 
the  diminution  of  the  papal  authority  at  Rome,  and  in  the  Ec 
clesiastical  States.  The  Italians,  no  longer  restrained  by  the 
presence  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs,  yielded  but  a  reluctant  obe- 
dience to  their  representatives  ;  while  the  remembrance  of  their 
ancient  republicanism  induced  them  to  lend  a  docile  ear  to  those 
who  preached  up  insurrection  and  revolt.  The  historian  Rienzi 
informs  us,  that  one  Nicolas  Gabrini,  a  man  of  great  eloquence, 
and  whose  audacity  was  equal  to  his  ambition,  took  advantage 
of  these  republican  propensities  of  the  Romans,  to  constitute 
himself  master  of  the  city,  under  the  popular  title  of  Tribune 
(1347.)  He  projected  the  scheme  of  a  new  government,  called 
the  Good  Estate,  which  he  pretended  would  obtain  the  accepta- 
tion of  all  the  princes  and  republics  of  Italy ;  but  the  despotic 
power  which  he  exercised  over  the  citizens,  whose  liberator  and 
lawgiver  he  affected  to  be,  soon  reduced  him  to  his  original  in- 
significance ;  and  the  city  of  Rome  again  assumed  its  ancient 
form  of  government.  Meantime  the  Popes  did  not  recover  their 
former  authority  ;  most  of  the  cities  and  states  of  the  Ecclesi- 
astical dominions,  after  having  been  long  a  prey  to  faction  and 
discord,  fell  under  the  power  of  the  nobles,  who  made  an  easy 
conquest  of  them;  scarcely  leaving  to  the  Pope  a  vestige  of  the 
sovereign  authority.  It  required  all  the  insidious  policy  of 
Alexander  VI.,  and  the  vigilant  activity  of  Julius  II.,  to  repair 
the  injury  which  the  territorial  influence  of  the  Pontiffs  had  suf- 
fered from  their  residence  at  Avignon. 

Another  circumstance  that  contributed  to  humble  the  papal 
authority,  was  the  schisms  which  rent  the  Church,  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth,  and  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Gregory  XL,  who  had  abandoned  Avignon  for  Rome,  being  dead 
(1378,)  the  Italians  elected  a  Pope  of  their  own  nation,  who 
took  the  name  of  Urban  VI.,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Rome. 
The  French  cardinals,  on  the  other  hand,  declared  in  favour  ot 
the  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva,  known  by  the  name  of  Clemen 
VIL,  who  hxed  his  capital  at  Avignon.     The  whole  of  Chris 

VOL,  T.  15 


170  CHAPTER   VI. 

terdom  was  divided  between  these  two  Popes ;  and  this  grand 
schism  continued  from  1378  till  1417.  At  Rome,  Urban  VI. 
was  succeeded  by  Boniface  IX.,  Innocent  VII.,  and  Gregory 
XII. -}  while  Clement  VII.  had  Benedict  XIII.  for  his  successor 
at  Avignon.  In  order  to  terminate  this  schism,  every  expedient 
was  tried  to  induce  the  rival  Popes  to  give  in  their  abdication  ; 
but  both  having  refused,  several  of  the  Cardinals  withdrew  their 
allegiance,  and  assembled  a  council  at  Pisa  (1409,)  where  the 
two  refractory  Popes  were  deposed,  and  the  pontifical  dignity 
conferred  on  Alexander  V.,  who  was  afterwards  succeeded  by 
John  XXIII.  This  election  of  the  council  only  tended  to  in- 
crease the  schism.  Instead  of  two  Popes,  there  arose  three  ; 
and  if  his  Pisan  Holiness  gained  partisans,  the  Popes  of  Rome 
and  Avignon  contrived  also  to  maintain  each  a  number  of  sup- 
:)orters.  All  these  Popes,  wishing  to  maintain  their  rank  and 
dignity  with  that  splendour  and  magnificence  which  their  pre- 
decessors had  displayed  before  the  schism,  set  themselves  to 
invent  new  means  of  oppressing  the  people  ;  hence  the  immense 
number  of  abuses  and  exactions,  which  subverted  the  discipline 
of  the  church,  and  roused  the  exasperated  nations  against  the 
court  of  Rome. 

A  new  General  Council  was  convoked  at  Constance  (1414) 
by  order  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund ;  and  it  was  there  that  the 
maxim  of  the  unity  and  permanency  of  Councils  was  established, 
as  well  as  of  its  superiority  over  the  Pope,  in  all  that  pertains 
to  matters  of  faith,  to  the  extirpation  of  schism,  and  the  refor- 
mation of  the  church  both  in  its  supreme  head,  and  in  its  subor- 
dinate members.  The  grand  schism  was  here  terminated  by 
the  abdication  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  the  deposition  of  those 
of  Pisa  and  Avignon.  It  was  this  famous  council  that  gave 
their  decision  against  John  Huss,  the  Reformer  of  Bohemia, 
and  a  follower  of  the  celebrated  Wickliff.  His  doctrines  were 
condemned,  and  he  himself  burnt  at  Constance;  as  was  Jerome 
of  Prague,  one  of  his  most  zealous  partisans.  As  to  the  mea- 
sures that  were  taken  at  Constance  for  effecting  the  reformation 
of  the  Church,  they  practically  ended  in  nothing.  As  their 
main  object  was  to  reform  the  court  of  Rome,  by  suppressing 
or  limiting  the  new  prerogatives  which  the  Popes  for  several 
centuries  had  usurped,  and  which  referred,  among  other  things, 
to  the  subject  of  benefices  and  pecuniary  exactions,  all  those 
who  had  an  interest  in  maintaining  these  abuses,  instantly  set 
themselves  to  defeat  the  proposed  amendments,  and  elude  re- 
dress. The  Council  had  formed  a  committee,  composed  of  the 
deputies  of  different  nations,  to  advise  means  for  accomplishing 
this  reformation,  which  the  whole  world  so  ardently   desn-ed. 


x£iitoDv.     A.  D.  1300— 1453.  171 

This  committee,  known  by  the  name  of  the  College  of  Reformers. 
had  already  made  considerable  progress  in  their  task,  when  a 
question  was  started.  Whether  it  was  proper  to  proceed  to  any 
reformation  without  the  consent  and  co-operation  of  the  visible 
Head  of  the  Church  ?  It  was  carried  in  the  negative,  through  the 
intrigues  of  the  cardinals;  and,  before  they  could  accomplish 
this  salutary  work  of  reformation,  the  election  of  a  new  Pope 
had  taken  place  (1417.)  The  choice  fell  on  Otho  de  Colonna, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Martin  V.,  and  in  conformity  with  a 
previous  decision  of  the  council,  he  then  laid  before  them  a 
scheme  of  reform.  This  proceeding  having  been  disapproved 
by  the  different  nations  of  Europe,  the  whole  matter  was 
remitted  to  the  next  council ;  and  in  the  meanvv'hile,  they  did 
nothing  more  than  pass  some  concordats,  with  the  new  Pope, 
as  to  what  steps  they  should  take  until  the  decision  of  the  ap- 
proaching council. 

This  new  council,  which  was  assembled  at  Basle  (1431)  by 
Martin  V.,  resumed  the  suspended  work  of  reformation.  The 
former  decrees,  that  a  General  Council  was  superior  to  the  Pope, 
and  could  not  be  dissolved  or  prorogued  except  by  their  own 
free  consent,  were  here  renewed  ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
reserves,  reversions,  annats,  and  other  exactions  of  the  Popes, 
were  regularly  abolished.  The  liberty  of  appeals  to  the  Court 
of  Rome,  was  also  circumscribed.  Eugenius  IV.,  successor  to 
Martin  V.,  alarmed  at  the  destruction  thus  aimed  at  his  author- 
ity, twice  proclaimed  the  dissolution  of  the  Council.  The  first 
dissolution,  which  occurred  on  the  17th  of  December  1431,  was 
revoked,  at  the  urgent  application  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund, 
by  a  bull  of  the  same  Pope,  issued  on  the  loth  of  December 
1433.  In  this  he  acknowledged  the  validity  of  the  Council, 
and  annulled  all  that  he  had  formerly  done  to  invalidate  its  au- 
thority. The  second  dissolution  took  place  on  the  1st  of  Octo- 
ber 1437.  Eugenius  then  transferred  the  Council  to  Ferrara, 
and  from  Ferrara  to  Florence,  on  pretext  of  his  negotiating  a 
union  with  the  Greek  church.  This  conduct  of  the  Pope  oc- 
casioned a  new  schism.  The  prelates  who  remained  at  Basle, 
instituted  a  procedure  against  him  ;  they  first  suspended  him 
for  contumacy,  and  finally  deposed  him.  Amadeus  VIII.,  Ex- 
duke  of  Saxony,  was  elected  in  his  place,  under  the  name  ot 
Felix  v.,  and  recognised  by  all  the  partisans  of  the  Council  as 
the  legitimate  Pope.  This  latter  schism  lasted  ten  years.  Fe- 
lix V.  at  length  gave  in  his  demission  ;  and  the  Council,  which 
had  v.'ithdrawn  from  Basle  to  Lausanne,  terminated  its  sittings 
in  1449. 

The  French  nation  adopted  several  of  the  decrees  of  the 


172  CHAPTER  VI. 

Council  of  Basle  in  the  famous  Pragmatic  Sanction,  which 
Charles  VII.  caused  to  be  drawn  up  at  Bourges  (1438;)  and 
whose  stipulations  served  as  the  basis  of  what  is  called  the 
Liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church.  The  example  of  the  French 
was  speedily  followed  by  the  Germans,  who  acceded  to  these 
decrees,  at  the  Diet  of  Mayence  in  1439.  The  Court  of  Eome 
at  length  regained  a  part  of  those  honourable  and  lucrative  rights 
of  which  the  Council  of  Basle  had  deprived  them,  by  the  con- 
cordats which  the  Germans  concluded  (1448)  with  Nicholas  V., 
and  the  French  (1516)  with  Leo  X.  The  Councils  of  which 
we  have  now  spoken,  tended  materially  to  limit  the  exorbitant 
power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  by  giving  sanction  to  the  princi- 
ple which  established  the  superiority  of  General  Councils  over 
the  Popes.  This  maxim  put  a  check  to  the  enterprising  ambi- 
tion of  the  Court  of  Rome  ;  and  kings  availed  themselves  of  it 
to  recover  by  degrees  the  prerogatives  of  their  crowns.  The 
Popes,  moreover,  sensible  of  their  weakness,  and  of  the  need 
they  had  for  the  protection  of  the  sovereigns,  learned  to  treat 
them  with  more  attention  and  respect. 

At  length  the  new  light  which  began  to  dawn  about  the  four- 
teenth century,  hastened  on  the  progress  of  this  revolution,  by 
gradually  dissipating  the  darkness  of  superstition  into  which 
the  nations  of  Europe  were  almost  universally  sunk.  In  the 
midst  of  the  distractions  which  agitated  the  Empire  and  the 
Church,  and  during  the  papal  schism,  several  learned  and  in- 
trepid men  made  their  appearance,  who,  Avhile  investigating  the 
origin  and  abuse  of  the  new  power  of  the  Popes,  had  the  courage 
to  revive  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  canons,  to  enlighten  the 
minds  of  sovereigns  as  to  their  true  rights,  and  to  examine  with 
care  into  the  justs  limits  of  the  sacerdotal  authority.  Among 
the  first  of  these  reformers  was  John  of  Paris,  a  famous  Do- 
minican, who  undertook  the  defence  of  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of 
France,  against  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  His  example  was  follow- 
ed by  the  celebrated  poet  Dante  Alighieri,  who  took  the  part  of 
the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria  against  the  Court  of  Rome.  Mar- 
silo  de  Padua,  John  de  Janduno,  William  Ockam,  Leopold  de 
Babenberg,  &c.  marched  in  the  track  of  the  Italian  poet ;  and 
among  the  crowd  of  writers  that  signalized  themselves  after  the 
grand  schism,  three  French  authors  particularly  distinguished 
themselves,  Peter  d'Ailly,  Nicholas  de  Clemange,  and  John 
Gerson,  whose  writings  met  with  general  applause.  Most  of 
these  literary  productions,  however,  were  characterized  by  bad 
taste.  The  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  studied  in  Arabic  transla- 
tions, and  disfigured  by  scholastic  subtletie:^,  reigned  in  all  the 
schools,  imposed  its  fetters  on  the  human  mind,  and  nearly  ex- 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  173 

tinguished  every  vestige  of  useful  knowledge.  The  belles  let- 
tres  were  quite  neglected,  and  as  yet  had  shed  no  lustre  on  the 
sciences.  Sometimes,  however,  genius  broke  with  a  transient 
splendour  through  the  darkness  of  this  moral  horizon  ;  and 
several  extraordinary  persons,  despising  the  vain  cavils  of  the 
schools,  began  to  study  truth  in  the  volume  of  nature,  and  to 
copy  after  the  beautiful  models  of  antiquity.  Such  was  Eoger 
Bacon  (1294,)  an  Englishman,  and  a  Franciscan  friar,  who  has 
become  so  famous  by  his  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  mechani- 
cal philosophy.  Dante  (1321,)  nurtured  in  the  spirit  of  the  an- 
cients, was  the  first  that  undertook  to  refine  the  Italian  language 
into  poetry,  and  gave  it  the  polish  of  elegance  and  grace  in 
his  compositions.  He  was  succeeded  by  two  other  celebrated 
authors,  Petrarca  and  Boccacio  (1374-5.) 

The  period  of  which  we  speak  gave  birth  to  several  new  in- 
ventions, which  proved  useful  auxiliaries  to  men  of  genius,  and 
tended  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  knowledge,  letters,  and  arts. 
Among  the  principal  of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  invention 
of  writing  paper,  oil-painting,  printing,  gunpowder,  and  the  ma- 
riner's compass;  to  the  effects  of  which,  Europe,  in  a  great 
measure,  owes  its  civilization,  and  the  new  order  of  things 
which  appeared  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Before  the  invention  of  paper  from  linen,  parchment  was  gen- 
erally used  in  Europe  for  the  transcribing  of  books,  or  the  draw- 
ing out  of  public  deeds.  Cotton  paper,  which  the  Arabs  brought 
from  the  East,  was  but  a  poor  remedy  for  the  scarceness  and 
dearth  of  parchment.  It  would  appear,  that  the  invention  of 
paper  from  linen,  and  the  custom  of  using  it  in  Europe,  is  not 
of  older  date  than  the  thirteenth  century.  The  famous  Mont- 
faucon  acknowledges,  that,  in  spite  of  all  his  researches,  both  in 
France  and  Italy,  he  could  never  find  any  manuscript  or  char- 
ter, written  on  our  ordinary  paper,  older  than  the  year  1270, 
the  time  when  St.  Louis  died.  The  truth  is,  we  know  neither 
the  exact  date  of  the  invention  of  this  sort  of  paper,  nor  the  name 
of  the  inventor.^  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  manufacture 
of  paper  from  cotton  must  have  introduced  that  of  paper  from 
linen;  and  the  only  question  is,  to  determine  at  what  time  the 
use  of  linen  became  so  common  in  Europe,  as  to  lead  us  to  sup- 
pose they  might  convert  its  rags  into  paper.  The  cultivation 
of  hemp  and  flax  being  originally  peculiar  to  the  northern  coun- 
tries, it  is  probable  that  the  first  attempts  at  making  paper  of 
linen  rags  were  made  in  Germany,  and  the  countries  abounding 
in  flax  and  hemp,  rather  than  in  the  southern  provinces  of  Eu- 
rope. The  most  ancient  manufactory  of  paper  from  linen  to  be 
met  with  in  Germany,  was  established  at  Nuremberg  (1390.) 

15=^ 


174  CHAPTEll  VI. 

The  invention  of  oil-painting  is  generally  ascribed  to  the  two 
TJTothers  Van-Eick,  the  younger  of  whom,  known  by  the  name 
of  John  of  Bruges,  had  gained  considerable  celebrity  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  There  is,  however,  reason  to 
believe  that  this  invention  is  of  an  older  date.  There  are  two 
authors  who  have  carried  it  back  to  the  eleventh  cq^ntury,  viz. 
Theophilus  and  Eraclius,  whose  works  in  manuscript  have  been 
preserved  in  the  library  at  Wolffenbiittel,  and  in  that  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge  ;  and  who  speak  of  this  art  as  already  known 
in  their  times.  According  to  them,  all  sorts  of  colours  could  be 
mixed  up  with  linseed  oil,  and  employed  in  painting;  but  they 
agree  as  to  the  inconvenience  of  applying  this  kind  of  painting 
to  images  or  portraits,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  drying 
colours  mixed  with  oil.  Admitting  the  credibility  of  these  two 
authors,  and  the  high  antiquity  of  their  works,  it  would  appear, 
nevertheless,  that  they  made  no  great  use  of  this  invention  ; 
whether  it  may  be  that  painters  preferred  to  retain  their  for- 
mer mode,  or  that  the  difficulty  of  drying  oil  colours  had  dis- 
couraged them.  It  is,  however,  too  true,  that  the  finest  inven- 
tions have  often  languished  in  unmerited  neglect,  long  before 
men  had  learned  to  reap  any  adequate  advantage  from  them. 
Were  the  Van-Eicks  the  first  that  practised  this  style  of  paint- 
ing ?  Or  did  John  of  Bruges,  the  younger  of  the  brothers,  and 
who  carried  it  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  invent  some 
mixture  or  composition  for  increasing  the  exsiccative  qualities 
of  linseed  or  nut  oil ;  especially  with  regard  to  colours  not  easily 
dried  ?  It  belongs  to  connoisseurs  and  artists  to  examine  these 
questions,  as  well  as  to  decide  whether  the  pictures,  alleged  to 
have  been  painted  in  oil-colours  before  the  time  of  the  Van- 
Eicks,  were  executed  with  any  degree  of  perfection  in  that  style 
of  painting.^  This  invention  totally  changed  the  system  and 
the  principles  of  the  art  of  painting.  It  gave  birth  to  rules  as 
to  light  and  shade,  and  procured  modern  painters  one  advantage 
;Over  the  ancients,  that  of  rendering  their  works  much  more 
durable. 

One  of  the  most  important  inventions  is  that  of  printing; 
which  was  borrowed,  it  would  appear,  from  the  art  of  engraving 
on  wood ;  while  this  latter  owes  its  origin  to  the  moulding  or 
imprinting  of  common  cards,  which  seems  to  have  suggested  the 
first  idea  of  it.  The  use  of  cards  was  borrowed  from  Italy ; 
though  we  find  this  custom  established  in  Germany  soon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century,  where  card- 
makers  formed  a  distinct  trade,  about  four  and  twenty  years  be- 
fore the  invention  of  printing.  It  is  probable  that  the  "Germans 
were  the  first  who  designed  models  and  proper  casts  for  the  im- 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  175 

pression  of  cardsJ  The  desire  of  gain,  suggested  to  these 
card-makers  the  idea  of  engraving  on  wood,  after  the  same 
manner,  all  kinds  of  figures  or  scenes  from  Sacred  History, 
accompanied  with  legends,  or  narratives,  intended  to  explain 
their  meaning.  It  was  from  these  legends,  printed  in  single 
folios,  and  published  also  in  the  form  of  books,  or  rather  of  im- 
pressions from  engravings  on  solid  blocks  of  wood,  that  the  art 
of  typography  took  its  origin.^  This  wonderful  art,  to  which 
Europe  owes  its  astonishing  progress  in  the  sciences,  consists 
of  two  distinct  inventions, — that  of  the  moveable  types,  and  that 
of  the  font.  The  former  belongs  to  John  Gutenberg,  a  gentle- 
man of  Mayence,  who  made  his  first  attempt  in  moveable  types 
at  Strasburg,  in  1436  ;  the  other,  which  is  generally  attributed 
to  Peter  SchcsfFer  of  Gernsheim,  took  place  at  Mayence  in  1452. 
Gutenberg  resided  at  Strasburg,  from  1424  till  1445.  Being  a 
noble  senator  of  that  city,  he  married  a  lady  of  rank  ;  and  during 
the  twenty  years  of  his  residence  there,  he  cultivated  all  sorts 
of  occult  arts,  especially  that  of  printing.  It  was  chiefly  in  re- 
ference to  this  latter  art  that  he  contracted  an  acquaintance  with 
several  of  his  wealthy  fellow-citizens,  one  of  whom,  named 
Andrew  Drizehn,  having  died,  his  heirs  brought  an  action  against 
Gutenberg  on  account  of  some  claims  v/hich  they  laid  to  his 
charge.  The  magistrate  ordered  an  inquiry  to  be  instituted,  the 
original  copy  of  which,  drawn  up  in  1439,  was  discovered  by 
Schoepflin  (1745)  in  the  archives  of  the  city,  and  is  still  preserv- 
ed in  the  public  library  at  Strasburg.  According  to  this  au- 
thentic document,  it  appears,  that  from  the  year  1436,  there 
existed  a  printing-press  at  Strasburg,  under  the  direction  of 
Gutenburg,  and  in  the  house  of  Andrew  Drizehn,  his  associate; 
that  this  press  consisted  of  forms,  that  were  fastened  or  locked 
by  means  of  screws  ;  and  that  the  types,  either  cut  or  engraved, 
which  were  enclosed  within  these  forms,  were  moveable.'-^    . 

Gutenburg,  after  his  return  to  Mayence,  still  continued  his 
typographical  labours.  While  there,  he  contracted  an  acquaint- 
ance with  a  new  associate  in  the  exercise  of  his  art  (1445) — the 
famous  John  Faust,  a  citizen  of  Mayence.  This  second  alliance 
continued  only  five  years  ;  and  it  is  within  this  interval,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  that  the  invention  of  the  font,  or  casting  of 
types,  should  be  placed  ;  as  well  as  that  of  the  die  and  the  mould 
or  matrix,  by  the  help  of  which  the  art  of  typography  was  brought 
nearly  to  its  present  state  of  perfection. ^^  Some  disputes,  which 
had  arisen  between  these  new  associates,  having  dissolved  their 
partnership,  Faust  obtained  the  press  of  Gutenberg,  with  all  its 
printing  apparatus,  which  had  fallen  to  him  by  sequestration. 
Gutenberg,  however   fitted  up  another  press,  and  continued  to 


176  CHAPTER  VI. 

print  till  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1468.  Not  one  of  the  books 
■which  issued  from  the  press  of  this  celebrated  man,  either 
at  Strasburg  or  Mayence,  bears  the  name  of  the  inventor,  or  the 
date  of  the  impression  ;  whether  it  was  that  Gutenberg  made  a 
secret  of  his  invention,  or  that  the  prejudices  at  the  cast  to  which 
he  belonged  prevented  him  from  boasting  of  his  discovery.  ^^ 
Faust,  on  the  contrary,  no  sooner  saw  himself  master  of  Guten- 
berg's presses,  than  he  became  ambitious  of  notoriety,  an  ex- 
ample of  which  he  gave  by  prefixing  his  name  and  that  of  Peter 
SchosfTer  to  the  famous  Psalter,  which  they  published  in  1457. 

The  arts  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  in  all  probability, 
suggested  the  idea  of  engraving  on  copper,  of  which  we  can 
discover  certain  traces  towards  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  honour  of  this  invention -is  generally  ascribed  to  a 
goldsmith  of  Florence,  named  Maso  Finiguerra,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  made  this  discovery  about  the  year  1460,  while  engrav- 
ing figures  on  silver  plate.  Baccio  Baldini,  another  Florentine, 
Andrew  Montegna,  and  Mark  Antony  Raimondi,  both  Italians, 
followed  in  the  steps  of  Finiguerra,  and  brought  this  art  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  There  is,  however,  some  cause  to 
doubt  whether  Finiguerra  was  exactly  the  first  to  whom^  the 
idea  of  this  sort  of  engraving  occurred ;  since,  in  difl^erent  cabi- 
nets in  Europe,  we  find  specimens  of  engraving  on  copper,  of  a 
date  earlier  than  what  has  been  assigned  to  Finiguerra.  If, 
however,  the  glory  of  this  invention  belongs  in  reality  to  the 
Italians,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  art  of  engraving  on  copper, 
as  well  as  on  wood,  was  cultivated  from  its  infancy,  and  brought 
to  perfection,  in  Germany.  The  first  native  engravers  in  that 
country  who  are  known,  either  by  their  names  or  their  signa- 
tures, in  the  fifteenth  century,  were  Martin  Schcen,  a  painter  and 
engraver  at  Colmar,  where  he  died  in  1486  ;  the  two  Israels 
Von  Mecheln,  father  and  son,  who  resided  at  Bockholt,  in  West- 
phalia ;  and  Michael  Wolgemuth  of  Nuremberg,  the  master  of 
the  celebrated  Albert  Durer,  who  made  so  conspicuous  a  figure 
about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Next  to  the  invention  of  printing,  there  is  no  other  that  so 
much  arrests  our  attention  as  that  of  gunpowder,  which,  by  in- 
troducing artillery,  and  a  new  method  of  fortifying,  attacking, 
and  defending  cities,  wrought  a  complete  change  in  the  whole 
art  and  tactics  of  war.  This  invention  comprises  several  disco- 
veries which  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  from  each  other.  1 
The  discovery  of  nitre,  the  principal  ingredient  in  gunpowder, 
and  the  cause  of  its  detonation.  2.  The  mixture  of  nitre  with 
sulphur  and  charcoal,  which,  properly  speaking,  forms  the  in- 


riiitioD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  177 

vention  of  gunpowder.  3,  The  application  of  powder  to  fire- 
works. 4.  Its  employment  as  an  agent  or  propelling  power 
for  throwing  stones,  bullets,  or  other  heavy  and  combustible 
bodies.  5.  Its  employment  in  springing  mines,  and  destroying- 
fortifications. 

All  these  discoveries  belong  to  different  epochs.  The  know 
ledge  of  saltpetre  or  nitre,  and  its  explosive  properties,  called 
detonation,  is  very  ancient.  Most  probably  it  was  brought  to 
us  from  the  East  (India  or  China,)  where  saltpetre  is  found  in  a 
natural  state  of  preparation.  It  is  not  less  probable  that  the 
nations  of  the  East  were  acquainted  with  the  composition  of 
gunpowder  before  the  Europeans,  and  that  it  was  the  Arabs  who 
first  introduced  the  use  of  it  into  Europe.  The  celebrated  Koger 
Bacon,  an  English  monk  or  friar  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
acquainted  with  the  composition  of  powder,  and  its  emplovment 
in  fire-works  and  public  festivities  ;  and  according  to  all  appear- 
ances, he  obtained  this  information  from  the  Arabic  authors, 
who  excelled  in  their  skill  of  the  chemical  sciences.  The  em- 
ployment of  gunpowder  in  Europe  as  an  agent  for  throwing  balls 
and  stones,  is  ascertained  to  have  been  about  the  commencement 
of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  and  it  was  the  Arabs  who  first  avail- 
ed themselves  of  its  advantages  in  their  wars  against  the  Span- 
iards. From  Spain  the  use  of  gunpowder  and  artillery  passed 
to  France,  and  thence  it  gradually  extended  over  the  other 
States  of  Europe.  As  to  the  application  of  powder  to  mines, 
and  the  destruction  of  fortified  works,  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  in  practice  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.^^  The  introduction  of  bombs  and  mortars  seems  to  have 
been  of  an  earlier  date  (1467.)  The  invention  of  these  in 
Europe,  is  attributed  to  Sigismund  Pandolph  Malatesta,  Prince 
of  Rimini ;  but  in  France  they  were  not  in  use  till  about  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIII.  Muskets  and  matchlocks  began  to  be  in- 
troduced early  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They  were  without 
spring-locks  till  1517,  when  for  the  first  time  muskets  and  pis- 
tols v/ith  spring-locks  were  manufactured  at  Nuremberg. 

Several  circumstances  tended  to  check  the  progress  of  fire- 
arms and  the  improvement  of  artillery.  Custom  made  most 
people  prefer  their  ancient  engines  of  war ;  the  construction  of 
cannons  was  but  imperfect  ;^^  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder 
bad  ;  and  there  was  a  very  general  aversion  to  the  newly  in- 
vented arms,  as  contrary  to  humanity,  and  calculated  to  extin- 
guish military  bravery.  Above  all,  the  knights,  whose  science 
was  rendered  completely  useless  by  the  introduction  of  fire- 
arms, set  themselves  with  all  their  might  to  oppose  this  invention. 

From  what  we  have  just  said  it  is  obvious,  that  the  common 


178 


CHAPTER  VI. 


tradition  which  ascribes  the  invention  of  gunpowder  to  a  certain 
monk,  named  Berthold  Schwartz,  merits  no  credit  whatever. 
This  tradition  is  founded  on  mere  hearsay ;  and  no  writers 
agree  as  to  the  name,  the  country,  or  the  circumstances  of  this 
pretended  inventor  ;  nor  as  to  the  time  and  place  when  he  made 
this  extraordinary  discovery.  Lastly,  the  mariner's  compass, 
so  essential  to  the  art  of  navigation,  was  likewise  the  produc- 
tion of  the  barbarous  ages  to  which  we  now  refer.  The  ancients 
were  aware  of  the  property  of  the  magnet  to  attract  iron  ;  but 
its  direction  towards  the  pole,  and  the  manner  of  communica- 
ting its  magnetic  virtues  to  iron  and  steel,  were  unknown  even 
to  all  those  nations  of  antiquity  who  were  renowned  for  their 
navigation  and  commerce.  This  discovery  is  usually  attributed 
to  a  citizen  of  Amalfi,  named  Flavio  Gioia,  who  is  said  to  have 
lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  This  tra 
dition,  ancient  though  it  be,  cannot  be  admitted,  because  we 
have  incontestable  evidence  that,  before  this  period,  the  polarity 
of  the  loadstone  and  the  magnetic  needle  were  known  in  Europe  ; 
and  that,  from  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Proven9al  mariners  made  use  of  the  compass  in  navigation.  ^'^ 

It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  we  can  neither  point  out 
the  original  author  of  this  valuable  discovery,  nor  the  true  time 
when  it  was  made.  All  that  can  be  well  ascertained  is,  that 
the  mariner's  compass  was  rectified  by  degrees  ;  and  that  the 
English  had  no  small  share  in  these  corrections.  It  is  to  this 
polar  virtue  or  quality  of  the  loadstone,  and  the  magnetic 
needle,  that  we  owe  the  astonishing  progress  of  commerce  and 
navigation  in  Europe,  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
These  were  already  very  considerable  at  the  time  of  which  we 
speak,  although  navigation  was  as  yet  confined  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  Baltic,  and  the  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean. 

The  cities  of  Italy,  the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  those  of  the 
Low  Countries,  engrossed,  at  that  time,  the  principal  commerce 
of  Europe.  The  Venetians,  the  Genoese,  and  the  Florentines, 
were  masters  of  the  Levant.  The  Genoese  had  more  espe- 
cially the  command  of  the  Black  Sea,  while  the  Venetians  laid 
claim  exclusively  to  the  commerce  of  India  and  the  East,  which 
they  carried  on  through  the  ports  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  This 
rivalry  in  trade  embroiled  these  two  republics  in  frequent  dis- 
putes, and  involved  them  in  long  and  sanguinary  wars.  The 
result  turned  in  favour  of  the  Venetians,  who  found  means  to 
maintain  the  empire  of  the  Mediterranean  against  the  Genoese. 
The  manufactories  of  silk,  after  having  passed  from  Greece 
into  Sicily,  and  from  Sicily  into  the  other  parts  of  Italy,  at 
length  fixed  their  principal  residence    at  Venice.     This  city 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300--1453.  179 

came  at  length  to  furnish  the  greater  part  of  Europe  with  silk 
mercery,  and  the  productions  of  Arabia  and  India.  The  Italian 
merchants,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Lombards,  ex- 
tended their  traffic  through  all  the  different  states  of  Europe. 
Favoured  by  the  privileges  and  immunities  which  various 
sovereigns  had  granted  them,  they  soon  became  masters  of  the 
commerce  and  the  current  money  of  every  country  where  they 
established  themselves  ;  and,  in  all  probability,  they  were  the 
first  that  adopted  the  practice  of  Letters  or  Bills  of  Exchange, 
ofwhichwemay  discover  traces  towards  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

The  Hanseatic  League,  which  the  maritime  cities  on  the 
Baltic  had  formed  in  the  thirteenth  century,  for  the  proteciion 
of  their  commerce  against  pirates  and  brigands,  gained  very 
considerable  accessions  of  strength  in  the  following  century, 
and  even  became  a  very  formidable  maritime  power.  A  great 
number  of  the  commercial  cities  of  the  Empire,  from  the  Scheld 
and  the  isles  of  Zealand,  to  the  confines  of  Livonia,  entered 
successively  into  this  League  ;  and  many  towns  in  the  interior, 
in  order  to  enjoy  their  protection,  solicited  the  favour  of  being 
admitted  under  its  flag.  The  first  public  act  of  a  general  con- 
federation among  these  cities,  was  drawn  up  at  the  assembly  of 
their  deputies,  held  at  Cologne,  in  1364.  The  whole  of  the 
allied  towns  were  subdivided  into  quarters  ox  circles;  the  most 
ancient  of  which  were  the  Venedian  quarter,  containing  the 
southern  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  Baltic ;  the  Westphalian, 
for  the  towns  on  the  western  side  ;  and  the  Saxon,  compre- 
hending the  inland  and  intermediate  towns.  A  fourth  circle  or 
quarter  was  afterwards  added,  that  of  the  cities  of  Prussia  and 
Livonia.  The  boundaries  of  these  different  circles  and  their 
capital  towns  varied  from  time  to  time.  The  general  assem- 
blies of  the  League  were  held  regularly  every  three  years,  in 
the  city  of  Lubec,  which  was  considered  as  the  capital  of  the 
whole  League  ;  while  each  of  the  three  or  four  circles  had  also 
their  particular  or  provincial  assemblies. 

The  most  flourishing  e])och  of  tbis  League  was  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  and  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. At  that  time,  the  deputies  of  more  than  fourscore  cities 
appeared  at  its  assemblies  ;  and  even  some  towns  who  had  not 
the  privilege  of  sending  deputies  v/ere,  nevertheless,  regarded 
as  allies  of  the  League.  Having  the  command  of  the  whole 
commerce  of  the  Baltic,  their  cities  exercised  at  their  pleasure 
the  rights  of  peace  and  war,  and  even  of  forming  alliances. 
They  equipped  numerous  and  powerful  fleets,  and  offered  bat- 
tle to  the  sovereigns  of  the  North,  whenever  they  presumed  to 


180  CHAPTER  VI. 

interfere  with  their  monopoly,  or  to  restrict  the  privileges  and 
exemptions  which  they  had  the  weakness  to  grant  them.  The 
productions  of  the  North,  such  as  hemp,  flax,  timber,  potash, 
tar,  corn,  hides,  furs,  and  copper,  with  the  produce  of  the 
large  and  small  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Schonen,  Norway, 
Lapland,  and  Iceland, ^^  formed  the  staple  of  the  Hanseatic 
connnerce.  They  exchanged  these  commodities,  in  the  west- 
ern parts  of  Europe,  for  wines,  fruits,  drugs,  and  all  sorts  of 
cloths,  which  they  carried  back  to  the  North  in  return.  Their 
principal  factories  and  warehouses,  were  at  Bruges  for  Flan- 
ders, at  London  for  England,  at  Novogorod  for  Russia,  and  at 
Bergen  for  Norway.  The  merchandise  of  Italy  and  the  East 
vvas  imported  into  Flanders,  in  Genoese  or  Venetian  bottoms, 
which,  at  that  time,  carried  on  most  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Levant  and  the  Mediterranean. 

Extensive  as  the  trade  of  the  Hanseatic  cities  was,  it  proved 
neither  solid  nor  durable.  As  they  were  themselves  deficient 
in  the  articles  of  raw  materials  and  large  manufactories,  and 
entirely  dependent  on  foreign  traffic,  the  industry  of  other  na- 
tions, especially  of  those  skilled  in  the  arts,  had  a  ruinous  effect 
on  their  commerce;  and,  in  course  of  time,  turned  the  current 
of  merchandise  into  other  channels.  Besides,  the  want  of 
union  among  these  cities,  their  factions  and  intestine  divisions, 
and  their  distance  from  each  other,  prevented  them  from  ever 
forming  a  territorial  or  colonial  power,  or  obtaining  possession 
of  the  Sound,  which  alone  was  able  to  secure  them  the  exclu- 
sive commierce  of  the  Baltic.  The  sovereigns  of  Europe,  per- 
ceiving at  length  more  clearly  their  true  interests,  and  sensible 
of  the  mistake  they  had  committed  in  surrendering  the  whole 
commerce  of  their  kingdom  to  the  Hanseatic  merchants,  used 
every  means  to  limit  and  abridge  their  privileges  more  and 
more.  This,  in  consequence,  involved  the  confederate  towns  in 
several  destructive  wars  with  the  Kings  of  the  North,  which 
exhausted  their  finances,  and  induced  one  city  after  another  to 
abandon  the  League.  The  English  and  the  Dutch,  encouraged 
by  the  Danish  l<^ings,  took  advantage  of  this  favourable  oppor- 
tunity to  send  their  vessels  to  the  Baltic;  and  by  degrees  they 
appropriated  to  themselves  the  greater  part  of  the  trade  that 
had  been  engro£-:ed  by  the  Hanseatic  Union.  But  what  is  of 
more  importance  to  remark,  is,  that  this  League,  as  well  as  that 
of  Lombardy,  having  been  formed  in  consequence  of  the  state 
of  anarchy  into  which  the  Empire  had  fallen  in  the  middle 
ages,  the  natural  result  was,  that  it  should  lose  its  credit  and  its 
influence  in  proportion  as  the  feudal  anarchy  declined,  and  when 
the  administration  of  the  Empire  had  assumed  a  new  form,  and 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  181 

the  landed  nobility,  emboldened  by  the  accessions  which  the 
seventeenth  century  had  made  to  their  power,  had  found  means 
to  compel  their  dependent  cities  to  return  to  their  allegiance, 
after  having  made  repeated  efforts  to  throw  off  their  authority, 
encouraged  as  they  were  by  the  protection  which  the  League 
held  out  to  them. 

In  this  manner  did  the  famous  Hanseatic  League,  so  formi- 
dable at  the  tmae  of  which  we  now  speak,  decline  by  degrees 
during  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  ;  and  during  the  Thirty  Years  War  it  be- 
came entirely  extinct.  The  cities  of  Lubec,  Hamburg  and  Bre- 
men, abandoned  by  all  their  confederates,  entered  into  a  new 
union  for  the  interests  of  their  commerce,  and  preserved  the  an- 
cient custom  of  treating  in  common  with  foreign  powers,  under 
the  name  of  the  Hanse  Towns. 

The  cities  of  Italy  and  the  North  were  not  the  only  ones  that 
made  commerce  their  pursuit  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  and  other  towns  in  the 
Netherlands,  contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  trade  by 
their  manufactures  of  cloth,  cotton,  camlets,  and  tapestry;  arti- 
cles with  which  they  supplied  the  gi'eater  part  of  Europe.  The 
English  exchanged  their  raw  wool  with  the  Belgians,  for  the 
finished  manufactures  of  their  looms,  while  the  Italians  furnish- 
ed them  with  the  productions  of  the  Levant,  and  the  silk  stuffs 
of  India.  Nothing  is  more  surprising  than  the  immense  popu- 
lation of  these  cities,  whose  wealth  and  affluence  raised  their 
rulers  to  the  rank  of  the  most  powerful  princes  in  Europe.  The 
city  of  Bruges  was,  as  it  were,  the  centre  and  principal  reposi- 
tory for  the  merchandise  of  the  North  and  the  South.  Such  an 
entrepot  was  necessary,  at  a  time  when  navigation  was  yet  in 
its  infancy.  For  this  purpose,  Flanders  and  Brabant  were  ex- 
tremely proper,  as  these  provinces  had  an  easy  communication 
with  all  the  principal  nations  of  the  Continent ;  and  as  the  great 
number  of  their  manufactories,  together  with  the  abundance  of 
fish  which  their  rivers  afforded,  naturall}^  attracted  a  vast  con- 
course of  foreign  traders.  This  superiority,  as  the  commercial 
capital  of  the  Low  Countries,  Bruges  retained  till  nearly  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  it  lost  this  preponderance, 
which  was  then  transferred  to  the  city  of  Antwerp. 

The  intestine  dissensions  with  which  the  cities  of  Flanders 
rind  Brabant  were  agitated,  the  restraints  which  were  incessant- 
ly imposed  on  their  commerce,  and  the  frequent  wars  which 
desolated  the  Low  Countries,  induced,  from  time  to  time,  a  great 
many  Flemish  operatives  about  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  to  take  refuge  in   England,  where  they 

VOL.  r.  16 


182  CHAPTER    VI. 

established  their  cloth  manufactories  under  the  immediate  pro- 
tection of  the  crown.  One  circumstance  which  more  particu- 
larly contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  the  Dutch  commerce,  was 
the  new  method  of  salting  and  barrelling-  herring,  which  was 
discovered  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  (or  1400)  b}' 
a  man  named  William  Beukelszoon,  a  native  of  Biervliet,  near 
Sluys.  The  new  passage  of  the  Texel,  which  the  sea  opened 
up  about  the  same  time,  proved  a  most  favourable  accident  for 
the  city  of  Amsterdam,  which  immediately  monopolized  the 
principal  commerce  of  the  fisheries,  and  began  to  be  frequented 
by  the  Hanseatic  traders. 

We  now  return  to  the  history  of  Germany.  The  Imperial 
throne,  always  elective,  was  conferred,  in  130S,  on  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Luxembourg,  who  occupied  it  till  1438,  when 
the  House  of  Hapsburg  obtained  the  Imperial  dignity.  It  was 
under  the  re^gn  of  these  two  dynasties  that  the  government  of 
the  Empire,  which  till  then  had  been  vacillating  and  uncertain, 
began  to  assume  a  constitutional  form,  and  a  new  and  settled 
code  of  laws.  That  which  was  published  at  the  Diet  of  Frank- 
fort in  1338,  secured  the  independence  of  the  Empire  against 
the  Popes.  It  was  preceded  by  a  League,  ratified  at  Reuse  by 
the  Electors,  and  known  b}?-  the  name  of  the  General  Union  of 
the  Electors.  The  Golden  Bull,  drawn  up  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.  (1356,)  in  the  Diets  of  Nuremberg  and  Metz,  fixed 
the  order  and  the  form  of  electing  the  Emperors,  and  the  cere- 
monial of  their  coronation.  It  ordained  that  this  election  should 
be  determined  by  a  majority  of  the  suffrages  of  the  seven  Elec- 
tors— and  that  the  vote  of  die  Elector,  who  might  happen  to  be 
chosen,  should  also  be  included.  Moreover,  to  prevent  those 
electoral  divisions,  which  had  more  than  once  excited  factions 
and  civil  w^ars  in  the  Empire,  this  law  fixed  irrevocably  the 
right  of  suffrage  in  the  Principalities,  then  entitled  Electorates. 
It  forbade  any  division  of  these  principalities,  and  for  this  end 
it  introduced  the  principal  of  birthright,  and  the  order  of  suc- 
cession, called  agnate,  or  direct  male  line  from  the  same  father. 
Finally,  the  Golden  Bull  determined  more  particularly  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  electors,  and  confirmed  to  the  electors  of 
the  Palatinate  and  Saxony  the  viceroyalty  or  government  of  the 
Empire  during  any  interregnum. 

The  efforts  w^hich  the  Council  of  Basle  made  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  church  excited  the  attention  of  the  Estates  of  the  em- 
pire. In  a  diet  held  at  i\Iayence  (1439,)  they  adopted  several 
decrees  of  that  council,  by  a  solemn  act  drawn  up  in  presence 
of  the  ambassadors  of  the  council,  and  of  the  kings  of  France; 
Castillo,  Arragon,  and  Portugal.    Among  these  adopted  decrees, 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  laS 

which  were  not  afterwards  altered,  we  observe  those  which 
establish  the  superiority  of  councils  above  the  Popes,  which 
prohibited  those  appeals  called  omisso  medio,  or  immediate,  and 
enjoined  the  Pope  to  settle  all  appeals  referred  to  his  court,  by 
commissioners  appointed  by  him  upon  the  spot.  Two  concor- 
dats, concluded  at  Rome  and  Vienna  (1447-4S,)  between  the 
Papal  court  and  the  German  nation,  confirmed  these  stipulations. 
The  latter  of  these  concordats,  however,  restored  to  the  Pope 
several  of  the  reserves,  of  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  had 
deprived  him.  He  was  also  allowed  to  retain  the  right  of  con- 
JSrraing  the  prelates,  and  enjoying  the  annats  and  the  alternate 
months. 

The  ties  which  united  the  numerous  states  of  the  German 
empire  having  been  relaxed  by  the  introduction  of  hereditary 
feudalism,  and  the  downfall  of  Imperial  authority,  the  conse- 
quence Avas,  that  those  states,  which  were  more  remote  from 
the  seat  of  authority,  by  degrees  asserted  their  independence,  or 
were  reduced  to  subjection  by  their  more  powerful  neighbours. 
[t  was  in  this  manner  that  several  provinces  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Burgundy,  or  Aries,  passed  in  succession  to  the 
crown  of  France.  Philip  the  Fair,  taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
putes which  had  arisen  between  the  Archbishop  and  the  citizens 
of  Lyons,  obliged  the  Archbishop,  Peter  de  Savoy,  to  surrender 
to  him  by  treaty  (1312)  the  sovereignty  of  the  city  and  its  de- 
pendencies. The  same  kingdom  acquired  the  province  of  Dau- 
phiny,  in  virtue  of  the  grant  which  the  last  Dauphin,  Humbert 
II.,  made  (1349)  of  his  estates  to  Charles,  grandson  of  Philip  de 
Valois,  and  first  Dauphin  of  France.  Provence  was  likewise 
added  (1481)  to  the  dominions  of  that  crown,  by  the  testament 
of  Charles,  last  Count  of  Provence,  of  the  House  of  Anjou. 
As  to  the  city  of  Avignon,  it  was  sold  (1348)  by  Joan  I.,  Queen 
of  Naples,  and  Countess  of  Provence,  to  Pope  Clement  VI., 
who  at  the  same  time  obtained  letters-patent  from  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.,  renouncing  the  claims  of  the  Empire  to  the  sove- 
reignty of  that  city,  as  well  as  to  all  lands  belonging  to  the  Church. 

A  most  important  revolution  happened  about  this  time  in 
Switzerland.  That  country,  formerly  dependent  upon  the  king- 
dom of  Burgundy,  had  become  an  immediate  province  of  the 
Empire  (1218,)  on  the  extinction  of  the  Dukes  of  Zahringen, 
who  had  governed  it  under  the  title  of  Regents.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Switzerland  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  petty  states,  both  secular  and  ecclesiastical. 
Among  these  we  find  the  Bishop  of  Basle,  the  Abbe  of  St.  Gall, 
the  Counts  of  Hapsburg,  Toggenburg,  Savoy,  Gruyeres,  Neuf- 
chatel,  Werdenberg,  Bucheck,  «Scc.     The  towns  of  Zurich,  So- 


1&4  CHAPTER    VI. 

leure,  Basle,  Berne,  and  others,  had  the  rank  of  free  and  imperia) 
cities.  A  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Under- 
walden,  who  held  immediatel}'  of  the  Empire,  were  governed 
by  their  own  magistrates,  under  the  title  of  Cantons.  They 
were  placed  by  the  Emperor  under  the  jurisdiction  of  governors, 
who  exercised,  in  his  name  and  that  of  the  Empire,  the  power 
of  the  sword  in  all  these  cantons.  Such  was  the  constitution 
of  Switzerland,  when  the  Emperor  Albert  I.  of  Austria,  son  of 
Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  conceived  the  project  of  extending  hif 
dominion  in  that  country,  where  he  already  had  considerable 
possessions,  in  his  capacity  of  Count  of  Hapsburg,  Kyburg, 
Baden,  and  Lentzburg.  Being  desirous  of  forming  Switzerland 
into  a  principality,  in  favour  of  one  of  his  sons,  he  made,  in 
course  of  time,  several  new  acqrisitions  of  territory,  with  the 
view  of  enlarging  his  estates.  Ihe  Abbeys  of  Murbach,  Ein- 
siedel,  Interlaken,  and  Disentis,  and  the  Canons  of  Lucerne,  sold 
him  their  rights  and  possessions  in  Glaris,  Lucerne,  Schweitz, 
and  Underwalden.  He  next  directed  his  policy  against  the 
three  immediate  cantons  of  Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Underwalden  ; 
and  endeavoured  to  make  them  acknowledge  the  superiority  of 
Austria,  by  tolerating  the  oppressions  which  the  governors  exer- 
cised, whom  he  had  appointed  to  rule  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Empire.  It  was  under  these  circumstances  that  three  intrepid  in- 
dividuals, Werner  de  Stauffach,a  native  of  the  canton  of  Schweitz, 
Walter  Fih'st,  of  Uri,  and  Arnold  de  Melchlhal  of  Underwalden, 
took  the  resolution  of  delivering  their  country  from  the  tyranny  of 
a  foreign  yoke.^^  The  conspiracy  which  they  formed  for  this»pur- 
pose,  broke  out  on  the  1st  of  January  130S.  The  governors, 
surprised  in  their  castles  by  the  conspirators,  were  banished  the 
country,  and  their  castles  razed  to  the  ground.  The  deputies 
of  the  three  cantons  assembled,  and  entered  into  a  league  of  ten 
years  for  the  maintenance  of  their  liberties  and  their  privileges; 
reserving  however  to  the  Empire  its  proper  rights,  as  also  those 
claimed  by  the  superiors,  whether  lay  or  ecclesiastical.  Thus 
a  conspiracy,  which  was  originally  turned  only  against  Austria, 
terminated  in  withdrawing  Switzerland  from  the  sovereignty  of 
the  German  empire.  The  victory  which  the  confederates  gained 
over  the  Austrians  at  Ivlorgarten,  on  the  borders  of  the  canton  of 
Schweitz,  encouraged  them  to  renew  their  league  at  Brunnen 
(1315;)  and  to  render  it  perpetual.  Asit  was-confirmed  by  oath,  the 
confederates,  from  this  circumstance,  got  the  name  o{ Eidge tiossen^ 
which  means,  bound  bij  oath.  This  league  became  henceforth 
the  basis  0/  the  federal  system  of  the  Swiss,  who  were  not  long 
in  strengthening  their  cause  by  the  accession  of  other  cantons. 
The  city  of  Lucerne,  having  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  Hapsburg, 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453,  185 

joined  the  League  of  Brunnen  in  1332,  Zurich  in  1351,  Glaris 
and  Zug  1353,  and  Berne  in  1355.  These  formed  the  eight 
ancient  cantons. 

The  situation  of  the  confederates,  however,  could  not  fail  to 
be  very  embarrassing,  so  long  as  the  Austrians  retained  the  vast 
possessions  which  they  had  in  the  very  centre  of  Switzerland. 
The  proscription  which  the  Emperor  Sigismund  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance,  issued  against  Frederic,  Duke  of  Austria  (1415,) 
as  an  adherent  and  protector  of  John  XXIII.,  at  length  fur- 
nished the  Swiss  with  a  favourable  occasion  for  depriving  the 
house  of  Austria  of  their  possessions.  The  Bernese  were  the 
first  to  set  the  example;  they  took  from  the  Austrian  Dukes, 
the  towns  of  ZofRngen,  Aran,  and  Bruck,  with  the  counties  of 
Hapsburg  and  Lentzburg,  and  the  greater  part  of  A  argovia.  Ky- 
burg  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Zurichers ;  the  Lucernese  made 
themselves  masters  of  Sursee  ;  and  the  free  bailiwicks,  with  the 
county  of  Baden,  the  towns  of  Mellingen  and  Bremgarten,  were 
subdued  by  the  comibined  forces  of  the  ancient  cantons,  who, 
since  then,  have  possessed  them  in  common. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine  a  new  power  rose  about  this  time 
(1363,)  that  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy.  Philip  the  Hardy, 
younger  son  of  John  the  Good,  King  of  France,  having  been 
created  Duke  of  Burgundy  by  the  King  his  father,  married 
Margaret,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis  III.,  last  Count  of 
Flanders.  By  this  marriage  he  obtained  Flanders,  Artois, 
Franche-Comte,  Nevers,  Rethel,  Malines,  and  Antwerp,  and 
transmitted  these  estates  to  his  son  John  the  Fearless,  and  his 
grandson  Philip  the  Good.  This  latter  prince  increased  them 
still  more  by  several  new  acquisitions.  The  Count  of  Namur 
sold  hitn  his  whole  patrimony,  (1428.)  He  inherited  from  his 
cousin  Philip  of  Burgundy,  the  dutchies  of  Brabant  and  Lim- 
bourg,  (1430.)  Another  cousin,  the  famous  Jaqueline  de  Ba- 
varia, made  over  to  him  by  treaty  (1433)  the  counties  of  Hainault, 
Holland,  Zealand,  and  Friesland.  Finally,  he  acquired  also  the 
dutchy  of  Luxembourg  and  the  county  of  Chiny,  by  a  compact 
which  he  made  with  the  Princess  Elizabeth  (1443,)  niece  of  the 
Emperor  Sigismund.  These  different  accessions  were  so  much 
the  more  important,  as  the  Low  Countries,  especially  Flanders 
and  Brabant,  were  at  that  time  the  seat  of  the  most  flourishing 
manufactories,  and  the  principal  mart  of  European  commerce. 
Hence  it  happened,  that  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  began  to  com- 
pete with  the  first  powers  in  Europe,  and  even  to  rival  the  Kings 
of  France. 

Among  the  principal  reigning  families  of  the  Empire,  several 
revolutions  took  place.     The  ancient  Slavonic  dynasty  of  the 

16^ 


186  CHAPTER  VI. 

Dukes  and  Kings  of  Bohemia  became  extinct  with  Wenceslaus 
v.,  who  was  assassinated  in  1306.  The  Emperor  Henry  VII., 
of  the  house  of  Luxembourg-,  seized  this  opportunity  of  trans- 
ferring to  his  own  family  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  in  which  he 
invested  his  son  John  (1309,)  who  had  married  the  Princess 
Elizabeth,  sister  to  the  last  King  of  Bohemia.  John,  having 
made  considerable  acquisitions  in  Bohemia,  was  induced  to  cede, 
by  treaty  with  Poland,  the  sovereignty  of  that  province.  The 
Emperor  Charles  IV.,  son  of  John,  incorporated  Silesia,  as  also 
Lusatia,  with  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  by  the  Pragmatics 
which  he  published  in  1355  and  1370.  The  war  with  the  Hus- 
sites broke  out  on  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Wenceslaus,  King 
of  Bohemia  (141S;)  because  the  followers  of  John  Huss,  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  had  refused  to  acknowledge,  as  successor  of 
that  prince,  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  his  brother  and  heir,  whom 
they  blamed  for  the  martyrdom  of  their  leaders.  This  war 
one  of  the  most  sanguinary  which  the  spirit  of  intolerance  and 
fanaticism  ever  excited,  continued  for  a  long  series  of  years 
John  de  Trocznova,  surnamed  Ziska,  general-in-chief  of  the 
Hussites,  defeated  several  times  those  numerous  armies  of  cru- 
saders, which  were  sent  against  him  into  Bohemia ;  and  it  was 
not  till  long,  after  the  death  of  that  extraordinary  man,  that  Si- 
gismund succeeded  in  allaying  the  tempest,  and  re-establishing 
his  own  authority  in  that  kingdom. 

The  house  of  Wittelsbach,  which  possessed  at  the  same  time 
the  Palatinate  and  Bavaria,  v/as  divided  into  two  principal 
branches,  viz.  that  of  the  Electors  Palatine,  and  the  Dukes  of 
Bavaria.  By  the  treaty  of  division,  which  was  entered  into  at 
Pavia  (1329,)  they  agreed  on  a  reciprocal  succession  of  the  two 
branches,  in  case  the  one  or  the  other  should  happen  to  fail  of 
heirs-male.  The  direct  line  of  the  Electors  of  Saxony  of  the 
Ascanian  House  happening  to  become  extinct,  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  claims  of  the 
younger  branches  of  Saxony,  conferred  that  Electorate  (1423,) 
as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  Empire,  on  Frederic  the  Warlike,  Mar- 
grave of  Misnia,  who  had  rendered  him  signal  assistance  in  the 
war  against  the  Hussites.  This  Prince  had  two  grandsons, 
Ernest  and  Albert,  from  whom  are  descended  the  two  principal 
branches,  which  still  divide  the  House  of  Saxony. 

The  Ascanian  dynasty  did  not  lose  merely  the  Electorate  of 
Saxony,  as  we  have  just  stated;  it  was  also  deprived,  in  the 
preceding  century,  of  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg.  Albert, 
surnamed  the  Bear,  a  scion  of  this  house,  had  transmitted  this 
latter  Electorate,  of  which  he  was  the  founder,  to  his  descend- 
ants in  direct  line,  the  male  heirs  of  which  failed  about  the  be- 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  187 

ginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Emperor  Louis  of 
Bavaria  then  bestowed  it  on  his  eldest  son  Louis  (1324,)  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  collateral  branches  of  Saxony  and  Anhalt.  The 
Bavarian  Princes,  however,  did  not  long  preserve  this  Electo- 
rate;  they  surrendered  it  (1373)  to  the  Emperor  Charles  IV., 
whose  son  Sigismund  ceded  it  to  Frederic,  Burgrave  of  Nu- 
remberg, of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern,  who  had  advanced  him 
considerable  sums  to  defray  his  expeditions  into  Hungar3\  This 
Prince  was  solemnly  invested  with  the  electoral  dignity  by  the 
Emperor,  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (1417,)  and  became  the 
ancestor  of  all  the  Electors  and  Margraves  of  Brandenburg,  as 
well  as  of  the  Kings  of  Prussia. 

The  numerous  republics  which  had  sprung  up  in  Italy,  in  thp 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  were  torn  to  pieces  by  contend- 
ing factions,  and  a  prey  to  mutual  and  incessant  hostilities. 
What  contributed  to  augment  the  trouble  and  confusion  in  that 
unhappy  country  was,  that,  during  a  long  series  of  years,  no 
Emperor  had  repaired  thither  in  person,  or  made  the  smallest 
attempt  to  restore  the  Imperial  authority  in  those  states.  The 
feeble  efforts  of  Henry  VII.,  Louis  of  Bavaria,  an,d  Charles  IV., 
only  served  to  prove,  that  in  Italy  the  royal  prerogative  was 
without  vigour  or  effect.  Anarchy  every  where  prevailed  ;  and 
that  spirit  of  liberty  and  republicanism  w^hich  had  once  anima- 
ted the  Italians  gradually  disappeared.  Disgusted  at  length 
with  privileges  which  had  become  so  fatal  to  them,  some  of  these 
republics  adopted  the  plan  of  choosing  new  masters  ;  while 
others  w^ere  subjected,  against  their  inclinations,  by  the  more 
powerful  of  the  nobles.  The  Marquises  of  Este  seized  Modena 
and  Reggio  (1336,)  and  obtained  the  ducal  dignity  (1452)  from 
the  Emperor  Frederic  III.  Mantua  fell  to  the  house  of  Gonza- 
ga,  wdio  possessed  that  sovereignty  first  under  the  title  of  Mar- 
graves, and  afterwards  under  that  of  Dukes,  which  was  confer- 
red on  them  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  in  1530.  But  the 
greater  part  of  these  Italian  republics  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
Visconti  of  Milan.  The  person  who  founded  the  prosperity  of 
their  house  was  Matthew  Visconti,  nephew  of  Otho  Visconti, 
Archbishop  of  Milan.  Invested  with  the  titles  of  Captain  and 
Imperial  Viceroy  in  Lombardy,  he  continued  to  make  himself 
acknowledged  as  sovereign  of  Milan  (1315,)  and  conquered  in 
succession  all  the  principal  towns  and  republics  of  Lombardy. 
His  successors  followed  his  example  :  they  enlarged  their  terri- 
tories by  several  new  conquests,  till  at  length  John  Galeas,  great 
grandson  of  Matthew  Visconti,  obtained,  from  the  Emperor  Wen- 
ceslaus  (1395,)  for  a  sum  of  a  hundred  thon.sand  florins  of  gold 
which  he  paid  him,  the  title  of  Duke  of  l\Iilan  for  himself  and 


188  CHAPTER  VI. 

all  his  descendants.  The  Visconti  famil\  reigned  at  Milan  till 
1447,  when  they  were  replaced  by  that  of  Sforza. 

Among-  the  republics  of  Italy  who  escaped  the  catastrophe  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  the  most  conspicuous  were  those  of 
Florence,  Genoa  and  Venice.  The  city  of  Florence,  like  all 
the  others  in  Tuscany,  formed  itself  into  a  republic  about  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  Its  government  underwent  frequent 
changes,  after  the  introduction  of  a  democracy  about  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  various  factions  which  had  agi- 
tated the  republic,  induced  the  Florentines  to  elect  a  magistrate 
(1292,)  called  Gonfaloniere  de  Justice,  or  Captain  of  Justice; 
invested  with  power  to  assemble  the  inhabitants  under  hi's  stand- 
ard, whenever  the  means  for  conciliation  were  insufficient  to 
suppress  faction  and  restore  peace.  These  internal  agitations, 
however,  did  not  prevent  the  Florentines  from  enriching  them- 
selves by  means  of  their  commerce  and  manufactures.  They 
succeeded,  in  course  of  time,  in  subjecting  the  greater  part  of 
the  free  cities  of  Tuscany,  and  especially  that  of  Pisa,  which 
they  conquered  in  1406.  The  republic  of  Lucca  was  the  only 
one  that  maintained  its  independence,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts 
which  the  Florentines  made  to  subdue  it.  The  republican  form 
of  government  continued  in  Florence  till  the  year  1530,  when 
the  family  of  the  Medici  usurped  the  sovereignty,  under  the 
protection  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 

The  same  rivalry  which  had  set  the  Genoese  to  quarrel  with 
the  Pisans,  excited  their  jealousy  against  the  Venetians.  The 
interests  of  these  two  Republics  thwarted  each  other,  both  in  the 
Levant  and  the  Mediterranean.  This  gave  rise  to  a  long  and 
disastrous  series  of  wars,  the  last  and  most  memorable  of  which 
was  that  of  Chioggia  (1376-82.)  The  Genoese,  after  a  signal 
victory  which  they  obtained  over  the  Venetians,  before  Pola  in 
the  Adriatic  Gulf,  penetrated  to  the  very  midst  of  the  lagoons 
of  Venice,  and  attacked  the  port  of  Chioggia.  Peter  Doria  made 
himself  master  of  this  port ;  he  would  have  even  surprised  Ve- 
nice, had  he  taken  advantage  of  the  first  consternation  of  the 
Venetians,  who  vv^ere  already  deliberating  whether  they  should 
abandon  their  city  and  take  refuge  in  the  isle  of  Candia.  The 
tardiness  of  the  Genoese  admiral  gave  them  time  to  recover 
themselves.  Impelled  by  a  noble  despair,  they  made  extraordi- 
nary efforts  to  equip  a  new  fleet,  with  which  they  attacked  the 
Genoese  near  Chioggia.  This  place  was  retaken  (24th  June 
1380,)  and  the  severe  check  which  the  Genoese  there  received, 
may  be  said  to  have  decided  the  command  of  the  sea  in  favour 
of  the  Venetians.  But  what  contributed  still  more  to  the  down- 
fall of  the  Genoese,  was  the  instability  of  their  government,  and 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300 — 1453.  189 

the  internal  commotions  of  the  republic.  Agitated  by  continual 
divisions  between  the  nobles  and  the  common  citizens,  and  in- 
capable of  managing  their  own  affairs,  they  at  length  surrender- 
ed themselves  to  the  power  of  strangers.  Volatile  and  incon- 
stant, and  equally  impatient  of  liberty  as  of  servitude,  these 
fickle  republicans  underwent  a  frequent  change  of  masters. 
Twice  (1396-1458)  they  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
the  Kings  of  France.  At  length  they  discarded  the  French, 
and  chose  for  their  protector  either  the  Marquis  of  Montferrat 
or  the  Dulfe  of  Milan,  Finally,  from  the  year  1464,  the  city  of 
Genoa  was  constantly  regarded  as  a  dependency  of  the  dutchy 
of  Milan,  until  152S,  when  it  recovered  once  more  its  ancient 
state  of  independence. 

While  the  Republic  of  Genoa  was  gradually  declining,  that 
of  Venice  was  every  day  acquirfng  new  accessions  of  power. 
The  numerous  establishments  which  they  had  formed  in  the 
Adriatic  Gulf  and  the  Eastern  Seas,  together  with  the  additional 
vigour  which  they  derived  from  the  introduction  of  the  heredi- 
tary aristocracy,  were  highly  advantageous  to  the  progress  of 
their  commerce  and  marine.  The  treaty  which  they  concluded 
with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (1343,)  by  guaranteeing  to  their  re- 
public an  entire  liberty  of  commerce  in  the  ports  of  Syria  and 
Er-ypt,  as  also  the  privilege  of  having  consuls  at  Alexandria  and 
Db^mascus,  put  it  in  their  povv^er  gradually  to  appropriate  to 
themselves  the  whole  trade  of  India,  and  to  maintain  it  against 
the  Genoese,  who  had  disputed  with  them  the  commerce  of  the 
East,  as  well  as  the  command  of  the  sea.  These  successes  en- 
couraged the  Venetians  to  make  new  acquisitions  ;  the  turbu- 
lent state  of  Lombardy  having  afforded  them  an  opportunity  of 
enlarging  their  dominions  on  the  continent  of  Italy,  where  at 
first  they  had  possessed  only  the  single  dogeship  of  Venice,  and 
the  small  province  of  Isiria.  They  seized  on  Treviso,  and  the 
whole  Trevisan  March  (13SS,)  which  they  took  from  the  pow- 
erful house  of  Carrara.  In  1420  they  again  got  possession  of 
Dalmatia,  which  they  conquered  from  Sigismund,  King  of  Hun- 
gary. This  conquest  paved  the  way  for  that  of  Friuli,  which 
they  took  about  the  same  time  from  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileia, 
an  ally  of  the  King  of  Hungary.  At  length,  by  a  succession  of 
good  fortune,  they  detached  from  the  dutchy  of  Milan  (1404) 
the  cities  and  territories  of  Vicenza,  Belluno,  Verona,  Padua, 
Brescia,  Bergamo,  and  Cremona  (1454,)  and  thus  formed  a  con- 
siderable estate  on  the  mainland. 

Naples,  during  the  course  of  this  period,  was  governed  by  a 
descendant  of  Charles,  of  the  first  House  of  Anjou,  and  younger 
brother  of  St.  Louis.     Queen  Joan  I.,  daughter  of  Robert,  King 


190  CHAPTER   VI. 

of  Naples,  having  no  children  of  her  own,  adoptea  a  younger 
prince  of  the  Angevine  family,  Charles  of  Durazzo,  whom  she 
destined  as  her  successor,  after  having  given  him  her  niece  in 
marriage.  This  ungrateful  prince,  in  his  eagerness  to  possess 
the  crown,  took  arms  against,  the  Queen  his  benefactress,  and 
compelled  her  to  solicit  the  aid  of  foreign  powers.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  Joan,  after  rescinding  and  annulling  her  former 
deed  of  adoption,  made  another  in  favour  of  Louis  I.,  younger 
brother  of  Charles  V.,  King  of  France,  and  founder  of  the  second 
House  of  Anjou.  But  the  succours  of  that  prince  came  too  late 
to  save  the  Queen  from  the  hands  of  her  cruel  enemy.  Charles 
having  made  himself  master  of  Naples  and  of  the  Queen's  per- 
son (13S2,)  immediately  put  her  to  death,  and  maintained  him- 
self on  the  throne,  in  spite  of  his  adversary  Louis  of  Anjou,  who 
obtained  nothing  more  of  the  Queen's  estates  than  the  single 
county  of  Provence,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  descendants, 
together  with  his  claim  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Joan  IL, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  of  Durazzo,  having  been  at- 
tacked by  Louis  IIL  of  Anjou,  who  wished  to  enforce  the  rights 
of  adoption  which  had  descended  to  him  from  his  grandfather 
Louis  L,  she  implored  the  protection  of  Alphonso  V.,  King  of 
Arragon,  whom  she  adopted  and  declared  her  heir  (1421 ;)  but 
afterwards,  having  quarrelled  with  that  prince,  she  changed  her 
resolution,  and  passed  a  new  act  of  adoption  (1423)  in  favour  of 
that  same  Louis  of  Anjou  who  had  just  made  war  against  her 
Rene  of  Anjou.  the  brother  and  successor  of  that  prince,  took 
possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  on  the  death  of  Joan  II. 
(1435;)  but  he  was  expelled  by  the  King  of  Arragon  (1445,) 
who  had  procured  from  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  the  investiture  of 
that  kingdom,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  natural  son  Ferdi- 
nand, descended  from  a  particular  branch  of  the  Kings  of  Na- 
ples. The  rights  of  the  second  race  of  Angevine  princes,  were 
transferred  to  the  Kings  of  France,  along  with  the  county  of 
Provence  (14S1.) 

Spain,  which  was  divided  into  a  variety  of  sovereignties  both 
Christian  and  Mahometan,  presented  at  this  time  a  kind  of  sepa- 
rate or  distinct  continent,  whose  interests  had  almost  nothing  in 
common  with  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  Kings  of  Navarre,  Cas- 
tillo, and  Arragon,  disagreeing  among  themselves,  and  occupied 
with  the  internal  affairs  of  their  own  kingdoms,  had  but  little 
leisure  to  attempt  or  accomplish  any  foreign  enterprise.  Of  ail 
the  Kings  of  Castille  at  this  period,  the  most  famous,  in  the 
wars  against  the  Moors,  was  Alphonso  XL  The  Mahometan 
kings  of  Morocco  and  Grenada  having  united  their  forces,  laid 
siege  to  the  city  of  TarifTa  in  Andalusia,  where  Alphonso,  as- 


PERIOD  V,      A.  D.  1300—1453.  191 

sistedby  the  King-  of  Portugal,  ventured  to  attack  them  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  that  place.  He  gained  a  complete  victory  over 
the  Moors  (1340  ;)  and  this  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of 
various  other  cities  and  districts  ;  among  others,  Alcala-Real, 
and  Algeziras. 

While  the  Kings  of  Castille  were  extending-  their  conquests 
in  the  interior  of  Spain,  those  of  Arragon,  hemmed  in  by  the 
Castillians,  were  obliged  to  look  for  aggrandizement  abroad. 
They  possessed  the  country  of  Barcelona  or  Catalonia,  in  virtue 
t)f  the  marriage  of  Count  Raymond  Berenger  IV.  with  Donna 
Petronilla,  heiress  of  the  kingdom  of  Arragon.  To  this  they 
added  the  county  of  Rousillon,  and  the  seignory  or  lordship  of 
Montpelier,  both  of  which,  as  well  as  Catalonia,  belonged  to  the 
sovereignty  of  France.  Don  James  I.,  who  conquered  the  king- 
dom of  Valencia  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  gave  these,  with  Rou- 
sillon and  Montpelier,  to  Don  James  his  younger  son,  and  from 
whom  were  descended  the  Kings  of  Majorca,  the  last  of  whom, 
Don  James  III.,  sold  Montpelier  to  France  (1349.)  Don  Pedro 
III.,  King  of  Arragon,  and  eldest  son  of  Don  James  I.,  took 
Sicily,  as  we  have  already  seen,  from  Charles  I.  of  Anjou. 
Ferdinand  II.,  a  younger  son  of  Don  Pedro,  formed  a  separate 
branch  of  the  kings  of  Sicily,  on  the  extinction  of  which  (1409,) 
that  kingdom  rev^erted  to  the  crown  of  Arragon.  Sardinia  was 
incorporated  wath  the  kingdom  of  Arragon  by  Don  James  II., 
who  had  conquered  it  from  the  Pisans.  Finally,  Alphonso  V., 
King  of  Arragon,  having  deprived  the  Angevines  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  established  a  distinct  line  of  Neapolitan  kings. 
This  kingdom  was  at  length  united  with  the  monarchy  of  Arra- 
gon by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 

In  Portugal,  the  legitimate  line  of  kings,  descendants  of 
Henry  of  Burgundy,  had  failed  in  Don  Ferdinand,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Don  Pedro  III.  This  prince  had  an  only  daughter 
tiamed  Beatrix,  born  in  criminal  intercourse  with  Eleanora 
Tellez  de  Meneses,  whom  he  had  taken  from  her  lawful  hus- 
band. Being  desirous  to  make  this  princess  his  successor,  he 
married  her,  at  the  age  of  eleven,  to  John  I.,  King  of  Castille  : 
securing  the  throne  to  the  son  who  should  be  born  of  this  union, 
and  failing  him,  to  the  King  of  Castille,  his  son-in-law.  Fer- 
dinand dying  soon  after  this  marriage,  Don  Juan,  his  natural 
brother,  and  grand-master  of  the  order  of  Aviez,  knowing  the 
aversion  of  the  Portuguese  for  the  Castillian  sway,  turned  this 
to  his  own  advantage,  by  seizing  the  regency,  of  which  he  had 
deprived  the  Queen-dowager.  The  King  of  Castille  imme- 
diately laid  siege  to  Lisbon;  but  having  miscarried  in  this  en- 
terprise, the   States  of   Portugal  assembled  at   Coimbra,   and 


192  CHAPTER  VI. 

conferred  the  crown  on  Don  Juan,  known  in  history  hy  the 
name  of  Jo/m  the  Bastard.  This  prince,  aided  with  troops  from 
England,  engaged  the  Castillians  and  their  allies  the  French, 
at  the  famous  battle  fought  on  the  plains  of  Aljuharota  (14th 
August  13S5.)  The  Portuguese  remained  masters  of  the  field, 
and  John  the  Bastard  succeeded  in  maintaining  himself  on  the 
throne  of  Portugal.  The  war,  however,  continued  several 
years  between  the  Portuguese  and  the  Castillians,  and  did  not 
terminate  till  1411.  By  the  peace  which  was  then  concluded, 
Henry  III.,  son  of  John  I.,  King  of  Castille,  agreed  never  to 
urge  the  claims  of  Queen  Beatrix,  his  mother-in-law,  who  had 
no  children.  John  the  Bastard  founded  a  new  dynasty  of  kings, 
who  occupied  the  throne  of  Portugal  from  13S5  to  15S0. 

In  France,  the  direct  line  of  kings,  descendants  of  Hugh 
Capet,  having  become  extinct  in  the  sons  of  Philip  the  Fair, 
the  crown  passed  to  the  collateral  branch  of  Valois  (1328,) 
which  furnished  a  series  of  thirteen  kings,  during  a  period  of 
two  hundred  and  sixty-one  years. 

The_rivalry  between  France  and  England,  which  had  sprung 
up  during  the  preceding  period,  assumed  a  more  hostile  charac- 
ter on  the  accession  of  the  family  of  Valois.  Till  then,  the 
quarrels  of  the  two  nations  had, been  limited  to  some  particular 
ten'itory,  or  province;  but  now  they  disputed  even  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  of  France,  which  the  kings  of  England  claimed 
as  their  right.  Edward  III.,  by  his  mother,  Isabella  of  France, 
was  nephew  to  Charles  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Capelian  kings  in  a 
direct  line.  He  claimed  the  succession  in  opposition  to  Philip 
VI.,  surnamed  de  Valois,  who  being  cousin-germ  an  to  Charles, 
was  one  degree  more  remote  than  the  King  of  England.  The 
claim  of  Edward  w^as  opposed  by  the  Salic  law,  which  excluded 
females  from  the  succession  to  the  throne  ;  but,  according  to  the 
mterpretation  of  that  prince,  the  law  admitted  his  right,  and 
must  be  understood  as  referring  to  females  personally,  who, 
were  excluded  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  their  sex,  and 
not  to  their  male  descendants.  Granting  that  his  mother,  Isa- 
bella, could  not  herself  aspire  to  the  crown,  he  maintained  that 
she  gave  him  the  right  of  proximity,  which  qualified  him  for 
the  succession.  The  States  of  France,  however,  having  de- 
cided in  favour  of  Philip,  the  King  of  England  did  fealty  and 
homage  to  that  prince  for  the  dutchy  of  Guienne  ;  but  he  laid 
no  claim  to  the  crown  until  1337,  when  he  assumed  the  title 
and  arms  of  the  King  of  France.  The  war  which  began  in 
1338,  was  renewed  during  several  reigns,  for  the  space  of  a 
hundred  years,  and  ended  with  the  entire  expulsion  of  the  Eng-- 
lish  from  France. 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  193 

Nothing-  could  be  more  wretched  than  the  situation  of  this 
kingdom  during  the  reign  of  Charles  VI  That  prince  having 
lallen  into  a  state  of  insanity  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  two  par- 
ries, those  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans,  who  had  disputed  with 
each  other  about  the  regency,  divided  the  Court  into  factions, 
and  kindled  the  flames  of  civil  war  in  the  four  corners  of  the 
kingdom.  John  the  Fearless,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  uncle 
to  the  king,  caused  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  King's  own 
brother,  to  be  assassinated  at  Paris  (1407.)  He  himself  was 
assassinated  in  his  turn  (1419)  on  the  bridge  of  Montereau, 
in  the  very  presence  of  the  Dauphin,  who  was  afterwards  king, 
inder  the  name  of  Charles  Vll.  These  dissensions  gave  the 
Linglish  an  opportunity  for  renewing  tlie  war.  Henry  the  V. 
of  England  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Agincourt,  which  was 
followed  by  the  conquest  of  all  Normandy.  Isabella  of  Ba- 
varia then  abandoned  the  faction  of  Orleans,  and  the  party  of 
her  son  the  Dauphin,  and  joined  that  of  Burgundy.  Philip 
the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  son  of  John  the  Fearless, 
being  determined  to  revenge  the  death  of  his  father,  which  he 
laid  to  the  charge  of  the  Dauphin,  entered  into  a  negotiation 
with  England,  into  which  he  contrived  to  draw  Queen  Isabella, 
and  the  imbecile  Charles  the  VI.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  con- 
cluded at  Troves  in  Champagne  (1420,)  it  was  agreed  that 
Catharine  of  France,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  and  Isabella  of 
Bavaria,  should  espouse  Henry  V.,  and  that,  on  the  death  of 
the  King,  the  crown  should  pass  to  Henry,  and  the  children  of 
his  marriage  with  the  Princess  of  France  ;  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  Dauphin,  who,  as  an  accomplice  in  the  murder  of  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  was  declared  to  have  lost  his  rights  to  the  crown, 
and  was  banished  from  the  kingdom.  Henry  V.  died  in  the 
flower  of  his  age,  and  his  death  was  followed  soon  after  by  that 
of  Charles  VI.  Henry  VI.,  son  of  Henry  V.  and  Catharine  of 
France,  being  then  proclaimed  King  of  England  and  France, 
fixed  his  residence  at  Paris,  and  had  for  his  regents  his  two 
uncles,  the  Dukes  of  Bedford  and  Gloucester. 

Such  was  the  preponderance  of  the  English  and  Burgundian 
party  in  Fiance  at  this  period,  that  Charles  VII.,  commonly 
called  the  Dauphin,  more  than  once  saw  himself  upon  the 
point  of  being  expelled  the  kingdom.  He  owed  his  safety  en- 
tirely to  the  appearance  of  the  famous  Joan  of  Arc,  called  the 
Maid  of  Orleans.  This  extraordinary  woman  revived  the 
drooping  courage  of  the  French.  She  compelled  the  English 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  brought  the  King  to  be 
crowned  at  Rheims  (1429.)  But  what  contributed  still  more  to 
retrieve  the  party  of  Charles  VII.,  was  the  reconciliation  of  that 

VOL.    I.  '  17 


«>4- 


CHAPTER  VI. 


prince  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  which  took  place  at  the 
peace  of  Arras  (1435.)  The  Duke  having  then  united  hia 
forces  with  those  of  the  King,  the  English  were  in  their  tnrr 
expelled  from  France  (14-53,)  the  single  city  of  Calais  being  ull 
that  remained  to  them  of  their  former  conquests. 

An  important  revolution  happened  in  the  government  of 
France  under  the  reign  of  Charles  VII.  The  royal  authority 
gained  fresh  vigour  by  the  expulsion  of  the  English,  and  the 
reconciliation  of  various  parties  that  took  place  in  consequence. 
The  feudal  system,  which  till  then  had  prevailed  in  France,  fell 
by  degrees  into  disuse.  Charles  Vv'as  the  first  king  who  estab- 
lished a  permanent  militia,  and  taught  his  successors  to  abandon 
the  feudal  mode  of  warfare.  This  prince  also  instituted  Co?n- 
panies  of  ordonance  (1445;)  and,  to  defray  the  expense  of  their 
maintenance,  he  ordered,  of  his  own  authority,  a  certain  impost 
o  be  levied,  called  the  Tax  of  the  Gens- dC amies.  This  stand- 
mg  army,  which  at  first  amounted  only  to  six  thousand  men, 
was  augmented  in  course  of  time,  while  the  royal  finances 
increased  in  proportion.  By  means  of  these  establishments, 
the  kings  obtained  such  an  ascendancy  over  their  vassals  that 
they  soon  found  themselves  in  a  condition  to  prescribe  laws  to 
them,  and  thus  gradually  to  abolish  the  feudal  system.  The 
most  powerful  of  the  nobles  could  make  little  resistance  against 
a  sovereign  who  was  always  armed  ;  while  the  kings,  imposing 
taxes  at  their  pleasure,  by  degrees  dispensed  with  the  necessity 
of  assembling  the  states-general.  The  same  prince  secured  the 
liberties  of  the  Galilean  church  against  the  encroachments  of 
the  Court  of  Rome,  by  solemnly  adopting  several  of  the  decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Basle,  which  he  caused  to  be  passed  in  the 
National  Council  held  at  Bourges,  and  published  under  the  title 
of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  (143S.) 

In  England,  two  branches  of  the  reigning  family  of  the  Plan- 
tagenets,  those  of  Lancaster  and  York,  contested  for  a  long 
time  the  right  to  the  crown.  Henry  IV.,  the  first  king  of  the 
House  of  Lancaster,  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  and  grandson  of  Edward  III.  King  of  England.  He 
usurped  the  crown  from  Richard  II.,  whom  he  deposed  by  act 
of  Parliament  (1399.)  But  instead  of  enforcing  the  rights 
which  he  inherited  from  his  father  and  grandfather,  he  rested 
his  claims  entirely  upon  those  which  he  alleged  had  devolved 
to  him  in  right  of  his  mother,  Blanch  of  Lancaster,  great  grand- 
daughter of  Edward,  surnamed  Hunchback,  Earl  of  Lancaster. 
This  prince,  according  to  a  popular  tradition,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Henry  III.,  who,  it  was  said,  had  been  excluded  from  the 
throne  by  his  young^er  brother  Edward  I.,  on  account  of  his  de 


PEKioD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  195 

formity.  This  tradition  proved  useful  to  Henry  IV.  in  excluding 
the  rights  of  the  House  of  Clarence,  who  preceded  him  in  the 
order  of  succession.  This  latter  family  was  descended  from 
Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  elder  brother  of  John  of  Gaunt. 
Philippine,  daughter  of  Lionel,  was  married  to  Edward  Morti- 
mer, by  whom  she  had  a  son,  Roger,  whom  the  Parliament,  by 
an  act  passed  in  13S6,  declared  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown. 
Ann  Mortimer,  the  daughter  of  Roger,  married  Richard,  Duke  of 
York,  son  of  Edward  Langley,  who  was  the  younger  broihei 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  thus  transferred  the  right  of  Lionel  to 
the  Royal  House  of  York. 

The  Princes  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  are  known  in  Eng- 
lish history  by  the  name  of  the  Red  Rose,  while  those  of  York 
were  designated  by  that  of  the  White  Rose.  The  former  of 
these  Houses  occupied  the  throne  for  a  period  of  sixtv^-three 
years,  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  IV.,  V.,  VI.  It  was  under 
the  feeble  reign  of  Henry  VI.  that  the  House  of  York  began  to 
advance  their  right  to  the  crown,  and  that  the  civil  war  broke 
out  between  the  two  Roses.  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  hen* 
to  the  claims  of  Lionel  and  Mortimer,  was  the  first  to  raise  the 
standard  in  this  war  of  competition  (1452,)  which  continued 
more  than  thirty  years,  and  was  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  san- 
guinary recorded  in  history.  Twelve  pitched  battles  were 
foughi  between  the  two  Roses,  eighty  princes  of  the  blood  pe- 
rislied  in  the  contest,  and  England,  during  the  whole  time,  pre- 
sented a  tragical  spectacle  of  horror  and  carnage.  Edward  IV., 
son  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  grandson  of  Ann  Mortimer, 
ascended  the  throne  (1461,)  which  he  had  stained  with  the  blood 
of  Henry  IV,,  and, of  several  other  Princes  of  the  House  of 
Lancaster. 

In  Scotland,  the  male  line  of  the  ancient  kings  having  become 
extinct  in  Alexander  III.,  a  crowd  of  claimants  appeared  on  the 
field,  who  disputed  with  each  other  the  succession  of  the  throne. 
The  chief  of  these  competitors  were  the  two  Scottish  families 
of  Baliol  and  Bruce,  both  descended  by  the  mother's  side  from 
the  Royal  Family.  Four  princes  of  these  contending  families 
reigned  in  Scotland  until  the  year  1371,  when  the  crown  passed 
from  the  House  of  Bruce  to  that  of  Stuart.  Robert  II.,  son  of 
Walter  Stuart  and  Marjory  Bruce,  succeeded  his  uncle  David 
II.,  and  in  his  family  the  throne  remained  until  the  Union,  when 
Scotland  was  united  to  England  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Under  the  government  of  the  Stuarts, 
the  royal  authority  acquired  fresh  energy  after  being  long  re- 
strained and  circumscribed  by  a  turbulent  nobility.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  James  1.,  a  very  accomplished 


196  CHAPTER    VI. 

prince,  gave  the  first  blow  to  the  feudal  system  and  the  exorbi- 
tant power  of  the  grandees.  He  deprived  them  of  several  of 
the  crown-lands  which  they  had  usurped,  and  confiscated  the 
property  of  some  of  the  most  audacious  whom  he  had  con- 
demned to  execution.  James  II.  followed  the  example  of  his 
father.  He  strengthened  the  royal  authority,  by  humbling  the 
powerful  family  of  Douglas,  as  well  as  by  the  wise  laws  which 
he  prevailed  with  his  Parliament  to  adopt. 

The  three  kingdoms  of  the  North,  after  having  been  long 
agitated  by  internal  dissensions,  were  at  length  united  into  a 
single  monarchy  by  Margaret,  called  the  Semiramis  of  the  North. 
This  princess  was  daughter  of  Valdemar  III.,  the  last  King  of 
Denmark  of  the  ancient  reigning  family,  and  widow  of  Haco 
VII.,  King  of  Norway.  She  was  first  elected  Queen  of  Den- 
mark, and  then  of  Norway,  after  the  death  of  her  son,  Olaus 
v.,  whom  she  had  by  her  marriage  with  Haco,  and  who  died 
without  leaving  any  posterity  (13S7.)  The  Swedes,  discon- 
tented with  their  King,  Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  likewise  be- 
stowed their  crown  upon  this  princess.  Albert  was  vanquished 
and  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Fahlekoeping  (1389.)  The 
whole  of  Sweden,  from  that  time,  acknowledged  the  authority 
of  Queen  Margaret.  Being  desirous  of  uniting  the  three  king- 
doms into  one  single  body-politic,  she  assembled  their  respective 
Estates  at  Calmar  (1397,)  and  there  caused  her  grand-nephew 
Eric,  son  of  Wratislaus,  Duke  of  Pomerania,  and  Mary  of 
Mecklenburg,  daughter  of  Ingeburg,  her  own  sister,  to  be  re- 
ceived and  crowned  as  her  successor.  The  act  which  ratified 
the  perpetual  and  irrevocable  union  of  the  three  kingdoms,  was 
approved  in  that  assembly.  It  provided,  that  the  united  slates 
should,  in  future,  have  but  one  and  the  same  king,  who  should 
be  chosen  with  the  common  consent  of  the  Senators  and  Depu- 
ties of  the  three  kingdoms  ;  that  tiiey  should  always  give  the 
preference  to  the  descendants  of  Eric,  if  there  were  any  ;  that 
the  three  kmgdoms  should  assist  each  other  with  their  combined 
forces  against  all  foreign  enemies  ;  that  each  kingdom  should 
preserve  its  own  constitution,  its  senate,  and  national  legisla- 
ture, and  be  governed  conformably  to  its  own  laws. 

This  union,  how  formidable  soever  it  might  appear  at  first 
sight,  was  by  no  means  firmly  consolidated.  A  federal  system 
of  three  monarchies,  divided  by  mutual  jealousies,  and  by  dis- 
similarity in  their  laws,  manners,  and  institutions,  could  present 
nothing  either  solid  or  durable.  The  predilection,  besides, 
which  the  kings  of  the  union  who  succeeded  Margaret  showed 
for  the  Danes  ;  the  preference  which  they  gave  them  in  the 
distribution   of  favours  and  places  of  trust,  and  the  tone  of  su 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  197 

periority  which  they  affected  towards  their  allies,  tended  natu- 
rally to  foster  animosity  and  hatred,  and,  above  all,  to  exasperate 
the  Swedes  against  the  union.  Eric,  after  a  very  turbulent 
reign,  was  deposed,  and  his  nephew,  Christopher  the  Bavarian, 
was  elected  King  of  the  union  in  his  place.  This  latter  prince 
having  died  without  issue,  the  Swedes  took  this  opportunity  oi 
breaking  the  union,  and  choosing  a  king  of  their  own,  Charles 
Canutson  Bonde,  known  by  the  title  of  Charles  VIII.  It  was 
he  who  induced  the  Danes  to  venture  likewise  on  a  new  elec- 
tion ;  and  this  same  year  they  transferred  their  crown  to  Chris- 
tian, son  of  Thierry,  and  Count  of  Oldenburg,  descended  by 
the  female  side  from  the  race  of  their  ancient  kings.  This 
prince  had  the  good  fortune  to  renew  the  union  with  Norway 
(1450;)  he  likewise  governed  Sweden  from  the  year  1437, 
when  Charles  VIII.  v/as  expelled  by  his  subjects,  till  1464^ 
when  he  was  recalled.  But  what  deserves  more  particularly 
to  be  remarked,  is  the  acquisition  which  Christian  made  of  the 
provinces  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein,  to  which  he  succeeded 
(1459,)  by  a  disposition  of  the  States  of  these  provinces,  after 
the  death  of  Duke  Adolphus,  the  maternal  uncle  of  the  new 
King  of  Denmark,  and  last  male  heir  of  the  Counts  of  Hol- 
stein, of  the  ancient  House  of  Schauenburg.  Christian  I.  was 
the  progenitor  of  all  the  Kings  who  have  since  reigned  in  Den- 
mark and  Norway.  His  grandson  lost  Sweden  ;  but,  in  the 
last  century,  the  thrones  both  of  Russia  and  Sweden  were 
occupied  by  princes  of  his  family. 

Russia,  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  groaned  under  the 
degrading  yoke  of  the  Moguls  and  the  Tartars.  The  Grand 
Dukes,  as  well  as  the  other  Russian  princes,  were  obliged  to 
solicit  the  confirmation  of  their  dignity  from  the  Khan  of  Kip- 
zack,  who  granted  or  refused  it  at  his  pleasure.  The  dissen- 
sions which  arose  among  these  northern  princes,  were  in  like 
manner  submitted  to  his  decision.  When  summoned  to  appear  at 
his  horde,  they  were  obliged  to  repair  thither  without  delay,  and 
often  suffered  the  punishment  of  ignominy  and  death. ^^  The 
contributions  which  the  Khans  at  first  exacted  from  the  Rus- 
sians in  the  shape  of  gratuitous  donations,  were  converted,  in 
course  of  time,  into  regular  tribute.  Bereke  Khan,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Baton,  was  the  first  who  levied  this  tribute  by  officers 
of  his  own  nation.  His  successors  increased  still  more  the 
load  of  these  taxes  ;  they  even  subjected  the  Russian  princes 
to  the  performance  of  military  service. 

The  Grand  Ducal  dignity,  which  for  a  long  time  belonged 
exclusively  to  the  chiefs  of  the  principalities  of  Vladimir  and 
Kiaso,  became  common,  about  the  end  of  the   fourteenth  cen- 

17=^ 


198  CHAPTER  VI. 

tury,  to  several  of  the  other  principalities,  who  shared  among 
them  the  dominion  of  Russia.  The  princes  of  Rezan,  Twer, 
Smolensko,  and  several  others,  took  the  title  of  Grand  Dukes, 
10  distinguish  themselves  from  the  petty  princes  who  were  es- 
tablished within  their  principalities.  These  divisions,  together 
with  the  internal  broils  to  which  they  gave  rise,  emboldened 
the  Lithuanians  and  Poles  to  carry  their  victorious  arms  into 
Russia  ;  and  by  degrees  they  dismembered  the  whole  western 
part  of  the  ancient  empire. 

The  Lithuanians,^^  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  the 
same  race  with  the  ancient  Prussians,  Lethonians,  Livonians, 
and  Esthonians,  inhabited  originally  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
Niemen  and  Wilia ;  an  inconsiderable  state,  comprehending 
Samogitia  and  a  part  of  the  ancient  Palatinates  of  Troki  and 
Wilna.  After  having  been  tributaries  to  the  Russians  for  a 
long  time,  the  princes  of  Lithuania  shook  off  their  yoke,  and 
began  to  aggrandize  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  Grand 
Dukes,  their  former  masters.  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century,  they  passed  the  Wilia,  founded  the  town  ofKier- 
now,  and  took  from  the  Russians  Braclaw,  Novgorodek,  Grodno, 
Borzesc,  Bidsk,  Pinsk,  Mozyr,  Polotsk,  Minsk,  Witepsk,  Orza, 
and  Mscislaw%  with  their  extensive  dependencies.  Ringold 
was  the  first  of  these  princes  that  assumed  the  dignity  of  Grand 
Duke,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  His  succes- 
sor Mendog  or  Mindow,  harassed  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  em- 
braced Christianity  about  the  year  1252,  and  was  declared  King 
of  Lithuania  by  the  Pope  ;  though  he  afterwards  returned  to 
Paganism,  and  became  one  of  the  most  cruel  enemies  of  the 
Christian  name.  Gedimin,  who  ascended  the  throne  of  the 
Grand  Duke  (1315,)  rendered  himself  famous  by  his  new  con- 
quests. After  a  series  of  victories  w'hich  he  gained  over  the 
Russian  Princes,  who  were  supported  by  the  Tartars,  he  took 
possession  of  the  city  and  Principality  of  Kiow  (1320.)  The 
whole  of  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Kiow,  and  its  dependent  princi- 
palities on  this  side  the  Dnieper,  were  conquered  in  succession. 
The  Grand  Dukes  of  Lithuania,  who  had  become  formidable  to 
all  their  neighbours,  weakened  their  powder  by  partitioning  their 
estates  among  their  sons  ;  reserving  to  one,  under  the  title  of 
Grand  Duke,  the  right  of  superiority  over  the  rest.  The  civil 
dissensions  w^hich  resulted  from  these  divisions,  gave  the  Poles 
an  opportunity  of  seizing  the  principalities  of  Leopold,  Przemysl, 
and  Halilsch  (1340,)  and  of  taking  from  the  Lithuanians  and 
their  Grand  Duke  Olgerd,  the  whole  of  Volhynia  and  Podolia, 
of  which  they  had  deprived  the  Russians  (1349.) 

Nothing  more  then  remained  of  the  ancient  Russian  Empire 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  19^ 

except  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Wolodimir,  so  called  from  the  towrn 
of  that  name  on  the  river  Kliazma,  where  the  Grand  Dukes-  o. 
Eastern  and  Northern  Russia  had  their  residence,  before  they 
had  fixed  their  capital  at  Moscow ;  which  happened  about  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
This  Grand  Dutchy,  which  had  several  dependent  and  subor 
dinate  principalities,  was  conferred  by  the  Khan  of  Kipzacli 
(1320)  on  Iwan  or  John  Danilovitsh,  Prince  of  Moscow,  who 
transmitted  it  to  his  descendants.  Demetrius  Iwanovitsh,  grand- 
son of  Iwan,  took  advantage  of  the  turbulence  which  distracted 
the  grand  horde,  and  turned  his  arms  against  the  Tartars.  As- 
sisted by  several  of  the  Russian  princes  his  vassals,  he  gained 
a  signal  victory  near  the  Don  (13S0,)  over  the  Khan  Temnic- 
Mamai,  the  first  which  gained  the  Russians  any  celebrity,  and 
which  procured  Demetrius  the  proud  epithet  of  Donski,  or  con- 
queror of  the  Don.  This  prince,  however,  gained  little  advan- 
tage by  his  victory  ;  and  for  a  long  time  after,  the  Tartars  gave 
law  to  the  Russians  and  made  them  their  tributaries.  Tottamish 
Khan,  after  having  vanquished  and  humbled  Mamai,  penetrated 
as  far  as  Moscow,  sacked  the  city,  and  massacred  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  inhabitants.  Demetrius  was  forced  to  implore  the 
mercy  of'the  conqueror,  and  to  send  his  son  a  hostage  to  the 
horde  in  security  for  his  allegiance. 

The  chief  residence  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  which  had  for- 
merly been  at  Verden,  was  fixed  at  Marienburg,  a  city  newly 
built,  which  from  that  time  became  the  capital  of  all  Prussia. 
The  Teutonic  Knights  did  not  limit  their  conquests  to  Prussia; 
they  took  from  the  Poles  Dantzic  or  Eastern  Pomerania  (1311,) 
situated  between  the  Netze,  the  Vistula,  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  and 
known  since  by  the  name  of  Pomerelia.  This  province  was 
definitively  ceded  to  them,  with  the  territory  of  Culm,  and 
Michelau,  by  a  treaty  of  peace  which  was  signed  at  Kalitz 
n343.)  The  city  of  Dantzic,  which  was  their  capital,  increased 
considerably  under  the  dominion  of  the  Order,  and  became  one 
of  the  principal  entrepots  for  the  commerce  of  the  Baltic.  01 
all  the  exploits  of  these  Knights,  the  most  enterprising  was  that 
which  had  for  its  object  the  conquest  of  Lithuania.  Religion, 
and  a  pretended  gift  of  the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  served 
them  as  a  pretext  for  attacking  the  Lithuanians,  who  were  Pa- 
gans, in  a  murderous  war,  which  continued  almost  without  in- 
terruption for  the  space  of  a  century.  The  Grand  Dukes  of 
Lithuania,  always  more  formidable  after  their  defeat,  defended 
their  liberties  and  independence  with  a  courage  and  perseverance 
almost  miraculous;  and  it  was  only  by  taking  advantage  of  the 
dissensions  which  had  arisen  in  the  family  of  the  Grand  Duke 


200  CHAPTER    V'l. 

diat  they  succeeded  in  obtaining-  possession  of  Samog-itia.  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  which  was  concluded  at  Racianz  (1404.) 

The  Knights  of  Livonia,  united  to  the  Teutonic  Order  under 
the  authority  of  one  and  the  same  Grand  Master,  added  to  their 
former  conquests  the  province  of  Esthonia,  which  was  sold  to 
them  by  Vaidemar  IV.,  King  of  Denmark.  ^^  The  Teutonic 
Knights  were  at  the  zenith  of  their  greatness,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century.  At  that  time  they  were  become 
a  formidable  power  in  the  North,  having  under  their  dominion 
the  whole  of  Prussia,  comprehending  Pomerania  and  the  New 
March,  as  also  Samogilia,  Courland,  Livonia  and  Esthonia.  "^ 
A  population  proportioned  to  the  extent  of  their  dominions,  a 
well  regulated  treasury,  and  a  flourishing  commerce,  seemed  to 
guarantee  them  a  solid  and  durable  empire.  Nevertheless,  the 
jealousy  of  their  neighbours,  the  union  of  Lithuania  with  Po- 
land, and  the  conversion  of  the  Lithuanians  to  Christianity, 
which  deprived  the  Knights  of  the  assistance  of  the  Crusaders, 
soon  became  fatal  to  their  Order,  and  accelerated  their  down- 
fall. The  Lithuanians  again  obtained  possession  of  Samogitia, 
which,  with  Sudavia,  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  various  treaties 
which  they  concluded  with  that  Order,  between  1411-1436. 

The  oppressive  government  of  the  Teutonic  Knights — their 
own  private  dissensions,  and  the  intolerable  burden  of  taxation  — 
the  fatal  consequence  of  incessant  war — induced  the  nobles  and 
cities  of  Prussia  and  Pomerania  to  form  a  confederacy  against 
the  Order,  and  to  solicit  the  protection  of  the  Kings  of  Poland. 
This  was  granted  to  ihem,  on  their  signing  a  deed  of  submission 
to  that  kingdom  (1454.)  The  result  was  a  long  and  bloody 
war  with  Poland,  which  did  not  terminate  till  the  peace  of  Thorn 
(1466.)  Poland  then  obtained  the  cession  of  Culm,  Michelau 
and  Dantzic  ;  that  is  to  say,  all  the  countries  now  comprehended 
under  the  name  of  Polish  Prussia.  The  rest  of  Prussia  was 
retained  by  the  Teutonic  Order,  who  promised,  by  means  of 
their  Grand  Master,  to  do  feaity  and  homage  for  it  to  the  Kings 
of  Poland.  The  chief  residence  of  the  Order  was  then  trans- 
ferred to  Koningsberg,  where  it  continued  until  the  time  when  the 
Knights  were  deprived  of  Prussia  by  the  House  of  Brandenburg. 

At  length,  however,  Poland  recovered  from  this  state  of  weak- 
ness into  which  the  unfortunate  divisions  of  Boleslaus  III.  and 
his  descendants  had  plunged  it.  Uladislaus  IV.  surnamed  the 
Dwarf,  having  combined  several  of  these  principalities,  was 
crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Cracow  (1320.)  From  that  time 
the  Royal  dignity  became  permanent  in  Poland,  and  was  trans- 
mitted to  all  the  successors  of  Uladislaus.  -^  The  immediate 
successor  of  that  Prince  was  his  son  Casimir  the  Great,  who 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  201 

renounced  his  rights  of  sovereignty  over  Silesia  in  favour  of  the 
King  of  Bohemia,  and  afterwards  compensated  this  loss  by  the 
acquisition  of  several  of  the  provinces  of  ancient  Russia.  He 
likewise  took  possession  of  Red  Russia  (1340,)  as  also  of  the 
provinces  of  Volhynia,  Podolia,  Chelm  and  Belz,  which  he  con- 
quered from  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Lithuania  (1349,)  who  had 
formerly  dismembered  them  from  the  Russian  Empire. 

Under  Casimir  the  C4reat,  another  revolution  happened  in  the 
government  of  Poland.  That  Prince,  having  no  children  of  his 
own,  and  wishing  to  bequeath  the  crown  to  his  nephew  Louis, 
his  sister's  son,  by  Charles  Robert  King  of  Hunoary,  convoked 
a  general  assembly  of  the  nation  at  Cracow  (1339.)  and  there 
got  the  succession  of  the  Hungarian  Prince  ratified,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  legitimate  rights  of  the  Piast  Dynasty,  who  reigned 
in  Masovia  and  Silesia.  This  subversion  of  the  hereditary 
right  of  the  different  branches  of  the  Piasts,  gave  the  Polish 
Nobles  a  pretext  for  interfering  in  the  election  of  their  Kings, 
until  at  last  the  throne  became  completely  elective.  It  also 
afforded  them  an  opportunity  for  limiting  the  power  of  their 
Kings,  and  laying  the  foundation  of  a  republican  and  aristocratic 
government.  Deputies  were  sent  into  Hungary  (135o,)  even 
during  the  life  of  Casimir,  who  obliged  King  Louis,  his  intended 
successor,  to  subscribe  an  act  which  provided  that,  on  his  ac- 
cession to  the  crown,  he  should  bind  himself,  and  his  successors, 
to  disburden  the  Polish  nobility  of  all  taxes  and  contributions  ; 
that  he  should  never,  under  any  pretext,  exact  subsidies  from 
them ;  and  that,  in  travelling,  he  should  claim  nothing  for  the 
support  of  his  court,  in  any  place  during  his  journey.  The  an- 
cient race  of  the  Piast  sovereigns  of  Poland  ended  with  Casimir 
(1370,)  after  having  occupied  the  throne  of  that  kingdom  for 
several  centuries. 

His  successor  in  Poland  and  Hungary  was  Louis,  surnamed 
the  Great.  In  a  Diet  assembled  in  13S2,  he  obtained  the  con- 
currence of  the  Poles,  in  the  choice  which  he  had  made  of  Sigis- 
mund  of  Luxembourg,  as  his  son-in-law  and  successor  in  both 
kingdoms.  But  on  the  death  of  Louis,  which  happened  imme- 
diately after,  the  Poles  broke  their  engagement,  and  confeired 
their  crown  on  Hedwiga,  a  younger  daughter  of  that  Prince.  It 
was  stipulated,  that  she  should  marry  Jagellon, Grand  Dnke  of 
Lithuania,  who  agreed  to  incorporate  Lithuania  with  Poland, 
to  renounce  Paganism,  and  embrace  Christianity,  himself  and 
all  his  subjects.  Jagellon  was  baptized,  when  he  received  the 
name  of  Uladislaus,  and  was  crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Cracow 
(1386.)  2~  It  was  on  the  accession  of  Jagellon,that  Poland  and 
Lithuania,  long  opposed  in  their  interests,  and  implacable  enemies 


202  CHAPTER    VI. 

of  each  other,  were  united  into  one  body  politic  under  the  au- 
thority of  one  and  the  same  King-.  Nevertheless,  for  nearly 
two  centuries,  Lithuania  still  preserved  its  own  Grand  Dukes, 
who  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Poland  ;  and  it  was  not, 
properly  speaking,  till  the  reign  of  Sigismand  Augustus,  that 
the  union  of  the  two  states  was  finally  accomplished  (1569.) 
This  important  union  rendered  Poland  the  preponderating  power 
of  the  North.  It  became  fatal  to  the  influence  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  who  soon  yielded  to  the  united  efforts  of  the  Poles  and 
Lithuanians. 

Uladislaus  Jagellon  did  not  obtain  the  assent  of  the  Polish 
nobility  to  the  succession  of  his  son,  except  by  adding  new  pri- 
vileges to  those  which  they  had  obtained  from  his  predecessor. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  Polish  kings  who,  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
posing an  exiraordinary  taxation,  called  in  the  Nuncios  or  De- 
puties of  the  Nobility  to  ihe  General  Diet  (1404,)  and  established 
the  use  of  Dietines  or  provincial  diets.  His  descendants  enjoyed 
the  crown  until  they  became  extinct,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  succession,  however,  was  mixed;  and  although  the  princes 
of  the  Houseof  Jagellon  might  regard  themselves  as  hereditary 
possessors  of  the  kingdom,  nevertheless,  on  every  change  of 
reign,  it  was  necessary  that  the  crown  should  be  conferred  by 
the  choice  and  consent  of  the  nobility. 

In  Hungary,  the  male  race  of  the  ancient  kings,  descendants 
of  Duke  Arpad,  had  become  extinct  in  Andrew  III.  (1301.)  The 
Crov/n  was  then  contested  by  several  competitors,  and  at  length 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Anjou,  the  reigning  family 
of  Naples.  Charles  Robert,  grandson  of  Charles  II.  King  of 
Naples,  by  Mary  of  Hungary,  outstripped  his  rivals,  and  trans- 
mitted the  Crown  to  his  son  Louis,  surnatned  the  Great  (130S.) 
This  Prmce,  characterized  by  his  eminent  qualities,  made  a  dis- 
tinguished figure  among  the  Kings  of  Hungary.  He  conquered 
from  the  Venetians  the  whole  of  Dalmatia,  from  the  frontiers  of 
Istria,  as  far  as  Durazzo  ;  he  reduced  the  Princes  of  Moldavia, 
Walachia,  Bosnia  and  Bulgaria,  to  a  state  of  dependence  ;  and 
at  length  mounted  the  throne  of  Poland  on  the  de.ith  of  his  uncle 
Casirnir  the  Great.  ^^  Mary,  his  eldest  daughter,  succeeded 
him  in  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  (1382.)  This  Princess  mar- 
ried Sigismund  of  Luxembourg,  who  thus  united  the  monarchy 
of  Hungary  to  the  Imperial  crown. 

The  reign  of  Sigismund  in  Hungary  was  most  unfortunate, 
and  a  prey  to  continual  disturbances.  He  had  to  sustain  the 
first  war  against  the  Ottoman  Turks  ;  and  with  the  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  as  his  ally,  he  assembled  a  formidable  army, 
with  which  he  undertook  the  siege  of  Nicopolis  in  Bulgaria. 


PERIOD  V.     A.  D.  1300—1453.  203 

Here  he  sustained  a  complete  defeat  by  the  Turks.  In  his  re- 
tr<^.at  he  was  compelled  to  embark  on  the  Danube,  and  directed 
his  flight  towards  Constantinople,  This  disaster  was  followed 
by  new  misfortunes.  The  malcontents  of  Hungary  offered  then- 
Crown  to  Ladislaus,  called  the  Magnanimous,  King  of  Napies, 
who  took  possession  of  Dalmatia,  which  he  afterwards  surren- 
dered to  the  Venetians.  Desirous  to  provide  for  the  defence 
and  security  of  his  kingdom,  Sigismund  acquired,  by  treaty  with 
the  Prince  of  Servia,  the  fortress  of  Belgrade  (1425.)  which,  by 
its  situation  at  the  confluence  of  the  Danube  and  the  Save, 
seemed  to  him  a  proper  bulwark  to  protect  Hungary  against  th« 
Turks.  He  transmitted  the  crown  of  Hungary  to  his  son-in-law, 
Albert  of  Austria,  who  reigned  only  two  years.  The  war  with 
the  Turks  was  renewed  under  Uladislaus  of  Poland,  son  of 
Jagellon, andsuccessor  to  Albert.  That  Prince  fought  a  bloody 
battle  with  them  near  Varna  in  Bulgaria  (1444.)  The  Hungari- 
ans again  sustained  a  total  defeat,  and  the  King  himself  lost  his 
life  in  the  action.  ^"*  The  safety  of  Hungary  then  depended  en- 
tirely on  the  bravery  of  the  celebrated  John  Hunniades,  governor 
of  the  kingdom,  during  the  minority  of  Ladislaus,  the  posthu- 
mous son  of  Albert  of  Austria.  That  general  signalized  himselt 
in  various  actions  against  the  Turks,  and  obliged  Mahomet  II. 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Belgrade  (1456,)  where  he  lost  above  twenty- 
five  thousand  men,  and  was  himself  severely  Avounded. 

The  Greek  Empire  was  gradually  approaching  its  downfall, 
under  the  feeble  administration  of  the  House  of  Paleologus,  who 
had  occupied  the  throne  of  Constantinople  since  the  year  1261. 
The  same  vices  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  the  great 
power  of  the  patriarchs  and  the  monks,  the  rancour  of  theological 
disputes,  the  fury  of  sectaries  and  schismatics,  and  the  internal 
dissension  to  which  they  gave  rise,  aggravated  the  misfortunes 
and  disorders  of  the  state,  and  v.'ere  instrumental  in  hastening 
on  its  final  destruction.  John  I.  and  his  successors,  the  last 
Emperors  of  Constantinople,  being  reduced  to  the  sad  necessity 
of  paying  tribute  to  the  Turks,  and  marching  on  military  expe- 
ditions, at  the  command  of  the  Sultans,  owed  the  preservation 
of  their  shattered  and  declining  Empire,  for  some  time,  entirely 
to  the  reverses  of  fortune  which  had  befallen  the  Ottomans  ;  and 
to  the  difliculties  which  the  siege  of  their  capital  presented  to  a 
barbarous  nation  unacquainted  with  the  arts  of  blockade. 

The  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  took  its  rise  about  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  A  Turkish  Emir,  called  Ottoman, 
or  Osman,  was  its  original  founder  in  Asia  Minor.  He  was 
one  of  the  number  of  those  Emirs,  who,  after  the  subversion  of 
the  Seljukians  of  Roum  or  Iconium,  by  the  Moguls,  shared 


204  CHAPTER  VI. 

amono^  them  the  spoils  of  their  ancient  masters.  A  part  of 
Bithynia,  and  the  whole  country  lying-  round  Mount  Olympus. 
U'l'i  to  the  share  of  Ottoman,  who  afterwards  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  other  Emirs,  and  invaded  the  possessions  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  under  the  feeble  reign  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  TI. 
Prasa,  or  Bursa,  the  ])rincipal  city  of  Bithynia,  was  conquered 
by  Ottoman  (1327.)  He  and  his  successors  made  it  the  capital 
of  their  new  state,  which,  in  course  of  time,  gained  the  ascen- 
dency over  all  the  other  Turkish  sovereignties,  formed,  like  thai 
of  Ottoman,  from  the  ruins  of  Iconium  and  the  Greek  Empire. 

Orchan,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ottoman,  instituted  the 
famous  Order  of  the  Janissaries,  to  which  in  a  great  measure 
the  Turks  owed  their  success.  He  took  from  the  Greeks  the 
cities  of  Nice  and  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia ;  and,  after  having 
subdued  most  of  the  Turkish  Emirs  in  Asia  Minor,  he  took  the 
title  of  Sultan  or  King,  as  well  as  that  of  Pacha,  which  is  equi- 
valent to  the  title  of  Emperor.  His  son  Soliman  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont, by  his  orders,  near  the  ruins  of  ancient  Troy,  and  took 
the  city  of  Gallipoli,  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  (1358.)  The 
conquest  of  this  place  opened  a  passage  for  the  Turks  into  Eu- 
rope, when  Thrace  and  the  whole  of  Greece  was  soon  inundate^ 
by  these  new  invaders.  Amurath  I.,  the  son  and  successor  oi 
Orchan,  made  himself  master  of  Adrianople  and  the  whole 
of  Thrace  (1360;)  he  next  attacked  Macedonia,  Servia  and 
Bulgaria,  and  appointed  the  first  Beglerbeg,  or  Governor-genera. 
i)f  Romelia.  Several  Turkish  princes  of  Asia  Minor  were 
obliged  to  acknowledge  his  authority  ;  he  made  himself  master 
of  Kmtaja,  the  metropolis  of  Phrygia,  which  afterwards  became 
the  capital  of  Anatolia,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  thai, 
province  (13S9.)  Amuratli  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cassova, 
which  he  fought  with  the  Despot  of  Servia,  assisted  by  his  nume- 
rous allies.  In  this  bloody  battle  the  Despot  himself  was  slain, 
and  both  sides  equally  claimed  the  victory.  Bajazet  I.,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Amurath,  put  an  end  to  all  the  Turkish  sovereignties 
w^hich  still  subsisted  in  Asia  Minor.  He  completed  the  reduc- 
tion of  Bulgaria,  and  maintained  the  possession  of  it  by  the 
signal  victory  which  he  gained  at  Nicopolis  (1396)  over  Sigis- 
mund,  King  of  Hungary.  The  Greek  Empire  would  have  yield- 
ed to  the  persevering  efforts  of  that  prince,  who  had  maintained, 
for  ten  years,  the  siege  of  Constantinople,  had  he  not  been  at- 
tacked, in  the  midst  of  these  enterprises,  by  the  famous  Timour. 
the  new  conqueror  of  Asia. 

Timour,  commonly  called  Tamerlane,  was  one  of  those  Moga 
Emirs  who  had  divided  amongst  them  the  sovereignty  of  Trans- 
oxiana,  after  the  extinction  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  of  Zagatai. 


Death  of  Joan  of  Arc.     Vol.  1,  p.  193.      Thi 

English  inhumanly  burned  this  Heroine  as  a 

Sorceress. 


Dmth  of  Constantine  XV.    in  defending  ConHan^ 
iinople.     Vol.  1..  p.  206,. 


PERIOD  V.     A.D.  1300—1453.  205 

Transoxiana  was  the  theatre  of  his  first  exploits ;  there  he 
usurped  the  whole  power  of  the  Khans,  or  Emperors  of  Zagatai, 
and  fixed  the  capital  of  his  new  dominions  at  the  city  of 
Samarcand  (1369.)  Persia,  the  whole  of  Upper  Asia,  Kipzach, 
and  Hindostan,  were  vanquished  by  him  in  succession ;  where- 
ver he  marched,  he  renewed  the  same  scenes  of  horror,  blood- 
shed, and  carnage,  which  had  marked  the  footsteps  of  the 
first  Mogul  conqueror."^  Tim  our  at  length  attacked  the  do- 
minions of  Bajazet  in  Anatolia  (1400.)  He  fought  a  bloody 
and  decisive  battle  near  Angora,  in  the  ancient  Gallogrecia, 
which  proved  fatal  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Bajazet  sustained 
an  entire  defeat,  and  fell  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
queror. All  Anatolia  was  then  conquered  and  pillaged  by  the 
Moguls,  and  there  Timour  fixed  his  winter  quarters.  Meantime 
he  treated  his  captive  Bajazet  with  kindness  and  generosity; 
and  the  anecdote  of  the  iron  cage,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have 
confined  his  prisoner,  merits  no  credit.  Sherefeddin  Ali,  who 
accompanied  Timour  in  his  expedition  against  Bajazet,  makes  no 
mention  of  it;  on  the  contrary,  he  avers  that  Timour  consented 
to  leave  him  the  Empire,  and  that  he  granted  the  investiture  of 
it  to  him  and  two  of  his  sons.  Bajazet  did  not  long  survive  his 
misfortune  ;  he  died  of  an  attack  of  apoplexy  (1403,)  with  which 
he  was  struck  in  the  camp  of  Timour  in  Caramania. 

Timour,  a  short  time  after,  formed  the  project  of  an  expedi- 
tion into  China;  but  he  died  on  the  route  in  1405,  at  the  age 
of  sixty-nine.  His  vast  dominions  were  dismembered  after  his 
death.  One  of  his  descendants,  named  Babour,  founded  a  pow- 
erful Empire  in  India,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  preserved 
under  the  name  of  the  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul.  The  inva- 
sion of  Timour  retarded  for  some  time  the  progress  of  the  Turk- 
ish Empire.  The  fatal  dissensions,  which  arose  among  the  sons 
of  Bajazet,  set  them  at  open  war  with  each  other.  At  length 
Amurath  II.,  the  son  of  Mahomet  I.,  and  grandson  of  Bajazet, 
succeeded  in  putting  a  stop  to  these  divisions,  and  restored  the 
Empire  to  its  primitive  splendour.  He  deprived  the  Greeks  of 
all  the  places  which  still  remained  in  their  hands  on  the  Black 
Sea,  along  the  coast  of  Thrace,  in  Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 
He  even  took,  by  assault,  the  wall  and  forts  which  they  had 
constructed  at  the  entrance  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  car- 
ried his  ravages  to  the  very  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  two  heroes  of  the  Christians,  John  Hunniades  and  Scan- 
derbeg,  arrested  the  progress  of  the  Ottoman  Sultan.  The 
former,  who  was  General  of  the  Hungarians,  boldly  repulsed 
the  Sultan  of  Servia,  whom  he  was  ambitious  to  conquer.  The 
other,  a  Greek  Prince,  who  possessed  one  of  the  petty  states  of 

VOL.  T.  18 


206 


CHAPTER   VJ. 


Albania  of  which  Croja  was  the  capital,  resisted  with  succe^ta 
the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Turks.  Supported  by  a  small  bui 
well  disciplined  army,  and  favoured  by  the  mountains  with  whi.-.h 
his  territory  was  surrounded,  he  twice  compelled  Amurath  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Croja.  At  length  appeared  Mahomet  II.,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Amurath,  {1451.)  This  Prince,  who  was 
raised  to  the  Ottoman  throne  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  age, 
conceived  the  design  of  achieving  the  conquest  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  by  the  taking  of  Constantinople.  He  succeeded  in 
overcoming  all  the  difficulties  which  obstructed  this  enterprise, 
in  which  several  of  his  predecessors  had  failed.  At  the  head 
of  an  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  combatants,  supported 
by  a  fleet  of  300  sail,  he  appeared  before  that  capital,  and  com- 
menced the  siege  on  the  6th  April  1453.  The  besieged  having 
only  from  SOOO  to  10,000  men  to  oppose  the  superior  force  of 
the  enemy,  yielded  to  the  powerful  and  redoubled  efforts  of  the 
Turks,  after  a  vigorous  defence  of  fifty-three  days.  The  city 
was  carried  by  assault,  29ih  May,  and  delivered  up  to  the  un- 
restrained pillage  of  the  soldiers.  Constantine,  surnamed 
Dragases,  the  last  of  the  Greek  Emperors,  perished  in  the  first 
onset ;  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  that  great  and  opulent  city 
were  carried  into  slavery.^*^  Mahomet,  on  entering  the  very 
day  of  the  sack,  saw  nothing  but  one  vast  and  dismal  solitude. 
Wishing  afterwards  to  attract  new  inhabitants  to  this  city,  which 
he  proposed  to  make  the  seat  of  his  Empire,  he  guaranteed  an 
entire  liberty  of  conscience  to  the  Greeks  who  might  come 
to  settle  there  ;  and  authorized  them  to  proceed  to  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  patriarch,  whose  dignity  he  enhanced  by  the 
honours  and  privileges  which  he  attached  to  it.  He  restored 
also  the  fortifications  of  the  city,  and,  by  way  of  precaution 
against  the  armaments  of  the  Venetians  and  other  w^estern 
nations,  which  he  had  some  reason  to  dread,  he  constructed 
the.  famous  castle  of  the  Dardanelles,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Hellespont. 

This  conquest  was  followed  by  that  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  Alba- 
nia, Greece,  and  the  whole  Peloponnesus  or  Morea,  as  well  as 
most  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  The  Greek  Empire  of 
Trebizond,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  submitted  in  like  man- 
ner to  the  law  of  the  conqueror  (1466.)  David  Commenus,  the 
last  Emperor,  fell  by  the  swords  of  the  Mahometans,  and  with 
him  perished  many  of  his  children  and  relations.  Such  a  rapid 
succession  of  conquests  created  an  alarm  among  the  powers  of 
Christendom.  In  an  assembly,  w^iich  Pope  Pius  II.  held  at 
Mantua  (1459,)  he  proposed  a  general  association  among  the 
powers  of  the  West  against  the  Turks.     A  crusade  was  pub- 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  207 

lished  by  his  orders,  and  he  was' on  the  point  of  setting  out  in 
person  at  the  head  of  this  expedition,  when  he  was  suddenly  cut 
off  by  dealn  at  Ancona  (1464,)  where  he  had  appointed  the 
general  rendezvous  of  the  confederate  troops.  This  event,  add- 
ed  to  the  terror  which  the  arms  of  Mahomet  had  created  among 
the  nations  of  the  West,  disconcerted  the  plans  of  the  Crusa- 
ders, and  was  the  means  of  dissolving  their  confederacy.  The 
Turkish  Empire  thus  became  firmly  established  in  Europe,  and 
the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  put  themselves  at  the  same  time 
under  the  protection  of  the  Porte. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


PERIOD  VI. 


From  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  to  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia.^A.  d.  1453— 164S. 

The  revolution  which  happened  in  the  fifteenth  century  en- 
tirely changed  the  face  of  Europe,  and  introduced  a  new  system 
of  politics.  This  revolution  was  not  achieved  by  any  combina- 
tions of  profound  policy,  nor  by  the  operation  of  that  physical 
force  which  generally  subverts  thrones  and  governments.  It 
was  the  result  of  those  progressive  changes  which  had  been 
produced  in  the  ideas  and  understandings  of  the  nations  of  Eu- 
rope, by  the  improvements  and  institutions  of  preceding  times ; 
as  well  as  by  the  invention  of  paper  and  printing,  of  gunpowder, 
and  the  mariner's  compass.  By  means  of  these,  the  empire  of 
letters  and  arts  was  greatly  extended,  and  various  salutary  im- 
provements made  in  the  religion,  manners,  and  governments  of 
Europe.  The  people  by  degrees  shook  off  the  yoke  of  barba- 
rism, superstition,  and  fanaticism,  which  the  revolution  of  the 
fifth  century  had  imposed  on  them ;  and  from  that  time  the 
principal  States  of  Europe  began  to  acquire  the  strength,  and 
gradually  to  assume  the  form,  which  they  have  since  maintained. 

Several  extraordinary  events,  hoAvever,  conspired  to  accelerate 
these  happy  changes.  The  Belles  Lettres  and  the  Fine  Arts 
shone  out  with  new  splendour,  after  the  downfall  of  the  Greek 
Empire.  The  celebrated  Petrarch,  and  his  disciples  Boccacio 
and  John  of  Ravenna,  were  the  first  that  made  the  Italians  ac- 
quainted with  ancient  literature,  as  the  true  source  and  standard 
of  good  taste.  They  prepared  the  way  for  a  vast  number  of  the 
Grecian  literati,  who,  to  escape  the  barbarity  of  the  Turks,  had 
fled  into  Italy,  where  they  opened  schools,  and  brought  the  study 


CHAPTER  VII. 


of  Greek  literature  into  considerable  repute.  The  most  celebrated 
of  these  Greek  refugees  were,  Manuel  Chrysoloras,  Cardinal 
Bessarion,  Theodore  Gaza,  George  of  Ti'ebizond,  John  Arg)To- 
philus,  and  Demetrius  Chalcondyles.  Protected  by  the  family 
of  the  Medicis  at  Florence,  they  assisted  in  forming  those  fine 
geniuses  which  arose  in  Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century,  such 
as  Leonard  Aretin,  the  two  Guarini,  Poggio  of  Florence,  Ange- 
lo  Politian,  and  many  others.  Academies,  or  Free  Societies, 
were  founded  at  Rome  Naples,  Venice,  Milan,  Ferrara  and 
Florence,  for  the  encouragement  of  ancient  literature. 

From  Italy  the  study  of  the  ancient  arts  passed  to  the  other 
states  of  Europe.  They  soon  diffused  their  influence  over  every 
department  of  literature  and  science,  which  by  degrees  assumed 
an  aspect  totally  new.  The  scholastic  system,  Avhich  till  then 
had  been  in  vogue  in  the  pulpits  and  universities,  lost  its  credit, 
and  gave  place  to  a  more  refined  philosophy.  Men  learned  to 
discriminate  the  vices  of  the  feudal  system,  and  sought  out  the 
means  of  correcting  them.  The  sources  of  disorder  and  anarchy 
were  gradually  dried  up,  and  gave  place  to  better  organized 
governments.  Painting,  sculpture,  and  the  arts  in  general, 
cleared  from  the  Gothic  rust  which  they  had  contracted  during 
the  barbarous  ages,  and  finished  after  the  models  of  the  ancients, 
shone  forth  with  renewed  lustre.  Navigation,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  compass,  reached  a  degree  of  perfection  which  at- 
tracted universal  attention  ;  and  v/hile  the  ancients  merely  coasted 
along  their  own  shores  in  the  pursuit  of  commerce  or  maritime 
exploits,  we  find  the  modern  Europeans  extending  their  naviga- 
tion over  the  whole  globe,  and  bringing  both  hemispheres  under 
their  dominion. 

America,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  was  discovered  during 
this  period ;  as  well  as  the  route  to  India  and  the  East,  round 
the  Continent  of  Africa.  The  notion  of  a  fourth  quarter  of  the 
world  had  long  been  prevalent  among  the  ancients.  We  all 
recollect  the  Atlantis  of  Plato,  which,  according  to  the  assertion 
of  that  philosopher,  was  larger  than  Asia  and  Africa ;  and  we 
know  that  ^lian  the  historian,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Adrian, 
affirmed  in  like  manner  the  existence  of  a  fourth  continent  of 
immense  extent.  This  opinion  had  got  so  much  into  fashion, 
during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  that 
Lactantius  and  St.  Augustine  thought  themselves  bound  in  duty 
to  combat  it  in  their  writings  ;  inveighing  against  the  antipodes 
by  reasons  and  arguments,  the  frivolousness  of  which  is  now 
very  generally  admitted ;  but,  whatever  were  the  notions  which 
the  ancients  might  have  entertained  as  to  a  fourth  (quarter  of  the 
globe,  it  is  very  certain  that  they  knev/  it  only  from  conjecture, 
and  that  their  navigation  never  extended  so  far. 


PERIOD  VI.     1453—1648.  209 

The  honour  of  this  important  discovery  belongs  to  modem 
navigators,  more  especiaHy  to  Christopher  Cokimbus,  a  native 
of  Genoa.  From  the  knowledge  which  this  celebrated  man  had 
r.cquired  in  the  sciences  of  Navigation,  Astronomy,  and  Geo- 
graphy, he  was  persuaded  that  there  must  be  another  hemisphere 
lying  to  the  westward,  and  unknown  to  Europeans,  but  neces- 
sary to  the  equilibrium  of  the  globe.  These  conjectures  he 
communicated  to  several  of  the  courts  of  Europe,  who  all  re- 
garded him  as  a  visionary ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  many  soli- 
citations, that  Isabella,  Queen  of  Castile,  granted  him  three 
vessels,  with  which  he  set  sail  in  quest  of  the  new  continent, 
3d  August  1492.  After  a  perilous  navigation  of  some  months, 
he  reached  the  Island  Guanahani  or  Cat  Island,  one  of  the  Lu- 
cayos  or  Bahamas,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  St.  Salvador, 
This  discovery  was  followed  soon  after  by  that  of  the  Inlands  of 
St.  Domingo  and  Cuba ;  and  in  the  second  and  third  voyages 
which  that  navigator  undertook  to  America  (149.3-1498,)  he  dis- 
covered the  mainland  or  continent  of  the  New  World,  especially 
the  coast  of  Paria,  as  far  as  the  point  of  Araya,  making  part  of 
the  province  known  at  present  by  the  npane  of  Cumana. 

The  track  of  the  Genoese  navigator  was  followed  by  a  Flo- 
rentine merchant,  named  Amerigo  Vesputio.  Under  the  con- 
duct of  a  Spanish  captain,  called  Alphonso  de  Ojeda,  he  made 
several  voyages  to  the  New  Yf orld  after  the  year  1497.  Diffe- 
rent coasts  of.  the  continent  of  Soutii  America  were  visited  by 
liim ;  and  in  the  maps  of  his  discoveries  which  he  drew  up,  he 
usurped  a  glory  which  did  not  belong  to  him,  by  applying  his 
own  name  to  the  new  continent ;  which  it  has  since  retained. 

The  Spaniards  conquered  the  islands  and  a  great  part  of  the 
continent  of  America ;  extending  their  victories  along  v/ith  their 
discoveries.  Stimulated  03/  the  thirst  of  gold,  which  the  New 
World  offered  to  them  in  abundance,  they  committed  crimes  and 
barbarities  which  make  humanity  shudder.  Millions  of  the 
unfortunate  natives  were  either  massacred  or  buried  in  the  sea, 
in  spite  of  the  efforts  which  the  Spanish  Bishop,  Bartholomew 
de  Las  Casas,  vainly  made  to  arrest  the  fury  of  his  country- 
men. ^  In  the  year  after  the  first  discovery  of  Columbus,  Fer- 
dinand the  Catholic,  King  of  Spain,  obtained  a  bull  from  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  by  which  that  Pontiff  made  him  a  gift  of  all  the 
countries  discovered,  or  to  be  discovered,  towards  the  west  and 
the  south ;  drawing  an  imaginary  line  from  one  pole  to  the  other, 
at  the  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues  westward  of  Cape  Verd 
and  the  Azores.  This  decision  having  given  ofience  to  the  King 
of  Portugal,  who  deemed  it  prejudicial  to  his  discoveries  in  the 
East,  an  accommodation  was  contriv^ed  between  the  two  courts, 

18^^ 


210  CHAPTER  VII. 

in  virtue  of  which  the  same  Pope,  by  another  Bull  (1494,)  re- 
moved the  line  in  question  farther  west,  to  the  distance  of  four 
hundred  and  seventy  leagues  ;  so  that  all  the  countries  lying  to 
ihe  westward  of  this  line  should  belong  to  the  King  of  Spain, 
while  those  which  might  be  discovered  to  the  eastward,  should 
fall  to  the  possession  of  the  King  of  Portugal.  ^  It  was  on  this 
pretended  title  that  the  Spaniards  founded  their  right  to  deniand 
the  submission  of  the  American  nations  to  the  Spanish  CroAvn. 
Their  principal  conquests  in  the  New  World  commence  from 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  It  was  in  his  name  that 
Ferdinand  Cortes,  with  a  mere  handful  of  troops,  overthrew  the 
vast  Empire  of  Mexico  (1521 ;)  the  last  Emperors  of  which, 
Montezuma  and  Gatimozin,  were  slain,  and  a  prodigious  num- 
ber of  the  Mexicans  put  to  the  sword.  The  conqueror  of  Peru 
was  Francis  Pizarro  (1533.)  He  entered  the  country,  at  the 
head  of  300  men,  at  the  very  time  when  Atabalipa  or  Atahualpa 
was  commencing  his  reign  as  Incas,  or  Sovereign  of  Peru.  That 
prince  was  slain,  and  the  whole  of  Peru  subdued  by  the  Spaniards. 

[The  Spaniards  founded  various  colonies  and  establishments 
in  that  part  of  America  which  they  had  subjected  to  their  do- 
minion. The  character  of  these  colonies  diliered  from  that  of 
the  establishments  which  the  Portuguese  had  founded  in  India, 
and  -he  Dutch,  the  English,  and  the  French,  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  As  the  Spaniards  were  by  no  means  a  commer- 
cial nation,  the  precious  metals  alone  were  the  object  of  their 
cupidity.  They  applied  themselves,  Vn  consequence,  to  the 
working  of  mines  ;  they  imported  negroes  to  labour  in  them, 
and  made  slaves  of  the  natives.  In  process  of  time,  when  the 
number  of  Europeans  had  increased  in  these  countries,  and  the 
precious  metals  became  less  abundant,  the  Spanish  colonists 
were  obliged  to  employ  themselves  in  agriculture,  and  in  raising 
what  is  commonly  called  colonial  produce.  What  we  have  now 
said,  accounts  for  the  limitations  and  restrictions  v/hich  were 
imposed  on  the  trade  of  these  colonies  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment ;  they  wished  to  reserve  to  themselves  exclusively  the  pro- 
fits of  the  mines.  Commerce,  which  at  first  had  been  confined 
to  the  single  entrepot  of  Seville,  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  small 
number  of  merchants,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  foreigners.  As 
for  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America,  the}^  were  planted  with 
Episcopal  and  Metropolitan  Sees,  Missions,  Convents,  and  Uni- 
versities. The  Inquisition  was  also  introduced  ;  but  the  hierar- 
chy which  was  founded  there,  instead  of  augmenting  the  power 
of  the  Popes,  remained  in  a  state  of  complete  dependence  upon 
the  Sovereigns.] 

The  discovery  of  Brazil  belongs  to  the  Portuguese.     Alvares 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  21 . 

Cabral,  the  commander  of  their  fleet,  while  on  his  route  to  India; 
vvas  driven,  by  contrary  winds,  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  (1500,)  and 
took  possession  of  the  country  in  name  of  the  King  of  Por- 
tu2;al.  This  colony,  in  the  course  of  time,  became  highly  im- 
portant, from  the  rich  mines  of  diamonds  and  gold  which  were 
discovered  there. 

The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  were  at  first  the  only  mast^r^ 
of  America ;  but  in  a  short  time,  establishments  were  formed 
there  by  some  of  the  other  maritime  nations  of  Europe.  The 
first  English  colony  was  that  of  Virginia,  which  was  conducted 
to  North  America  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (15S4,)  but  it  did  not 
gain  a  permanent  settlement  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  This  was 
afterwards  followed  by  several  other  colonies  which  had  settled 
in  that  part  of  the  American  continent,  on  account  of  the  perse- 
cution carried  on  by  the  Stuart  Kings  against  the  non-conform- 
ists. The  first  settlements  of  the  English  in  the  Antilles,  were 
those  which  they  formed  in  the  Islands  of  Barbadoes  and  St. 
Christopher  (1629  ;)  to  these  they  added  the  Island  of  Jamaica, 
which  they  took  from  the  Spa^niards  (1655.)  The  date  of  the 
French  establishments  in  Canada,  is  as  old  as  the  reigns  of 
Francis  I.  and  Henrj^IV.,  in  the  years  1534  and  1604.  The 
city  of  Quebec  was  founded  in  1608.  It  Vv^as  at  a  later  period 
when  the  French  established  themselves  in  the  Antilles.  The 
origin  of  their  colonies  in  Martinique  and  Gaudaloupe,  is  gene- 
rally referred  to  the  year  1635.  They  gained  a  footing  in  St. 
Domingo  as  early  as  1630,  but  the  flourishing  state  of  that  re- 
markable colony  did  not  begin,  properly  speaking,  til]  1722.  All 
the  establishments  Vv^hich  the  English  and  French  had  formed  in 
Am.erica,  were  purely  agricultural ;  and  in  this- respect  they  Avere 
distinguished  from  the  Spanish  colonies. 

The  discovery  of  a  passage  by  sea  to  the  East  Indies  round 
Africa,  belongs  also  to  the  Portuguese.  It  forms  one  of  those 
great  events  v/hich  often  take  their  first  impulse  from  very  slen- 
der causes.  John  I.  surnamed  the  Bastard,  the  new  founder  of 
the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  being  desirous  of  affording  to  his  sons 
an  opportunity  of  signalizing  themselves,  and  earning  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  planned  an  expedition  against  the  Moors  in  Africa; 
he  equipped  a  fleet,  with  which  he  landed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Ceuta  (1415,)  of  which  he  soon  made  himself  master,  and 
created  his  sons  knights  in  the  grand  mosque  of  that  city.  After 
this  event,  the  Portuguese  began  to  have  a  taste  for  navigation 
and  maritime  discoveries.  In  this  they  were  encouraged  by  the 
Infant  Don  Henry,  Duke  of  Viseu,  and  one  oi  the  sons  of  King 
John,  who  had  particularly  distinguished  himself  in  the  expedi- 
tion of  which  we  have  just  spoken.     That  prince,  who  was  Avell 


212  CHAPTER  VU. 

skilled  in  mathematics  and  the  art  of  navigation,  established  his 
residence  at  Gape  St.  Vincent,  on  the  western  extremity  of  Al- 
garva.  There  he  ordered  vessels  to  be  constructed  at  his  own 
expense,  and  sent  them  to  reconnoitre  the  coasts  of  Africa.  From 
that  time  the  Portuguese  discovered,  in  succession,  the  Islands  of 
Madeira  (1420,)  the  Canaries  (1424,)  the  Azores  (1431,)  and 
Cape  Verd  (1460.)  There  they  founded  colonies;  and,  ad- 
vancing by  degrees  along  the  southern  shores  of  Africa,  they 
extended  their  navigation  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Guinea  and  Ni- 
gritia.  The  islands  which  they  had  newly  discovered,  were 
confirmed  to  the  Kings  of  Portugal  by  several  of  the  Popes.  The 
Canaries,  however,  having  been  claimed  by  the  Spaniards,  a 
treaty  was  negotiated  between  the  two  kingdoms,  in  virtue  of 
which  these  islands  were  abandoned  to  Spain  (1481.) 

It  was  under  the  reign  of  John  11.  that  the  Portuguese  ex- 
tended their  navigation  as  far  as  the  most  southerly  point  of 
Africa.  Bartholomew  Diaz,  their  admiral,  Avas  the  first  who 
doubled  the  Cape,  which  he  called  the  Storm}"  Cape  ;  a  name 
which  King  John  changed  into  that  of  Good  Hope.  At  length, 
after  twelve  years  of  toils,  Vasco  di  Gama,  another  Portuguese 
admiral,  had  the  glory  of  carr3dng  his  national  flag  as  far  as 
India.  He  landed'  at  the  Port  of  Calicut  (149S,)  on  the  Ma- ' 
labar  coast,  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Emmanuel,  Several 
other  celebrated  Portuguese  navigators,  such  as  Almeida,  Albu- 
querque, Acunga,  Silveira,  and  de  Castro,  follovv^ing  the  tract  of 
Vasco  di  Gama,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  power  of  the  Portu- 
guese in  India.  Francis  Almeida  defeated  the  fleet  of  the 
Mameluke  Sultan  of  Egypt,  in  conjunction  with  that  of  the 
Kings  of  India  (1509.)  Alfonzo  Albuquerque  conquered  Goa 
(1511,)  and  made  it  the  capital  of  all  the  Portuguese  settlements 
in  that  part  of  the  world.  About  the  same  time,  the  Portuguese 
established  themselves  in  the  Molucca  Islands,  with  some  oppo- 
sition on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards.  Anthony  Silveira  signalized 
himself  by  his  able  defence  of  Diu  (1535.)  He  repulsed  the 
Turks,  and  ruined  the  fleet  which  Soliman  the  Great  had  sent 
to  the  siege  of  that  place  (1547.)  The  King  of  Cam.bay  having 
resumed  the  siege,  he  e,xperienced  likewise  a  total  defeat  from 
John  de  Castro,  who  then  conquered  the  whole  kingdom  of  Diu. 

The  Portuguese  found  powerful  kingdoms  in  India,  and 
nations  rich  and  civilized.  There,  nature  and  the  industry  of 
the  natives,  produced  or  fabricated  those  articles  of  commerce 
and  merchandise  which  have  since  become  -an  object  of  luxury 
to  Europeans;  at  least  until  the  activity  of  the  Venetians  had 
furnished  the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  the  world  with  them  in 
such  abundance,  as  to  make  them  regarded  as  articles  of  abso- 


1  ERioD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  213 

lute  necessity.  This  circumstance  was  the  reason  why  the  Por- 
tuguese never  formed  any  other  than  mercantile  establishments 
in  India,  which  they  erected  on  the  coasts,  Avithout  extenamg 
them  into  the  interior.  The  working  of  the  mines,  and  the  cares 
of  agricuhure,  Avere  abandoned  entirely  to  the  natives. 

This  era  produced  a  total  change  in  the  commerce  of  the  East. 
Formerly  the  Venetians  were  the  people  that  carried  on  the 
principal  traffic  to  India.  The  JeAvish  or  Mahometan  merchants 
purchased  at  Goa,  Calicut,  and  Cochin,  those  spiceries  and  other 
productions  of  the  East,  which  they  imported  into  Syria  by  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  into  Egypt  by  the  Eed  Sea.  The}^  were  then 
conveyed  by  a  laborious  and  expensive  land-carriage,  either  to 
the  port  of  Alexandria,  or  that  of  Bairout  in  Syria.  Thither 
the  Venetians  repaired  in  quest  of  the  luxuries  of  India ;  they 
fixed  their  price,  and  distributed  them  over  all  Europe.  This 
commerce  proved  a  source  of  vast  wealth  to  these  republicans : 
it  furnished  them  Avith  the  means  of  maintaining  a  formida- 
ble marine,  and  of  very  often  dictating  the  laAv  to  the  other 
European  poAA^ers ;  but  after  the  discoA^ery  of  the  noAv  passage 
round  the  Cape,  and  the  conquests  of  the  Portuguese  in  India; 
the  Venetians  saAV  themselves  compelled  to  abandon  a  traffic  in 
which  they  could  not  compete  AAdth  the  Portuguese.  This  was 
a  terrible  bloAv  to  that  republic,  and  the  principal  cause  of  its 
doAAmfall.  The  Portuguese,  hoAvever,  did  not  profit  by  this  ex- 
clusive commerce  as  they  might  haA'^e  done.  They  did  not,  like 
other  nations,  constitute  Companies,  AAdth  exclusive  commercial 
privileges  ;  they  carried  it  on  by  means  of  fleets,  AA'hich  the  go- 
vernment regularly  despatched  at  fixed  periods.  In  this  manner, 
the  commodities  of  the  East  AA^ere  imported  to  Lisbon ;  but  the 
indolence  of  the  native  merchants  left  to  other  nations  the  care 
of  distributing  them  through  the  markets  of  Europe.  The  Dutch 
Avere  the  people  that  profited  most  by  this  branch  of  industry ; 
they  cultiA^ated  it  AAuth  so  much  success,  and  under  such  favour- 
able circumstances,  that  they  at  length  succeeded  in  excluding 
the  Portuguese  themseh'es  from  this  lucrative  traffic,  by  dis- 
possessing them  of  their  colonies  in  the  East. 

If  the  oA^ents  AA'hich  aA' e  have  noAV  briefly  detailed  proved  fatal 
to  the  Venetians,  and  afflicting  to  humanity,  by  the  AA^ars  and 
misfortunes  AA'hich  they  occasioned,  it  is  neA^ertheless  certain, 
that  commerce  and  navigation  gained  prodigiously  by  these  new 
discoveries.  The  Portuguese,  after  haA-ing  maintained  for  some 
time  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  navigation  and  trade  of  ihe 
East,  found  afterAA'ards  poAverful  competitors  in  the  Spaniards, 
the  Dutch,  English,  French,  and  Danes,  aa'Iio  all  established 
mercantile  connexions  both  in  India  and  America.       Hence  in- 


214  CHAPTER  VII. 

numerable  sources  of  wealth  were  opened  to  the  industry  of  the 
Europeans ;  and  their  commerce,  formerly  limited  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  Baltic,  and  the  Northern  Seas,  and  confined  to  a 
few  cities  in  Italy,  Flanders,  and  Germany,  was  now%  by  means 
of  their  colonies  in  Africa,  and  the  East  and  West  Indies,  ex- 
tended to  all  parts  of  the  globe.  *  The  intercourse  of  the  Por- 
tuguese with  China  was  as  early  as  the  year  1517,  and  with 
Japan  it  began  in  1542.  Ferdinand  Magellan  undertook  the 
first  voyage  round  the  world  (1519,)  and  his  example  found 
afterwards  a  number  of  imitators.  ^  By  degrees  the  maritime 
power  of  Europe  assumed  a  formidable  aspect ;  arts  and  manu- 
factures were  multiplied  ;  and  states,  formerly  poor,  became  rich 
and  flourishing.  Kingdoms  at  length  found  in  their  commerce, 
resources  for  augmenting  their  strength  and  their  influence,  and 
carrying  into  execution  their  projects  of  aggrandizement  and 
conquest. 

[Among  the  causes  of  this  revolution  which  took  place  in 
commerce,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  a  discovery  ap- 
parently of  trivial  importance,  but  Avhich  exercised  a  most  ex- 
traordinary influence  over  the  civilization  of  Europe,  viz.  that 
of  horse-posts  for  the  conveyance  of  letters.  Before  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  communications  between  distant  countries  were 
few  and  difficult.  Messengers,  travelling  on  short  journeys,  on 
foot  or  on  horseback,  were  their  only  couriers.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Maximilian  I.,  an  Italian  gentleman  of  the  name  of  Francis  de 
la  Tour  et  Taxis,  established  the  first  posts  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. Their  object  at  first  was  merel}?-  for  the  conveyance  of 
letters  by  posts  or  post,  for  which  he  provided  regular  relays. 
By  and  by,  for  the  sake  of  despatch,  the  use  of  horses  was  in- 
troduced, placed  at  certain  distances.  From  the  Low  Countries 
this  system  found  its  way  into  Germany,  where  its  profits 
were  secured  to  the  family  of  Taxis  by  imperial  grants ;  and 
from  thence  it  spread  over  every  civilized  country  in  the  world.] 

A  revolution  not  less  important,  is  that  which  took  place  in  re- 
ligion about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  abuses 
which  disgraced  the  court  of  Rome,  the  excess  of  the  power,  and 
the  depravity  of  the  morals  of  the  clergy,  had  excited  a  very  ge- 
neral discontent.  A  reformation  had  for  a  long  time  been  deemed 
necessary,  but  there  was  a  diflference  of  opinion  as  to  the  me- 
thod of  effecting  it.  The  common  notion  was,  that  this  task 
could  be  legally  accomplished  only  by  General  Councils,  con- 
voked under  the  authority  of  the  Popes.  It  was  easy,  however, 
to  perceive  the  inefficacy  of  any  remedy  left  at  the  disposal  of 
those  very  persons  from  whom  the  evil  proceeded ;  and  the  un- 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  216 

successful  results  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  had 
taught  the  people,  that,  in  order  to  obtain  redress  for  the  abuses 
of  which  they  complained,  it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  ro 
some  other  scheme  than  that  of  General  Councils.  This  scheme 
was  attempted  by  the  Eeformers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who 
were  persuaded,  that,  in  order  to  restrain  the  exorbitant  power 
of  the  clergy,  they  ought  to  reject  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope, 
as  well  as  that  of  General  Councils ;  admitting  no  other  autho- 
rity in  ecclesiastical  matters,  than  that  of  the  sacred  scriptures, 
interpreted  by  the  lights  of  reason  and  sound  criticism. 

The  immediate  and  incidental  cause  of  this  change  in  reli- 
gion, Avas  the  enormous  abuse  of  indulgences.  Pope  Leo  X., 
who  was  of  the  family  of  the  Medicis,  and  well  known  for  his 
extensive  patronage  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  having  ex- 
hausted the  treasury  of  the  church  by  his  luxury  and  his  mu- 
nificence, had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  indulgences,  which 
several  of  his  predecessors  had  already  adopted  as  a  means  of 
recruiting  their  finances.  The  ostensible  reason  was,  the  ba- 
silica of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  the  completion  of  which  was 
equally  interesting  to  the  whole  of  Christendom.  Offices  for 
the  sale  of  indulgences  were  established  in  all  the  different 
states  of  Europe.  The  purchasers  of  these  indulgences  ob- 
tained absolution  of  their  sins,  and  exemption  from  the  pains  of 
purgatory  after  death.  The  excesses  committed  by  the  emis- 
saries who  had  the  charge  of  those  indulgences,  and  the  scan- 
dalous means  which  they  practised  to  extort  money,  brought  on 
the  schism  to  which  we  are  about  to  advert. 

Two  theologians,  Martin  Luther,  and  Ulric  Zuingle,  opposed 
these  indulgences,  and  inveighed  against  them  in  their  sermons 
and  their  writings  ;  the  former  at  Wittemberg  in  Saxony  ;  the 
other,  first  at  Einsiedeln,  and  afterwards  at  Zurich,  in  Switzer- 
land. Leo  X.  at  first  held  these  adversaries  in  contempt.  He 
did  not  attempt  to  allay  the  storm,  until  the  minds  of  men,  ex- 
asperated hj  the  heat  of  dispute,  were  no  longer  disposed  to 
listen  to  the  voice  of  calmness  and  conciliation.  The  means 
which  he  subsequently  tried  to  induce  Luther  to  retract  having 
proved  abortive,  he  issued  a  thundering  Bull  against  him  (1520,) 
which,  so  far  from  abating  the  courage  of  the  Reformer,  tended, 
on  the  contrary,  to  embolden  him  still  more.  He  publicly  burnt 
the  Pope's  Bull,  together  with  the  Canon  Law,  at  Wittemberg 
(10th  December,)  in  presence  of  a  vast  concourse  of  doctors 
and  students  from  different  nations,  whom  he  had  assembled  for 
the  purpose.  From  that  moment  Luther  and  Zuingle  never 
ceased  to  preach  against  the  abuses  of  the  indulgences.  They 
completely  undermined  this  system  of  abomination,  and  even 


216  CHAPTER   VIL 

attacked  various  other  dogmas  and  institutions  of  the  Romish 
church,  such  as  monastic  vows,  the  ceHbacy  of  the  priests,  the 
f^upremacy  of  the  Pope  and  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy.  These 
t»vo  celebrated  men,  who  agreed  in  the  greater  part  of  their 
opinions,  soon  attracted  a  number  of  followers.  The  people, 
long  ago  prepared  to  shake  off  a  yoke  which  had  been  so  op- 
pressive, applauded  the  zeal  of  the  Reformers ;  and  the  new 
opinions,  promptly  and  easily  diffused  by  means  of  the  press, 
were  received  with  enthusiasm  throughout  a  great  part  of 
Europe, 

John  Calvin,  another  Reformer,  trod  nearly  in  the  footsteps 
of  Zuingle.  He  was  a  native  of  Noyon  in  Picardy,  and  began  to 
distinguish  himself  at  Paris  in  1532.  Being  compelled  to  leave 
that  city  on  account  of  his  opinions,  he  withdrew  to  Switzerland 
(1538;)  thence  he  passed  to  Strasbourg,  where  he  Vv^as  nomi- 
nated to  the  office  of  French  preacher.  His  erudition  and  his 
pulpit  talents  gained  him  disciples,  and  gave  the  name  of  Cal- 
vinists  to  those  who  had  at  first  been  called  Zuinglians.  The 
Lutherans,  as  well  as  the  Zuinglians  or  Calvinists  in  Germany, 
were  comprehended  under  the  common  appellation  of  Protest- 
ants, ,on  account  of  the  Protest  which  they  took  against  the 
decrees  of  the  Diet  of  Spire  (1529,)  w^hich  forbade  them  to 
make  any  innovations  in  religion,  or  to  abolish  the  mass,  until 
the  meeting  of  a  General  Council.  The  name  of  Lutherans 
was  applied  more  particularly  to  those  who  adhered  to  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  that  is,  the  Confession  of  Faith  which 
they  presented  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  at  the  famous  Diet 
of  Augsburg,  held  in  1580. 

In  this  manner  a  great  part  of  Europe  revolted  from  the 
Pope  and  the  Romish  Church,  and  embraced  either  the  doc- 
trines of  Luther,  or  those  of  Zuingle  and  Calvin.  The  half  oi 
Germany,  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Prussia,  and  Livonia, 
adopted  the  Confession  of  Augsburg ;  wdiile  England,  Scotland, 
the  United  Provinces,  and  the  principal  part  of  Switzerland, 
declared  themselves  in  favour  of  the  opinions  of  Zuingle  and 
Calvin.  The  new  doctrines  made  likewis(3  great  progress  in 
France,  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  and  Poland. 

This  revolution  did  not  convulse  merely  the  Church;  it  in- 
fluenced the  politics,  and  changed  the  form  of  government,  in 
many  of  the  States  of  Europe.  The  same  men  who  believed 
themselves  authorized  to  correct  abuses  and  imperfections  in  re- 
ligion, undertook  to  reform  political  abuses  with  the  same  free- 
dom. New  States  sprung  up ;  and  princes  took  advantage  of 
these  commotions  to  augment  their  own  power  and  authority. 
Constituting  themselves  heads  of  the  Church  and  of  the  religion 


Landing  of  Columhus.     Vol.  1,  p.  209. 


LiUthsr  burning  the  Pope's  Bull.     Vol.  1,  p.  215; 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  217 

of  their  country,  they  shook  off  the  fetters  of  priestly  influence  ; 
while  the  clergy  ceased  to  form  a  counteracting  or  control  I  inir 
power  in  the  State.  The  freedom  of  opinion  which  characterized 
the  Protestant  faith,  awoke  the  human  mind  from  its  intellectual 
lethargy,  infused  new  energy  into  it,  and  thus  contributed  to  the 
progress  of  civilization  and  science  in  Europe.  Even  the  systems 
of  public  instruction  underwent  a  considerable  change.  The 
schools  were  reformed,  and  rendered  more  perfect.  A  multitude 
of  nev/  seminaries  of  education,  academies,  and  universities 
were  founded  in  all  the  Protestant  States.  This  revolution, 
however,  w^as  not  accomplished  without  great  and  various  calami- 
ties. A  hierarchy,  such  as  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  sup- 
ported by  all  that  was  dignified  and  venerable,  could  not  be 
attacked,  or  shaken  to  its  foundation,  without  involving  Europe 
in  the  convulsion.  Hence  we  find  that  wars  and  factions  arose 
in  Germany,  France,  the  Low  Countries,  Switzerland,  Hungary, 
and  Poland.  The  march  of  reformation  w^as  every  where  stain- 
ed with  blood. 

The  means  that  were  employed  to  bring  the  quarrels  of  the 
Church  to  an  amicable  conclusion,  tended  rather  to  exasperate 
than  allay  the  mischief ;  and  if  the  conferences  among  the  clergy 
of  different  persuasions  failed,  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  a 
better  agreement,  or  a  union  of  parties,  could  be  founded  on  the 
basis  of  a  General  Council.  The  Protestants  demanded  an  un- 
controlled liberty  for  the  Council.  They  wished  it  to  be  assem- 
bled by  order  of  the  Emperor,  in  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Empire  ; 
and  that  their  divines  should  have  a  voice  and  a  seat  in  its  meet- 
ings. The  Pope  was  to  submit  to  its  authority,  and  all  matters 
should  there  be  decided  according  to  the  rule  of  the  sacred  "Scrip-' 
tures.  These  terms  were  by  no  means  agreeable  to  the'  Catho- 
lics. Paul  III.  summoned  a  Council  at  Jylantua  (1537,)  and 
another  at  Vicenza  (1538;)  but  both  of  these  convocations  were 
ineffectual,  as  was  also  the  proposed  reform,  in  the  Court  of  Rome, 
made  by  the  same  Pontiff.  It  was  resolved  at  last,  at  the  instance ' 
of  the  Catholic  princes  (1542,)  to  convoke  the  Council  of  Trent, 
though  the  opening  of  it  was  deferred  till  1545. 

This  famous  Council  met  with  two  interruptions ;  the  first 
took  place  in  1547,  when  the  Pope,  who  had  become  alarmed  at 
the  success  of  the  Imperial  arms,  transferred  the  Council  to  Bo- 
logna, on  pretence  that  an  epidemic  distemper  had  broken  out  at 
Trent.  All  the  prelates  of  the  Emperor's  party  rem.ained  at 
Trent,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  their  master,  who  pro- 
tested loudly  against  the  assembly  at  Bologna,  which  neverthe- 
less held  its  ninth  and  tenth  Sessions  at  that  city.  This  latter 
Jouncil  having  been  dissolved  by  Pau.  ^U,  fl548,)  its  affairs 

VOL.  I.  19  "^ 


218 


CHAPTER  VII, 


continued  in  a  languid  state  for  the  next  two  years,  wnen  Pope 
Julius  III.,  the  successor  of  Paul,  revived  it,  and  transferred  it 
once  more  to  Trent  (1551.)  Another  interruption  took  place  ai 
the  time  when  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  had  made  himseU 
master  of  Augsburg,  and  was  marching  against  the  Emperor 
towards  Inspruck.  It  was  then  agreed  to  prorogue  the  Council, 
now  in  its  sixteenth  Session,  for  two  years ;  and  to  assemble 
again  at  the  end  of  that  period,  if  peace  should  happen  in  the 
mean  time  to  be  established.  At  length,  in  1560,  Pius  IV., 
summoned  the  Council,  for  the  third  and  last  time,  to  meet  at 
Trent.  The  session,  however,  did  not  commence  till  1562 ;  and 
next  year  its  sittings  were  finally  terminated. 

In  this  Council,  matters  were  not  treated  in  the  same  way  as 
they  had  been  at  Constance  and  Basle,  where  each  nation  delibe- 
rated separately,  and  then  gave  their  suffrage  in  common,  so  that 
the  general  decision  was  taken  according  to  the  votes  of  the  dif- 
ferent nations.  This  form  of  deliberation  was  not  at  all  palatable 
to  the  Court  of  Rome,  who,  in  order  to  gain  a  preponderance  in 
thfe  assembly,  thought  proper  to  decide,  by  a  majority  of  the  votes 
of  every  individual  member  of  the  Council.  The  Protestaiil 
princes  rejected  entirely  the  authority  of  this  Council;  which, 
far  from  terminating  the  dispute,  made  the  schism  v/ider  than 
ever.  Its  decisions  were  even  condemmed  by  several  of  the  Ca- 
tholic sovereigns.  In  France,  more  especially,  it  was  never 
formally  published,  and  they  expressly  excluded  such  of  its  acts 
of  discipline  as  they  considered  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  king- 
dom, to  the  authority  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  maxims  of  the 
Galilean  Church. 

It  is  nevertheless  certain  that  this  Council  was  instrumental  in 
restoring  the  tottering  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs ;  v.'hich  receiv- 
ed at  the  same  time  a  new  support  by  the  institution  of  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  founder  of  this  order  w^as  Ignatius  Loyola, 
who  v/as  born  at  the  Castle  of  Loyola  in  Guipuscoa.  He  made 
the  declaration  of  his  vows  in  the  church  of  Montmartre  at  Paris 
(1534,)  and  obtained  from  Paul  III.  the  confirmation  of  his  new 
Society,  This  order  was  bound,  by  a  particular  vow  of  obedi- 
ence, more  intimately  to  the  Court  of  Rome ;  and  became  one  of 
the  main  instruments  of  its  enormous  power.  From  Spain  the 
Society  was  speedil}^  propagated  in  all  the  other  Catholic  States ; 
they  filled  cities  and  courts  with  their  emissaries ;  undertook 
missions  to  China,  Japan,  and  the  Indies ;  and  underihe  special 
protection  of  the  See  of  Rome,  they  soon  surpassed  in  credit 
and  wealth  every  other  religious  order. 

In  the  midst  of  these  changes  which  took  place  in  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  matters,  we  find  a  new  system  arising  in  the  poll- 


PERIOD.  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  219 

tical  government  of  Europe  ;  the  consequence  of  those  new  ties 
and  relations  which  had  been  established  amongst  the  different 
powers  since  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Prior  to  this 
date,  most  of  the  European  States  were  feeble,  because  insulated 
and  detached.  Occupied  with  their  own  particular  interests  and 
quarrels,  the  nations  were  little  acquainted  with  each  other,  and 
seldom  had  any  influence  on  their  mutual  destinies.  The  faults 
and  imperfections  inherent  in  the  feudal  system  had  pervaded  all 
Europe,  and  crippled  the  power  and  the  energies  of  government. 
The  sovereigns,  continually  at  war  with  their  factious  and  power- 
ful vassals,  could  neither  form  plans  of  foreigii  conquest,  nor  carry 
them  into  execution;  and  their  military  operations  were  in  ge- 
neral without  unity  or  effect.  [Hence  it  happened,  that  in  the 
middle  ages,  changes  were  produced  in  the  different  States, 
which  so  little  alarmed  their  n&ighbours,  that  it  may  be  said 
they  were  scarcely  conscious  of  their  existence.  Such  were  the 
conquests  of  the  English  in  France,  which  might  certainly  have 
compromised  the  independence  of  Europe.] 

A  combination  of  causes  and  circumstances,  both  physical 
and  moral,  produced  a  revolution  in  the  manners  and  govern- 
ments of  most  of  the  Continental  States.  The  disorders  of 
feudal  anarchy  gradually  disappeared ;  constitutions  better  or- 
ganized were  introduced  ;  the  temporary  levies  of  vassals  were 
succeeded  by  regular  and  permanent  armies  ;  which  contributed 
to  humble  the  exorbitant  povv^er  of  the  nobles  and  feudal  barons. 
The  consequence  was,  that  States  formerly  weak  and  exhausted, 
acquired  strength ;  while  their  sovereigns,  freed  from  the  tur- 
bulence and  intimidation  of  their  vassals,  began  to  extend  their 
political  views,  and  to  form  projects  of  aggrandizement  and 
conquest. 

From  this  period  the  reciprocal  influence  of  the  European 
States  on  each  other  began  to  be  manifest.  Those  who  were 
afraid  for  their  independence,  would  naturally  conceive  the  idea 
of  a  balance  of  power  capable  of  protecting  them  against  the  in 
roads  of  ambitious  and  warlike  princes.  Hence  those  frequent 
embassies  and  negotiations  ;  those  treaties  of  alliance,  subsidies, 
and  guarantees ;  those  wars  carried  on  by  a  general  combina- 
tion of  powers,  who  deemed  themselves  obliged  to  bear  a  part 
in  the  common  cause  ;  and  hence  too  those  projects  for  establish- 
ing checks  and  barriers  on  each  other,  which  occupied  the  dif- 
ferent courts  of  Europe. 

[The  system  of  equilibrium  or  the  balance  of  power,  originated 
in  Italy.  That  peninsula,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  continent 
by  the  sea  and  the  Alps,  had  outstripped  the  other  countries  in 
the  career  of  civilization.     There  a  multitude  of  independent 


220  CHAPTER  VII. 

States  had  been  formed,  unequal  in  point  of  power  and  extent ; 
but  none  of  them  had  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  united 
power  of  the  rest,  or  usurp  dominion  over  them  ;  while  at  the  same 
time,  none  of  them  were  so  contemptible  in  point  of  weakness, 
as  not  to  be  of  some  weight  in  the  scale.  Hence  that  rivalry  and 
jealousy  among  them,  Avhich  was  incessantly  watching  over  the 
progress  of  their  neighbours  ;  and  hence,  too,  a  series  of  wars 
and  confederacies,  whose  object  was  to  maintain  some  degree  of 
equality  among  them  ;  or  at  least  a  relative  proportion,  which 
might  inspire  the  weaker  with  courage  and  confidence.  The 
Popes  who  were  exceedingly  active  in  these  transactions,  em- 
ployed all  their  policy  to  prevent  any  foreign  power  from  inter- 
fering, or  establishing  itself  in  Italy.  The  doctrine  of  political 
equilibrium  passed  the  Alps  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  House  of  Austria;  which  had  suddenly  risen  to  a 
high  pitch  of  grandeur,  was  the  first  against  which  its  efibrts 
were  directed.] 

This  House,  which  derived  its  origin  from  Rodolph  of  Haps- 
burg,  who  was  elected  Emperor  of  Germany  towards  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  owed  its  greatness  and  elevation  chiefly 
to  the  Imperial  dignity,  and  the  different  family  alliances  which 
this  same  dignity  procured  it.  Maximilian  of  Austria,  son  of 
the  Emperor  Frederic  III.,  married  Mary  of  Eursnndy  (1477,) 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Rash,  last  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. This  alliance  secured  to  Austria  the  whole  of  the  Low 
Countries,  including  Franche-Comte,  Flanders,  and  Artois. 
Philip  the  Fair,  the  son  of  this  marriage,  espoused  the  Infanta 
of  Spain,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Castille.  They 
had  two  sons,  Charles  and  Ferdinand,  the  former  of  v/hom, 
known  in  history  by  the  name  of  Charles  V.,  inherited  the  Low 
Countries  in  right  of  his  father  Philip  (1506.)  On  the  death  of 
Ferdinand,  his  maternal  grandfather  (1516,)  he  became  heir  to 
the  whole  Spanish  succession,  which  comprehended  the  king- 
doms of  Spain,  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  together  with 
Spanish  America.  To  these  vast  possessions  were  added  his 
partimonial  dominions  in  Austria,  which  were  transmitted  to 
him  by  his  paternal  grandfather  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I. 
About  the  same  time  (1519,)  the  Imperial  dignity  was  conferred 
on  this  prince  b}'  the  electors  ;  so  that  Europe  had  not  seen, 
since  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  a  monarchy  so  powerful  as  that 
of  Charles  V. 

This  Emperor  concluded  a  treaty  with  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
by  whi.'h  he  ceded  to  him  all  his  hereditary  possessions  in  Ger- 
many. The  two  brothers  thus  became  the  founders  of  the  two 
principal  branches  of  the  House  of  Austria,  viz.  that  of  Spain, 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  221 

which  began  with  Charles  V.,  (called  Charles  I.  of  Spain,)  and 
erided  with  Charles  II.  (1700;)  and  that  of  Germany,  of  which 
Ferdinand  I.  was  the  ancestor,  and  which  became  extinct  in  the 
male  line  in  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  (1740.)  These  two 
branches,  closely  allied  to  each  other,  acted  in  concert  for  the 
advancement  of  their  reciprocal  interests  ;  moreover  they  gained 
each  their  own  separate  advantages  by  the  marriage  connexions 
which  they  formed.  Ferdinand  I.  of  the  German  line,  married 
Anne  (1521,)  sister  of  Louis  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
who  having  been  slain  by  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Mohacs 
(1526,)  these  two  kingdoms  devolved  to  Ferdinand  of  the  House 
of  Austria.  Finally,  the  marriage  which  Charles  V.  contracted 
with  the  Infant  Isabella,  daughter  of  Emmanuel,  King  of  Por- 
tugal, procured  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  son  of  that  marriage, 
the  whole  Portug-uese  monarchy,"  to  which  he  succeeded  on  the 
death  of  Henry,  called  the  Cardinal  (1580.)  So  vast  an  ag- 
grandizement of  power  alarmed  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  who 
began  to  suspect  that  the  Austrian  Princes,  of  the  Spanish  and 
(lerman  line,  aimed  at  universal  monarchy.  The  unbounded 
ambition  of  Charles  V.,  and  his  son  Philip  II.,  as  well  as  that 
of  Ferdinand  II.,  grandson  of  Ferdinand  I.,  tended  to  confirm 
these  suspicions  ;  and  all  felt  the  necessity  of  uniting  to  oppose 
a  barrier  to  this  overwhelming  power.  For  a  long  time  the 
whole  policy  of  Europe,  its  wars  and  alliances,  had  no  other 
object  than  to  humble  the  ambition  of  one  nation,  whose  pre- 
ponderance seemed  to  threaten  the  liberty  and  independence  of 
the  rest. 

[The  system  of  political  equilibrium,  which  from  this  period 
became  the  leading  object  of  every  European  cabinet,  until  it 
was  undermined  by  unjust  and  arbitrary  interferences,  and 
threatened  to  bury  the  independence  of  Europe  in  its  ruins,  did 
not  aim  at  maintaining  among  the  different  states  an  equality 
of  power  or  territorial  possession.  This  would  have  been  chi- 
merical. The  object  of  this  system  was  to  maintain  a  perfect 
equality  of  rights,  in  virtue  of  which  the  weaker  might  enjoy 
hi  security  all  that  they  held  by  a  just  claim.  It  was  purely  a 
defensive  and  preservative  system ;  nor  did  it  affect  to  put  an 
end  to  all  wars  ;  it  was  directed  solely  against  the  ambition  and 
usurpation  of  conquerors.  Its  fundamental  principle  was  lo 
prevent  any  one  state  from  acquiring  sufficient  power  to  resist 
the  united  efforts  of  the  others.] 

France  was  the  leading  power  that  undertook  the  task  of  re- 
gulating the  balance  against  the  House  of  Austria.  Francis  I. 
and  Henry  II.  used  every  effort  to  excite  combinations  against 
Charles  V.     Francis   was   the   first  sovereign   in  Europe  that 

19  # 


222 


CHAPTER    VII. 


entered  into  treaties  of  alliance  with  the  Turks  against  Austria : 
and  in  this  way  the  Porte  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  am-algamated 
with  the  political  system  of  Europe.  So  long  as  their  object 
was  to  subvert  the  feudal  aristocracy,  and  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion in  France,  Francis  and  Henry  were  strenuous  defenders 
of  the  Germanic  system,  and  extended  their  protection  to  tiie 
sovereigns  of  the  Protestant  States  of  the  Empire,  under  the 
persuasion  that  all  Europe  would  bend  to  the  Austrian  yoke,  if 
the  Emperors  of  that  House  should  succeed  in  rendering  theii 
power  absolute  and  hereditary  in  the  Empire.  Henry  IV. 
Louis  XIII.,  and  the  Cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarin,  adopted 
the  same  line  of  policy.^  They  joined  in  league  with  the 
Protestant  Princes,  and  armed  by  turns  the  greater  part  of  Eu- 
rope against  Austria,  and  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  whose 
ambitious  designs  threatened  to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the 
Empire.  This  was  the  grand  motive  for  the  famous  Thirty 
Years'  War,  which  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  treaties  of  West- 
phaHa  (1648,)  and  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659.)  France  succeeded, 
not  however  without  prodigious  efforts,  in  supporting  the  ba- 
lance against  Austria ;  while  the  federative  system  of  the 
Empire,  consolidated  by  the  former  of  these  treaties,  and  gua- 
ranteed by  France  and  Sweden,  became  a  sort  of  artificial  bar- 
rier, for  preserving  the  equilibrium  and  the  general  tranquillity 
of  Europe. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  almost  every  kingdom  in  Eu- 
rope changed  their  condition,  and  assumed,  by  degrees,  the  form 
which  they  have  still  retained.  The  German  Empire  continued 
to  experience  those  calamities  to  which  every  government  is 
exposed,  when  its  internal  springs  have  lost  their  vigour  and 
activity.  Private  wars  and  feuds,  which  the  laws  authorized, 
were  then  regarded  as  the  chief  bulwark  of  the  national  liberty  ; 
the  noblesse  and  the  petty  states  in  general,  knew  no  other  jus- 
tice than  what  the-  sword  dispensed.  Oppression,  rapine  and 
violence,  were  become  universal;  comm.erce  languished;  and 
the  different  provinces  of  the  Empire  presented  one  melan- 
choly scene  of  ruin  and  desolation.  The  expedients  that  were 
tried  to  remedy  these  disorders,  the  truces,  the  treaties  (called 
the  Peace  of  God,)  and  the  different  confederacies  of  the  Im- 
perial states,  served  only  to  palliate,  but  not  to  cure  the  evil. 
The  eflbrts  which  some  of  the  Emperors  made  to  establish  the 
public  tranquillity  on  some  solid  basis,  proved  equally  abortive. 

It  was  not  until  near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  the 
states  of  the  Empire,  impressed  with  juster  notions  of  govern- 
ment and  civil  subordination,  consented  to  the  total  and  entire 
;ibolit:!on  of  fends  and  intestine  wars       This  wa«  accomplished 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  14.53—1648.  223 

upder  the  reign  of  Maximilian  I.,  by  the  Perpetual  TiMic 
Peace,  drawn  up  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1495.  All  violent 
means  of  redress  among  the  members  of  ihe  Germanic  Bcdi- 
were  rigorously  interdicted ;  and  all  who  had  any  complaint!-  m 
make  against  each  other,  were  enjoined  to  apply  to  the  regulr-r 
courts  of  justice.  This  ordinance  of  the  Public  Peace,  whi;*^ 
was  afterwards  renewed  and  enlarged  in  several  diets,  has  beeii 
regarded,  smce  that  tim.e,  as  one  of  the  principal  and  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  Empire. 

The  establishment  of  the  Public  Peace  rendered  a  reforma- 
tion necessary  in  the  administration  of  justice,  which  had  long 
been  in  a  languid  and  disordered  state.  For  this  purpose,  the 
Imperial  Chamber,  which  sat  at  first  at  Spire,  and  was  after- 
wards transferred  to  Wetzlar,  was  instituted  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms  (1495.)  Its  object  was  to  judge  of  any  differences  that 
might  arise  among  the  immediate  mxembers  of  the  Germanic 
body;  as  also  to  receive  any  appeals  that  might  be  referred  to 
them  from  the  subordinate  tribunals.  It  was  composed  of  a 
chief  or  head,  called  the  Judge  of  the  Chamber,  and  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  Assessors  chosen  from  among  the  jurists  and 
independent  nobility.  The  institution  of  the  Aulic  Council, 
another  sovereign  court  of  the  Empire,  followed  soon  after  that 
of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  Its  origin  is  generally  referred  to 
the  Diet  of  Cologne  (1512.)  Of  the  same  date  also  is  the  plan 
which  they  adopted  of  dividing  the  Empire  into  ten  Circles,  as 
a  proper  expedient  for  maintaining  the  public  peace,  and  faci- 
litating the  execution  of  the  sentences  of  the  two  Imperial 
Courts.  Over  each  of  these  circles  ^\•e•re  placed  princes,  direc- 
tors, and  colonels,  whose  duty  it  was  to  superintend  and  com- 
mand the  troops  of  their  respective  districts. 

The  custom  of  Imperial  Capitulations  was  introduced  at  the 
time  of  the  accession  of  Charles  V.  to  the  Imperial  throne  (1519.'> 
The  Electors,  apprehensive  of  the  formidable  powder  of  that 
prince,  thought  proper  to  limit  it  by  a  capitulation,  which  the}^ 
made  him  sign  and  solemnly  swear  to  observe.  This  compact 
between  the  new  Emperor  and  the  Electors,  renewed  under  every 
subsequent  reign,  has  been  always  considered  as  the  grand  char- 
ter of  the  liberties  of  the  Germanic  body. 

The  dissensions  on  the  score  of  religion  that  happened  about 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  gave  rise  to  a  long  series 
of  troubles  and  civil  wars,  which  proved  of  advantage  to  the 
House  of  Austria,  by  the  confirmation  of  their  power  in  the  Em- 
pire. The  first  of  these  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  war  of 
Smalcalden,  of  which  the  following  is  a  brief  sketch.  The  Em- 
peror Charles  V..  in  the  first  diet  which  he  held  at  Worms  (1521,) 


224  Cn AFTER  VII. 

hpd  issued  an  edict  of  proscription  against  Luther  and  his  adhe- 
rents,  ordaining  that  they  should  be  treated  as  enemies  of  the 
Empire,  and  prosecuted  to  the  utmost  rigour  of  the  law.  The 
execution  of  this  edict  was  incessantly  urged  by  the  Emperor 
and  the  Pope's  legates,  until  the  whole  Empire  was  in  a  state  of 
combustion.  The  Catholic  princes,  at  the  instigation  of  Cardi' 
nal  Campcggio,  assembled  at  Ratisbonne  (1524,)  and  there 
adopted  measures  of  extreme  rigour,  for  putting  the  edict  into 
execution  within  their  respective  states.  The  case  was  by  no 
means  the  same  with  the  princes  and  states  who  adhered  to  the 
Reformation,  or  who  gave  it  their  protection.  To  apply  the  con- 
ditions of  the  edict  to  them,  it  would  have  been  necessary  to 
come  to  a  ci\'il  Avar,  which  the  more  prudent  members  of  the 
Germanic  body  sought  to  avoid.  This  religious  schism  was  still 
more  aggravated  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  where  the  Emperor 
issued  a  decree,  condemning  the  Confession  of  Faith  which  the 
Protestant  princes  had  presented  to  him.  This  decree  limited  a 
time  within  which  they  were  commanded,  in  so  far  as  regarded 
the  articles  in  dispute,  to  conform  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholit 
Church.  Thus  urged  to  extremities,  the  Protestant  leaders  de- 
termined to  assemble  at  Smalcalden  before  the  end  of  this  very 
year  (1530,)  where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  TJjiion^  ox  de- 
fensive alliance,  which  was  afterwards  renewed  at  different  times. 
John  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Philip,  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  declared  themselves  chiefs  of  this  Union.  In  opposition 
to  this  confederacy,  the  Catholic  princes  instituted  the  Holy 
League;  so  called  because  its  object  was  the  defence  of  the 
Catholic  religion. 

Every  thing  seemed  to  announce  a  civil  war,  when  a  new 
irruption  of  the  Turks  into  Hungary  and  Austria,  induced  the 
Catholics  to  sign,  at  Nuremberg  (1530,)  a  truce,  or  accommoda- 
tion, with  the  princes  of  the  Union ;  in  virtue  of  which,  a  peace 
between  the  states  of  the  two  religions  was  concluded,  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Emperor ;  to  continue  till  a  General  Counci},  or 
some  new  assembly  should  decide  otherwise.  This  peace  was 
renewed  in  various  subequent  assemblies.  The  Protestant 
princes,  however,  still  persisted  in  their  refusal  to  acknowledge 
the  authority  of  Councils  convoked  by  the  Popes;  and  their 
confederacy  daily  receiving  new  accessions,  the  Emperor,  after 
having  made  peace  with  France,  at  Crepy  (1544,)  and  concluded 
an  armistice  of  five  years  with  the  Turks,  resolved  to  declare 
war  against  these  schismatics,  who,  presuming  on  their  union 
and  their  amicable  relations  with  foreign  powers,  thought  them- 
selves capable  of  dictating  laws  to  the  Empire.  He  issued  an 
edict  of  proscription  (1546)  against  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453— 164S.  22-5, 

the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  two  chiefs  of  the  Union  ;  and 
having-  entered  into  a  secret  aUiance  with  Duke  Maurice,  a 
younger  branch  of  the  family  of  Saxony,  and  a  near  relation  of 
the  Elector,  he  succeeded  in  transferring  the  theatre  of  war  from 
the  Danube  to  the  Elbe.  The  Elector  being  defeated  by  the 
Emperor,  in  an  action  which  took  place  at  Mecklenburg  (1547,) 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror ;  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse 
met  with  the  same  fate  two  months  after.  The  Union  of  Smiai- 
calden  was  then  dissolved,  and  the  Emperor,  who  now  sav/  him- 
self master  of  Germany,  assembled  a  Diet  at  Augsburg,  in  which 
he  acted  the  part  of  a  dictator.  A  large  detachment  of  his  troops, 
billeted  on  the  city,  served  as  his  body  guard,  while  the  rest  ot 
his  arm}'-  was  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood.  At  this  diet,  he 
conferred  on  Duke  Maurice  the  Electorate  of  Saxony,  of  which 
he  had  deprived  his  prisoner,  John  Frederick.  The  investiture 
of  the  new  Elector  took  place  at  Augsburg  (1548;)  and  what 
deserves  to  be  particularly  remarked  in  this  diet  is,  that  the  Em- 
peror entered  into  a  scheme  for  the  entire  ruin  and  extirpation 
of  Protestantism,  by  compelling  the  princes  and  states  of  the 
Eeformation  to  rejoin  the  Catholic  Church,  by  means  of  a  formula 
which  he  made  them  adopt,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Interim  ; 
and  which,  by  its  preliminary  arranrgement,  allowed  them  only 
the  use  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds,  and  the  marriage  ot 
their  priests,  until  the  whole  matter  should  be  decided  by  a 
Council. 

The  victories  of  Charles  V.,  which  seemed  to  have  made  him 
absolute  master  of  the  Empire,  were  soon  followed  by  reverses, 
which  eclipsed  all  the  former  glory  of  his  reign.  The  Elector 
Maurice,  though  indebted  to  him  for  his  new  dignity,  thought 
he  might  take  advantage  of  the  distressed  condition  to  which 
that  prince  was  reduced  by  the  low  state  of  his  finances,  to  make 
a  new  attempt  to  limit  his  authority,  and  restore  the  Protestant 
religion.  With  this  view,  having  inlisted  some  of  the  princes 
of  the  Empire  in  his  cause,  and  concluded  a  secret  treaty  with 
Henry  IL  of  France,  at  Chambord,  he  marched  wdth  such  rapi- 
dity against  the  Emperor,  that  he  nearly  surprised  him  at  Ins- 
pruck,  and  obliged  him  to  have  recourse  to  the  mediation  of  his 
brother  Ferdinand,  when  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Maurice, 
which  was  signed  at  Passau  (1552.)  There  the  liberty  of  the 
Protestant  worship  was  sanctioned ;  and  it  was  agreed  that  a 
General  Council  should  be  summoned  to  draw  up  the  articles  of 
a  solid  and  permanent  peace  between  the  states  of  both  religions. 

This  diet,  which  was  long  retarded  by  political  events,  did  not 
assemble  at  Augsburg  till  the  year  1555.  There  a  definitive 
peace  was  concluded  on  the  subject  of  religion,  and  it  was  or 


*226  CHAPTER  VII. 

daincd  that  both  Protestant  and  Catholic  states  should  enjoy  a 
perfect  liberty  of  worship ;  and  that  no  reunion  should  ever  be 
attempted  by  any  other  than  amicable  means.  The  seculari- 
zing- of  the  ecclesiastical  revenues,  which  the  Protestant  princes 
had  introduced  into  their  states,  was  ratified ;  but  there  was 
one  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  which  expressly  provided,  that 
every  prelate  or  churchman,  who  renounced  his  ancient  faith  to 
embrace  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  should  lose  his  benefice. 
This  latter  clause,  known  by  the  name  of  Ecclesiastical  Reserve, 
did  not  pass  but  with  the  most  determined  opposition. 

Differences  of  more  kinds  than  one  sprung  from  this  treaty  of 
peace,^ — the  articles  of  Avliich  each  party  interpreted  to  their  own 
advantage.  Hence  those  stratagems  which  at  length  occasioned 
a  new  war — that  of  the  Thirty  Years.  The  Protestant  Princes 
and  States,  wishing  to  provide  for  their  own  security,  and  to  put 
an  end  to  those  arbitrary  measures,  of  which  they  thought  they 
had  reason  to  complain,  assembled  at  Heilbrunn  (1594,)  and 
there  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  union,  which  was  confirmed 
in  the  assemblies  held  at  Halle,  in  Suabia,  in  the  years  1608 
and  1610.  The  chief  promoter  of  this  union  was  Henry  IV.  of 
f^rance,  who  designed  to  use  it  as  a  check  on  the  ambition  of  the 
House  of  Austria ;  and  as  a  means  for  carrying  into  execution 
the  grand  project  Vvdiich  he  meditated  with  regard  to  the  pacifi- 
cation of  Europe.  He  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Princes 
of  the  Union,  and  determined  the  number  of  troops  to  be  furnish- 
ed by  each  of  the  contracting  parties.  The  Catholic  princes  and 
States,  afraid  of  being  taken  unawares^  renewed  their  League, 
which  they  signed  at  Wurtzburg  (1609.)  The  rich  dutchy  of 
Juliers,  wMch  had  become  vacant  this  same  year,  was  contested 
by  several  claimants ;  and  as  Austria  was  equally  desirous  of 
possessing  it,  this  was  made  the  occasion  of  raising  powerful 
armies  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  Low  Countries.  A 
considerable  number  of  troops  had  already  taken  the  field,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1610,  when  the  unexpected  death  of 
Henry  IV.  disconcerted  all  their  measures.  This  changed  the 
politics  of  the  French  court,  and  also  induced  the  Princes  of  the 
Union  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  League, — the  articles  of 
which  were  signed  at  Munich  and  Wildstett  (1610.) 

In  this  manner  the  resentment  of  both  parties  was  suspended 
for  the  moment ;  but  the  cause  of  their  disunion  still  remained, 
which  at  length  (1618^ kindled  a  war  that  extended  from  Bohe- 
mia over,  all  Germany,  and  involved,  in  course  of  tim.e,  a  great 
part  of  Europe.  The  history  of  this  tedious  war,  in  which  poli- 
tics had  as  great  a  share  as  zeal  for  religion,  may  be  divided  into 
four  principal  periods,  namely,  the  Palatine,  the  Danish,  the 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  227 

Swedish,  and  the  French  war.  Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine, 
and  head  of  the  Protestant  Union,  having  been  raised  to  the 
throne  by  the  Bohemian  States  (1619,)  which  had  rebelled 
against  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  engaged  in  a  war  with  that 
prince  ;  but  being  deserted  by  his  allies,  and  defeated  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Prague  (1620,)  he  was  driven  from  Bohemia,  and  stripped 
of  all  his  dominions.  The  victorious  arms  of  Austria  soon  ex- 
tended their  conquests  over  a  great  part  of  the  Empire. 

Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  who  was  in  alliance  with 
most  of  the  Protestant  princes,  next  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
federal  system ;  but  he  was  not  more  fortunate  than  the  Elector 
Palatine  had  been.  Being  defeated  by  Tilly,  at  the  famous  bat- 
tle of  Lutter  (1626,)  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  cause  of 
his  allies,  and  to  sign  a  separate  peace  with  the  Emperor  at 
Lubeck  (1629.)  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  pursued 
the  career  of  the  Danish  monarch.  Encouraged  by  France,  he 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Protestant  princes,  with  the  view 
of  checking  the  ambitious  projects  of  Ferdinand  11. ,  v/ho,  by 
means  of  his  general,  Wallenstein,  whom  he  had  created  Duke 
of  Friedland,  and  invested  in  the  Dutchy  of  I\Iecklenburg,  was 
dictating  the  law  to  the  whole  Empire,  and  even  threatening 
the  kingdoms  of  the  North.  Nothing  cauld  be  more  splendid 
than  the  campaigns  of  the  Sv/edish  hero  in  Germany,  and  the 
victories  which  he  obtained  at  Leipsic  (1631,) -and  LuLzen(1632  ;) 
but  having  been  slain  in  the  latter  action,  the  affairs  of  the 
Swedes  began  to  decline ;  and  they  were  totally  ruined  by  the 
defeat  v/hich  they  sustained  at  Nordlingen  (1634.)  From  that 
time  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  John  George  I.,  renounced  the  al- 
liance of  Sweden;  and  in  ^aelding  up  Lusace  to  the  Emperor, 
he  consented  to  a  separate  treaty  of  peace,  which  was  signed  at 
Prague  (1635.) 

It  was  at  this  period  that  France,  which  till  then  had  but  fee- 
bly supported  the  Swedes  and  the  Protestant  Princes,  thought 
it  of  advantage  to  her  interests  to  undertake  their  defence  against 
Austria.  Having  declared  war  against  Spain,  she  marched 
numerous  armies  at  once  into  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  and  the 
Low  Countries.  Bernard,  Prince  of  Saxe  Weimar,  and  the  three 
French  Generals,  Guebriant,  Turenne,  and  the  Duke  d'Enghien, 
signalized  themselves  by  their  exploits  in  the  Imperial  war ; 
while  the  disciples  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  Banier,  Torstenston, 
and  Wrangel,  distinguished  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  Swe- 
dish armies,  in  the  various  campaigns  which  took  place,  from 
the  year  1635  till  the  conclusion  of  the  peace.  Never  were  ne- 
gotiations more  tedious  or  more  complicated  than  those  which 
preceded   the   treaty  of  Westphalia.     The  preliminaries  were 


228  CHAPTER  VII. 

s:gned  at  Hambiivoh  in  1641  ;  but  the  opening  of  the  CongTRSS 
ac  Munster  and  Osnahurg,  did  not  take  place  till  1644.  The 
Counts  D'Avaux  and  Servien,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  France, 
shared  with  Oxenstiern  and  Salvius,  the  Swedish  Envoys,  the 
principal  glory  of  this  negotiation,  which  was  protracted  on  pur- 
pose, as  the  belligerent  powers  were  daily  expecting  to  see  the 
events  of  the  w^ar  change  in  their  favour.  It  was  not  until  the 
24th  of  October  1648,  that  the  peace  was  finally  signed  at  Mun- 
ster and  Osnaburg. 

This  peace,  which  was  renewed  in  every  subsequent  treaty, 
and  made  a  fundamental  law  of  the  Empire,  fixed  definiiively 
the  constitution  of  the  Germanic  Body.  The  territorial  rights 
of  the  states,  known  by  the  name  of  siqieriority — the  privilege 
of  making  alliances  with  each  other,  and  with  foreign  powers — 
and  advising  with  the  Emperor  at  the  Diets,  in  every  thing  that 
concerned  the  general  administration  of  the  Empire,  were  con- 
firmed to  them  in  the  most  authentic  manner,  and  guaranteed 
by  the  consent  of  foreign  powers.  As  to  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
the  Religious  Peace  of  1555  was  confirmed  anew,-  and  extended 
to  those  who  were  known  b}^  the  name  of  the  Reformed,  or  Cal- 
vinists.  The  state  of  religion,  the  forms  of  public  worship,  and 
the  enjoyment  of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  throughout  the  whole 
Emxpire,  were  regulated  according  to  the  decree,  called  TJti 
possidetis  of  the  1st  of  January  1624,  which  was  termed  the 
normal,  or  decretory  year.  In  this  treaty,  France  obtained,  by 
way  of  indemnity,  the  sovereignty  of  the  three  bishoprics,  Metz, 
Toul,  and  Verdun,  as  well  as  that  of  Alsace.  The  compensa- 
tion of  the  other  parties  interested,  was  settled  in  a  great  mea- 
sure at  the  expense  of  the  Church,  and  by  means  of  secularizing 
several  bishoprics  and  ecclesisastical  benefices. 
^  Besides  Pomerania  and  the  city  of  Wismar,  Sweden  got  the 
archbishopric  of  Bremen,  and  the  bishopric  of  Verden.  To  the 
House  of  Brandeburg,  they  assigned  Upper  Pomerania,  the 
ftrchbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  the  bishoprics  of  Halberstadt,  Min- 
den,  and  Camin.  The  House  of  Mecldenburg  received,  in  lieu 
of  the  city  of  Wismar,  the  bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and  Ratzeburg. 
The  princely  abbey  of  Hirschfeld  was  adjudged  to  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse-Cas'^el,  and  the  choice  of  the  bishopric  of  Osna- 
burg, to  the  House  of  Brunswick-Luneburg.  An  eighth  Elec- 
torate was  instituted  in  favour  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  whom 
the  Emperor,  during  the  war,  had  divested  of  his  dignity,  v/hich, 
with  the  Upper  Palatinate,  he  had  conferred  on  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria. 

The  greater  part  of  the  provinces  kno\^^i  by  the  name  of  the 
Low  Countries,  made  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Lorraine 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453— 164S.  229 

which  had  been  united  to  the  German  Empire  snicc  the  tentli 
century.  The  principal  of  these  had  been  acquired  by  the  Dukes 
of  Burgundy,  who  made  them  over,  with  other  estates,  to  the 
liouse  of  Austria  (1477.)  Charles  V.  added  the  provinces  of 
Friesland,  Groningen,  and  Gueldres,  to  the  states  to  which  he 
n-^d  succeeded  in  Burgundy.  He  united  the  seventeen  pro- 
VI.  CCS  of  the  Low  Countries  into  one  and  the  same  government: 
p.:]  ordered,  by  the  Pragmatic  decree  which  he  published  ( 1549,) 
t'vit  they  should  never  henceforth  be  disunited.  This  same 
prince,  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg  (1548,)  entered  into  a  negotia- 
tion with  the  Germanic  Bod}'",  in  virtue  of  which  he  consented 
to  put  these  provinces  under  their  protection ;  under  condition 
of  their  observing  the  public  peace,  and  paying  into  the  exche- 
quer of  the  Empire  double  the  contribution  of  an  Electorate. 
He  guaranteed  to  the  princes  of  the  Low  Countries  a  vote  and 
a  seat  at  the  Diet,  as  chiefs  of  the  circle  of  Burgundy.  These 
pro  /inces,  m.oreover,  were  to  be  considered  as  free  and  indepen- 
dei.t  sovereignties,  without  being  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  either 
of  !  he  Empire  or  of  the  Imperial  Chamber,  who  were  not  au- 
thorized to  proceed  against  them,  except  when  they  were  found 
in  arrears  with  the  payment  of  their  contingent,  or  when  they 
infringed  the  law  of  the  public  peace. 

Charles  V.  having  transferred  these  countries  to  his  son, 
Philip  IL  of  Spain,  they  were  then  incorporated  with  the  Span- 
ish monarchy  ;  and  it  was  under  the  reign  of  this  latter  prince 
that  those  troubles  began  which  gave  rise  to  the  Republic  of  the 
United  Pro^dnces  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  true  origin  of 
these  troubles  is  to  be  found  in  the  despotism  of  Philip  IL,  and 
in  his  extravagant  and  fanatical  zeal  for  the  Catholic  religion. 
This  prince,  the  declared  enemy  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
the  Belgic  Provinces,  was  mortified  to  witness  the  religious  pri- 
vileges which  they  enjoyed  ;  under  favour  of  which  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformation  were  daily  making  new  progress. 
Being  resolved  to  extirpate  this  new  faith,  together  with  the 
political  liberties  which  served  to  protect  it,  he  introduced  the 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  (1559,)  as  the  most  sure  and  infalli- 
ble support  of  despotism.  With  the  consent  and  authorit}'-  of 
Pope  Paul  IV.,  he  suppressed,  for  tliis  purpose,  the  metropolitan 
and  diocesan  rights  which  thr  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the 
Empire  and  of  France  had  exercised  in  the  Lov/  Countries  ;  he 
instituted  three  new  bishoprics  at  Utrecht,  Cambray,  and  Mech- 
lin ;  and  under  their  jurisdiction  he  put  thirteen  new  bishoprics 
which  he  had  erected,  besides  those  of  Arras  and  Tournay. 
Having  in  this  way  augmented  the  number  of  his  satellites  in 
the  assembly  of  the  States-General,  he  suppressed  a  great  mui- 

voL.  I.  20 


230  CHAPTER  VII. 

litude  of  abbeys  and  monasteries,  ihe  revenues  of  which  he  ap 
plied  to  the  endo^^^nent  of  his  newly  made  bishoprics. 

These  innovations,  added  to  the  pubHcation  of  the  decree?  oi 
the  Council  of  Trent,  according  to  |^s  orders,  excited  a  verv 
general  discontent.  The  repeated  remonstrances  on  the  pan 
of  the  States,  having  produced  no  effect  on  the  inflexible  mind 
of  Philip,  the  nobility  took  the  resolution  of  formmg  a  confe- 
deracy at  Breda,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Compromise.  The 
confederates  drew  up  a  request,  which  was  addressed  t  Mar- 
garet of  Austria,  the  natural  daughter  of  Charles  V.,  and  Re- 
gent of  the  Low  Countries,  under  the  King  of  Spain.  Four 
hundred  gentlemen,  headed  by  Henry  de  Brederode,  a  descen- 
dant of  the  ancient  Counts  of  Holland,  and  Louis  of  Nassau, 
brother  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  repaired  to  Brussels  (1566,) 
and  there  presented  this  request,  which  may  be  considered  as 
the  commencement  of  the  troubles  in  the  Low  Countries.  It 
was  on  this  account  that  the  name  of  Gv.eux  or  Beggars  was 
given  to  the  Confederates,  which  ha?  become  so  famous  in  the 
history  of  these  wars. 

About  this  same  time,. the  populace  collected  in  mobs  in  seve- 
ral towns  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  fell  upon  the  churcnes  and 
niunasteries  ;  and  having  broken  down  their  altars  and  images, 
they  introduced  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion  by  force. 
The  storm,  however,  was  calmed ;  the  Catholic  worship  was 
re-esiablished  ever\^  where ;  and  the  confederacy  of  the  nobles 
dissolved,  several  of  whom,  distrustful  of  this  apparent  tran- 
quillity, retired  to  foreign  countries.  William  Prince  of  Orange, 
Louis  of  Nassau,  the  Counts  de  Culemburg  and  Berg,  and  the 
Count  de  Brederode,  were  in  the  number  of  these  emigrants. 
Philip  IL,  instead  of  adopting  measures  of  moderation  and 
clemency,  according  to  the  advice  of  the  Regent,  was  deter- 
mined to  avenge,  in  the  most  signal  manner,  this  outrage  against 
his  religion  and  the  majesty  of  his  throne.  He  sent  the  fiimous 
Duke  of  Alba  or  Alva  into  the  Low  Countries,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  20,000  men  (1567.)  The  Regent  then  gave  in  her  re- 
signation. A  general  terror  overspread  the  country.  Vast 
numbers  of  manufacturers  and  merchants  took  refuge  in  Eng- 
land, carrying  along  with  them  their  arts  and  their  indi>stry. 
Hence  the  commerce  and  manufactures  of  the  Low  Countries, 
which  had  formerly  been  the  most  flourishing  in  Europe,  fell 
entirely  into  decay. 

The  Duke  of  Alva,  immediately  on  his  arrival,  established  a 
tribunal  or  court,  for  investigating  the  excesses  that  had  been 
committed  during  these  commotions.  This  council,  which  the 
Flemings  called  the  "  Council  of  Blood,"  informed  against  all 


TERioD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  231 

those  who  had  been  in  any  way  concerned  with  the  Gueux  or 
Beggars,  who  had  frequented  their  preachings,  contributed  tc 
the  support  of  their  ministers  or  the  building  of  their  cliurches  ; 
or  harboured  and  protected  these  heretics,  either  directly,  or  in- 
directly. Before  this  council,  whose  only  judges  were  the 
Duke  of  Alva  and  his  confidant  John  de  Vargas,  were  cited 
high  and  low,  without  distinction  ;  and  ail  those  whose  wealth 
excited  their  cupidity.  There  they  instituted  proceedings  against 
the  absent  and  the  present,  the  dead  and  the  living,  and  con- 
fiscated their  goods.  Eighteen  thousand  persons  perished  by 
the  hands  of  the  executioner,  and  more  than  30,000  others  were 
entirely  ruined.  Among  the  number  of  those  illustrious  vic- 
tims of  Alva's  cruelly,  were  the  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  who 
were  both  beheaded.  Their  execution  excited  a  general  in- 
dignation, and  was  the  signal  of  revolt  iind  civil  war  throughout 
the  Low  Countries. 

The  Beggars,  who  scemied  almost  forgotten,  began  to  revive  ; 
and  were  afterwards  distinguished' into  three  kinds.  All  the 
malcontents,  as  well  as  the  adherents  of  Luther  and  Calvin, 
were  called  simply  by  this  name.  Those  were  called  Beggars 
of  the  Woods,  who  concealed  them^selves  in  the  forests  and 
marshes ;  never  sallying  forth  but  in  the  night,  to  commit  all 
sorts  of  excesses.  Lastly,  the  Maritime  or  Marine  Beggars, 
were  those  who  employed  themselves  in  piracy ;  infesting  the 
coasts,  and  making  descents  on  the  country. 

It  was  in  this  situation  of  affairs  that  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
one  of  the  richest  proprietors  in  the  Low  Countries,  assisted  by 
his  brother  the  Counts  of  Nassau,  assembled  different  bodies  of 
troops  in  the  Empire,  with  which  he  attacked  the  Low  Coun- 
tries in  several  places  at  once  (1668.)  Failing  in  these  first 
attempts,  he  soon  changed  his  plan  ;  and  associating  the  Marine 
Beggars  in  the  cause,  he  ventured  to  attack  the  Spaniards  by 
sea.  The  Beggars,  encouraged  by  that  Prince,  and  William 
Count  de  la  INIark,  surnamed  the  Boar  of  Axdeiines,  took  the 
city  of  Brille  by  surprise  (1572,)  situated  in  the  Isle  of  Voorn, 
and  regarded  as  the  stronghold  of  the  noAV  republic  of  the  Bel- 
gic  Provinces.  The  capture  of  the  port  of  Brille  caused  a  re- 
volution in  Zealand.  All  the  cities  of  that  province,  except 
Middleburg,  opened  their  gates  to  the  Beggars ;  and  their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  most  of  the  towns  in  Holland.  An  as- 
sembly of  the  States  of  this  latter  province  met  this  same  year 
at  Dort,  where  they  laid  the  foundation  of  their  new  republic. 
The  Prince  of  Orange  was  there  v.i?clared  Stadtholder  or  Go- 
vernor of  the  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland,  and 
Utrecht ;  and  they  agreed  never  to  treat  with  the  Spaniards,  ex- 


232  CHAPTER  VII. 

cept  by  common  consent.  The  public  exercise  of  the  reformed 
religion  was  introduced,  according  to  the  form  of  Geneva. 

This  rising  republic  became  more  firmly  established  in  con- 
sequence of  several  advantages  which  the  Confederates  had 
gained  over  the  Spaniards,  whose  troops  being  badly  paid,  at 
length  mutinied ;  and  breaking  out  into  the  greatest  disorders, 
they  pillaged  several  cities,  among  others  Antwerp,  and  laid 
waste  the  whole  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  States-General, 
then  assembled  at  Brussels,  implored  the  assistance  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange  and  the  Confederates.  A  negotiation  was  then 
opened  at  Ghent  (1576,)  between  the  States  of  Brussels,  and 
those  of  Holland  and  Zealand  ;  where  a  general  union,  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Pacification  of  Ghent,  was  signed.  They 
engaged  mutually  to  assist  each  other,  with  the  view  of  expelling 
the  Spanish  troops,  and  never  more  permitting  them  to  ent»^-r  '}^fi 
Low  Countries.  The  Confederates,  who  were  in  alliance  witli 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England,  pursued  the  Spaniards  every 
where,  who  soon  saw  themselves  reduced  to  the  single  provinces 
of  Luxemburg,  Limburg,  and  Namur. 

They  were  on  the  point  of  being  expelled  from  these  also, 
when  the  government  of  the  Low  Countries  was  intrusted  to 
Alexander  Farnese,  Prince  of  Parma.  Equally  distinguished  as 
a  politician  and  a  warrior,  this  Prince  revived  the  Spanish  inte- 
rests. Taking  advantage  of  the  dissensions  which  had  arisen 
among  the  Confederates  from  the  diversity  of  their  religious 
opinions,  he  again  reduced  the  provinces  of  Flanders,  Artois, 
and  Hainanlt,  under  the  Spanish  dominion.  He  took  the  city 
of  Maestricht  by  assault,  and  entered  into  a  negotiation  Avith 
the  States-General  of  the  Lov/  Countries  at  Cologne,  under  the 
mediation  of  the  Emperor  Rodolph  IL,  the  Pope,  and  some  of 
the  princes  of  the  Empire.  This  negotiation  proved  unsuccess- 
ful ;  but  the  Prince  of  Orange,  foreseeing  that  the  general  con- 
federacy could  not  last,  conceived  the  plan  of  a  more  intimate 
union  among  the  Provinces ;  which  he  regarded  as  the  most  fit 
to  make  head  against  the  Spaniards.  He  fixed  on  the  maritime 
provinces,  such  as  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Friesland ;  and  above 
all,  on  those  whom  the  same  religious  creed,  viz.  the  Calvinistic, 
had  attached  to  the  same  interests.  The  comxmerce  of  Hol- 
land, and  Zealand,  and  Friesland,  began  to  make  new  progress 
daily.  Amsterdam  was  rising  on  the  ruins  of  Antwerp.  The 
flourishing  state  of  their  marine  rendered  these  provinces  for- 
midable by  sea ;  and  gave  them  the  means  not  only  of  repelling 
the  efforts  of  the  Spaniards,  but  even  of  protecting  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces  which  might  join  this  Union.  Such  were  the 
motives  which  induced  the  Prince  of  Orano-e  to  form  the  special 


PERIOD.  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  233 

confederacy  of  the  Seven  Provinces,  the  basis  of  which  he  laid 
by  the  famous  treaty  of  Union  concluded  at  Utrecht  (1579.) 
That  Union  was  there  declared  perpetual  and  indissoluble  ;  and 
It  was  agreed  that  the  Seven  Provinces,  viz.  those  of  Gueldres, 
Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Overyssel,  Friesland,  and  Groningen, 
should  henceforth  be  considered  as  one  and  the  same  Province. 
Each  of  these,  nevertheless,  ^vas  guaranteed  in  the  possession  of 
their  rights  and  privileges-^that  is,  their  absolute  superiority  m 
every  thing  regarding  their  own  internal  administration. 

[We  may  remark,  however,  that  these  insurrectionary  pro- 
vinces had  not  originally  the  design  of  forming  a  republic. 
Their  intention,  at  first,  was  only  to  maintain  their  political  pri- 
vileges ;  and  they  did  not  absolutely  shake  off  the  Spanish 
authority  until  they  despaired  of  reconciliation.  Moreover,  they 
repeatedly  offered  the  sovereignty  of  their  States  to  different 
foreign  princes ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  Union  of  Utrecht  that 
the  Seven  Provinces  became  a  federal  republic.  Consequently 
every  thing  remained  on  its  ancient  footing;  and  some  ofnhe 
provinces  even  retained  their  Stadtholders  or  governors,  at  the 
head  of  their  administration.  Hence  that  mixture  of  monarchy, 
aristocracy,  and  democracy,  which  prevailed  in  these  countries ; 
and  hence,  too,  the  feeble  tie  which  united  them  with  each  other, 
and  which  would  probably  have  speedily  broken,  if  Holland  had 
not,  by  its  riches  and  its  power,  obtained  an  influence  and  pre- 
ponderance which  maintained  the  Union.] 

The  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces 
did  not  take  place  till  1581 ;  when  the  Prince  of  Orange  induced 
the  States-General  to  make  a  formal  proclamation  of  it,  out  of 
revenge  for  the  furious  edicts  of  proscription  which  the  Court  of 
Spain  had  issued  against  him.  The  Prince,  however,  was  assas- 
sinated at  Delft  in  1584;'''  and  the  Spaniards  took  advantage  of 
the  consternation  which  this  event  had  spread  among  the  Con- 
federates, to  reconquer  most  of  the  provinces  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. The  general  Confederacy  languished  away  by  degi'ees ; 
and  the  Union  of  Utrecht  was  the  only  one  maintained  among 
the  Seven  Provinces.  This  new  republic,  which  was  in  strict 
alliance  with  England,  not  only  made  head  against  the  Spaniards, 
but  gained  a  considerable  increase  of  strength  by  the  vast  num- 
bers of  refugees  from  the  different  Belgic  provinces,  who  took 
shelter  there  ;  as  well  as  from  France,  where  the  persecution 
still  raged  violently  against  the  Protestants.  It  is  calculated 
that  after  the  taking  of  Antwerp  by  the  Prince  of  Parm.a  in 
1585,  above  a  hundred  thousand  of  these  fugitives  transported 
themselves  to  Holland  and  Amsterdam,  carrying  .vith  them  their 
wealth  and  their  industry. 

90* 


2d4  CHAPTER  VII. 

From  this  dale  the  commerce  of  the  Confederate  States  in- 
creased every  da}^ ;  and  in  1595  they  extended  it  as  far  as  India 
and  the  Eastern  Seas.  The  Dutch  India  Company  was  estab- 
lished in  1602.  Besides  the  exckisive  commerce  of  India,  which 
was  guaranteed  to  them  by  their  charter,  they  became  likewise 
a  political  body,  imder  the  sovereignty  of  the  States-General  of 
the  United  Provinces.  Supported  by  a  formidable  marine,  they 
acquired  vast  influence  in  the  East  by  their  conquests  over  the 
Portuguese,  whom  they  dispossessed  by  degrees  of  all  their 
principal  establishments  in  India.  The  Spaniards,  finding  their 
efforts  to  reduce  the  Confederates  by  force  of  arms  ineffectual, 
set  on  foot  a  negotiation  at  Antwerp  (1609.)  under  the  media- 
tion of  France  and  England  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  a  truce 
of  twelve  years  was  concluded  between  Spain  and  the  United 
Provinces.  It  was  chiefly  during  this  time  that  the  Confede- 
rates extended  their  commerce  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  while 
their  marine  daily  increased  in  strength  and  importance  ;  which 
soon  raised  them  to  the  rank  of  being  the  second  maritime  power, 
and  gave  them  a  decisive  influence  over  the  political  affairs  of 
Europe. 

At  the  expiration  of  this  truce,  hostilities  were  renewed  with 
Spain.  The  Dutch  carried  on  the  war  for  twenty-five  years 
v/ith  great  glory,  under  the  auspices  of  their  StadtholderSr 
Maurice  and  Henry  Frederic,  Princes  of  Orange,  who  discovered 
great  military  talents.  One  event,  which  proved  favourable  for 
the  Republicans,  was  the  war  that  broke  out  between  France 
and  Spain,  and  which  was  followed  by  a  strict  alliance  betvv'een 
France  and  the  States-General.  The  partition  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  was  settled  by  this  treaty ;  and  the  allied  powers 
entered  into  an  engagement  never  to  make  peace  or  truce  with 
Spain,  except  by  common  consent.  This  latter  clause,  however, 
did  not  prevent  the  States-General  from  concluding  at  Munster 
a  separate  peace  with  Spain,  to  the  exclusion  of  France  (1648.) 
By  this  peace  the  King  of  Spain  acknowledged  the  United  Pro- 
vinces as  free  and  independent  States ;  he  gave  up  to  them  all 
the  places  which  they  had  seized  in  Brabant,  Flanders  and  Lim- 
burg,  viz.  Bois-le-Duc,  Bergen-op-Zoom,  Breda,  and  Maestricht  *. 
as  also  their  possessions  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  in  Asia 
Africa,  and  A^nerica.  The  closing  of  the  Scheld,  which  was 
granted  in  favour  of  the  United  Provinces,  entirely  ruined  the 
city  of  Antwerp,  and  shut  out  the  Spanish  Netherlands  from  all 
maritime  commerce. 

The  feudal  system  of  the  Swiss,  which  had  originated  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  acquired  a  new  importance  towards  the  end 
cf  the  fifteenth,  by  reason  .     the  success  of  the  confederates  m 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  235 

their  war  with  Charles  Duke  of  Biir^ndy.  This  prince,  who 
was  of  a  hot  and  turbulent  spirit,  was  constantly  occupied  with 
projects  of  conquest.  Taking  advantage  of  the  ruinous  state  of 
the  finances  of  the  Archduke  Sigismund  of  Austria,  he  induced 
him  to  sell  him  the  territories  of  Brisgau  and  Alsace,  with  rhe 
right  of  repurchase  (1469.)  Peter  de  Hagenbach,  a  gentieroaa 
of  Alsace,  who  had  been  appointed  governor  of  these  countrie?^ 
by  the  Duke,  had  oppressed  the  Austrian  subjects,  and  harassed 
the  whole  neighbouring  states ;  especially  the  Swiss.  The 
complaints  which  were  made  on  this  score  to  the  Duke,  having 
only  rendered  Hagenbach  still  more  insolent,  the  Swiss,  with 
the  concurrence  of  several  states  of  the  Empire,  paid  do\\Ti,  at 
Basle,  the  sums  stipulated  in  the  contract  for  repurchasing  the 
two  provinces  ;  and,  by  force  of  arms,  they  re-established  the 
Austrian  prince  in  the  possession  of  Alsace  and  Brisgau.  They 
even  went  so  far  as  to  institute  legal  proceedings  against  Hagen- 
bach, who  was  in  consequence  beheaded  at  Brigach  in  1474. 

The  Duke,  determined  to  avenge  this  insult,  assembled  an 
army  of  a  hundred  thousand  men,  with  which  he  penetrated 
through  Franche-Comte  into  Switzerland.  He  was  defeated  in 
the  first  action,  which  took  place  at  Granson  (1476;)  after 
which  he  reinforced  his  troops,  and  laid  siege  to  Morat.  Here 
he  was  again  attacked  by  the  Swiss,  who  killed  eighteen  thou- 
sand of  his  men,  and  seized  the  whole  of  his  camp  and  baggage. 
The  Duke  of  Lorraine,  an  ally  of  the  Swiss,  was  then  restored 
to  those  states  of  which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  had  deprived 
him.  This  latter  prince,  in  a  gi'eat  fury,  came  and  laid  siege  to 
Nancy.  The  Swiss  marched  to  the  relief  of  this  place,  where 
they  fought  a  third  and  last  battle  with  the  Duke,  who  v/as  here 
defeated  and  slain  (1477.) 

These  victories  of  the  Swiss  over  the  Dake  of  Burgundy,  one 
of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  his  time,  raised  the  fame  of  their 
arms ;  and  made  their  friendship  and  alliance  courted  by  the 
first  sovereigns  in  Europe,  especially  by  France.  Their  con- 
federacy, which  had  formeady  been  composed  of  only  eight  can- 
tons, was  augmented  by  the  accession  of  two  new  states,  Friburg 
and  Soleure,  which  were  enrolled  in  the  number  of  cantons. 

From  this  time  the  Swiss  were  no  longer  afraid  to  break  the 
ties  that  bound  them  to  the  Germanic  Body,  as  members  of  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Aries.  The  Diet  of  Worms,  in  1495,  having 
granted  the  Emperor  Maximilian  succours  against  the  French 
and  the  Turks,  the  Swiss  alleged  their  immunities,  and  their 
alliance  with  France,  as  a  pretext  for  refusing  their  contingent 
of  supplies.  This  demand,  however,  was  renewed  at  the  Diet 
of  Lindau,  in  1496,  which  required  them  to  renounce  their  alii- 


236  CHAPTER  Vll. 

ance  with  France,  and  accede  to  the  League  of  Swahia ;  as  also 
to  suhmit  themselves  to  the  Imperial  Chamber,  and  the  law  of 
the  public  peace ;  and  to  furnish  their  quota  for  the  support  of 
that  Chamber,  and  the  other  contributions  of  the  Empire.  All 
these  demands  were  resisted  by  the  Helvetic  Body,  who  regard- 
ed them  as  contrary  to  their  rights  and  privileges.  Meantime 
the  Grisons  had  allied  themselves  with  the  Swiss,  in  order  to 
obtain  their  protection  under  the  existing  differences  between 
them  and  the  Tyrolese. 

The  Emperor  Maximilian  seized  this  pretext  for  making  war 
against  the  Cantons.  Being  desirous  of  vindicating  the  dignity 
of  the  Empire,  which  had  been  outraged  by  the  Swiss,  and  of 
avenging  the  insults  offered  to  his  own  family,  he  stirred  up  the 
League  of  Swabia  to  oppose  them ;  and  attacked  them  in  difTe- 
rent  points  at  once.  Eight  battles  were  fought  in  succession,  in 
course  of  that  campaign  ;  all  of  which,  with  one  solitary  excep- 
tion, were  in  favour  of  the  Swiss,  while  the  Imperialists  lost  more 
than  twenty  thousand  men.  Maximilian  and  his  allies,  the  Swa- 
bian  League,  then  came  to  the  resolution  of  making  their  peace 
with  the  Cantons,  wbich  was  concluded  at  Basle  (1499.)  Both 
parties  made  a  mutual  restitution  of  what  they  had  wrested  from 
each  other ;  and  it  was  agreed,  that  the  differences  between  the 
Emperor,  as  Count  of  Tyrol,  and  the  Grisons,  should  be  brought 
to  an  amicable  termination.  This  peace  forms  a  memorable  era 
in  the  history  of  the  Helvetic  Confederacy,  whose  independence, 
with  regard  to  the  German  Emjperor,  Avas  from  that  time  con- 
sidered as  decided;  although  no  mention  of  this  was  made  in  the 
treaty,  and  although  the  Swiss  still  continued  for  some  time  to 
request  from  the  Emperors  the  confirmation  of  their  immunities. 
Two  immediate  cities  of  the  Empire,  those  of  Basle  and  SchaufT- 
hausen,  took  occasion,  from  these  latter  events,  to  solicit  their 
admission  into  the  Confederacy.  They  were  received  as  allies, 
under  the  title  of  Cantons  (1501 ;)  and  the  territory  of  Appenzel, 
which  was  admitted  in  like  manner  (1513,)  formed  the  thirteenth 
and  last  Canton. 

The  alliance  which  the  Swiss  had  kept  up  with  France,  since 
the  reigns  of  Charles  VII.  and  Louis  XL,  tended  greatly  to  se- 
cure the  independence  of  the  Helvetic  Body.^  This  alliance, 
which  Louis  XI.  had  made  an  instrument  for  humbling  the 
power  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  never  but  once  broken,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  on  account  of  the  Holy  League,  into 
which  the  Swiss  were  drawn  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Bishop  of 
Sion  (1512.)  The  French  were  then  expelled  from  the  Milan- 
ese terr.itory  by  the  Swiss,  who  placed  there  the  Duke  Maximi- 
lian Sforza.     It  was  in  gratitude  for  this  service,  that  the  duke 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 164S.  237 

ceded  to  tlie  Swiss,  by  a  treaty  which  was  concluded  at  Basle, 
the  four  bailiwicks  of  Lugano,  Locarno,  Mendrisio,  and  Val- 
Maggio,  which  he  dismembered  from  the  Milanois,  Thouo-h 
conc^uerors  at  the  battle  of  Novara,  the  Swiss  experienced  a  san- 
guinary defeat  at  Marignano ;  when  they  judged  it  for  their  in- 
terest to  renew  their  alliance  Vvdth  France  (1513.)  A  treaty  of 
perpetual  peace  was  signed  at  Friburg  between  these  two  States 
(1516,)  which  was  soon  after  followed  by  a  new  treaty  of  alli- 
ance, concluded  with  Francis  L  at  Lucerne  (1521,)  and  regularly 
renewed  under  the  subsequent  reigns. 

The  change  which  took  place  in  religion,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  extended  its  influence  to  Switzerland, 
where  it  kindled  the  llame  of  civil  discord.  Four  cantons,  those 
of  Zurich,  Berne,  Schauff  hausen,  and  Basle,  renouncing  entirely 
the  Romish  faith,  had  embraced  the  doctrines  of  Zuingle  and 
Calvin ;  while  two  others,  viz.  Glaris  and  ApT)enzel,  were  divi- 
ded between  the  old  and  the  new  opinions.  The  Reformation 
having  likewise  found  its  way  into  the  common  bailivvdcks,  the 
Catholic  Cantons  rose  in  opposition  to  it  (1531 ;)  den^^ing  liber- 
ty of  conscience  to  the  inhabitants.  Hence,  a  war  arose  be- 
tween the  Cantons  of  the  tv/o  religions ;  v/hich,  however,  was 
terminated  the  same  year  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  guaranteeing  to 
such  parishes  within  the  bailiwicks  as  had  embraced  the  new 
doctrines,  the  liberty  of  still  adhering  to  them.  The  same  revo- 
lution extended  to  Geneva,  whose  inhabitants  had  declared  so- 
lemnly in  favour  of  the  reformed  worship,  and  erected  themselves 
into  a  free  and  independent  republic  (15IJ4.)  The  church  of 
Geneva,  under  the  direction  of  Calvin,  became  the  centre  and 
citadel  of  the  Reformation;  while  the  academy  founded  in  that 
city,  produced  a  vast  number  of  theologians  and  celebrated  scho 
iars.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  duke  of  Savoy  planned  the 
b!r>ckade  of  Geneva,  to  enforce  certain  ancient  rights  which  he 
c^.imed  over  that  city;  but  the  Bernese  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  Genevans,  in  virtue  of  the  treaties  of  common  citizenship 
which  subsisted  between  them.  This  Canton  having  entered 
into  alliance  with  Francis  I.,  declared  war  against  the  duke  of 
Savoy  (1538  ;)  and  in  less  than  three  months  took  from  him  the 
Pay?  de  Vaud.  Being  desirous  of  interesting  their  neighbours 
the  Friburgers  in  their  cause,  they  invited  them  to  take  posses- 
sion of  all  those  places  that  might  suit  their  convenience  ;  and 
it  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  city  of  Friburg  acquired  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  its  territory.  These  acquisitions  were  confirmed  to 
i.he  two  Cantons,  by  the  treaty  which  the  Bernese  concluded  at 
Liausanne  with  the  duke  of  Savoy  (1564.) 

The  German  Empire  from  time  to  time  renewed  its  preten- 


238 

sions  on  Switzerland,  and  the  Imperial  Chamber  usurped  an 
occasional  jurisdiction  over  one  or  other  of  the  Cantons.  Ne- 
gotiations for  a  general  peace  having  commenced  at  Munster 
and  Osnaburg,  the  thirteen  Cantons  sent  their  minister  or  envoy 
to  watch  over  the  interests  of  the  Helvetic  Body  at  that  congress  ; 
and  they  obtained,  through  the  intervention  of  France  and  Swe- 
den, that  in  one  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  it  should  be  decla- 
red, that  the  city  of  B:isle,  and  the  other  Swiss  Cantons,  were  in 
possession  of  full  liberty,  and  independent  of  the  Empire,  and 
in  no  respect  subject  to  its  tribunals. 

In  Italy,  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  which  had 
silently  dsclined  during  the  preceding  centuries,  languished 
more  and  more  under  the  long  and  feeble  reign  of  Frederic  III. 
At  length  it  was  reduced  to  the  mere  ceremony  of  coronation, 
and  the  simple  exercise  of  some  honorary  and  feudal  rights,  such 
as  the  investitures  which  the  Imperial  Court  continued  to  grant 
to  the  vassals  of  Lombardy.  Although  the  Imperial  dignity  im- 
plied the  royalty  of  Italy,  which  was  considered  as  indissolubly 
united  to  it,  nevertheless  it  was  the  custom  thai  the  Kings  of 
Germany  should  have  themselves  crowned  separately,  Kings  of 
Italy  at  Milan,  and  Emperors  at  Rome.  Frederic  III.,  having 
had  certain  reasons  for  avoiding  his  coronation  at  Milan,  received 
from  the  hands  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  in  his  own  capital,  the  two 
crowns  of  Italy  and  Rome.  Maximilian  L,  being  prevented  by 
the  Venetians  from  repairing  to  Italy  for  his  coronation  (1508,) 
was  content  to  take  the  title  of  Emperor  Elect,  Avhich  his  succes- 
sors in  the  Empire  have  retained  till  the  present  time.  Charles 
V.  was  the  last  Emperor  to  whom  the  Pope,  Clement  VII.,  ad- 
ministered this  double  coronation  of  King  of  Italy  and  Emperor, 
at  Bologna,  in  1530. 

The  Popes,  the  Kings  of  Naples,  the  Dukes  of  Milan,  and  the 
Republics  of  Venice  and  Florence,  were  the  principal  powers 
that  shared  among  them  the  dominion  of  Italy  towards  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  continual  wars  which  these  states 
waged  with  each  other,  added  to  the  weakness  of  the  German 
Emperors,  encouraged  foreign  powers  to  form  plans  of  aggran- 
dizement ^nd  conquest  over  these  countries.  The  Kings  of 
France,  Charles  VIIL,  Louis  XII.,  and  Francis  L,  led  away  by 
a  mania  for  conquest,  undertook  several  expeditions  into  Italy, 
for  enforcing  their  claims  either  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  or 
the  dutchy  of  Milan.  They  were  thwarted  in  their  schemes  by 
the  Kings  of  Spain,  who,  being  already  masters  of  Sicily  and 
Sardinia,  thought  it  behoved  them  also  to  extend  their  views  to 
the  Continent  of  Italy.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  deprived  the 
French  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  (1500.)  His  successor,  Charles 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  239 

v.,  expelled  them  from  the  Milanois,  and  obliged  Francis  L,  by 
ihe  treaties  of  Madrid  (1528,)  Cambray  (1529,)  and  Crepy 
'^154^1,)  to  give  up  his  pretensions  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  the  dutchy  of  Milan.  From  this  time  the  Spaniards  were 
the  predominating  power  in  Italy  for  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

In  the  midst  of  these  revolutions  there  arose  three  new  prin- 
cipalities within  that  kingdom ;  those  of  Florence,  Parma,  and 
Malta.  The  Republic  of  Florence  held  a  distinguished  rank  in 
Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century,  both  on  account  of  the  flour- 
ishing state  of  its  commerce,  and  the  large  extent  of  its  territory, 
which  comprehended  the  greater  part  of  Tuscany,  and  gave  to 
this  Republic  the  means  of  holding  the  balance  between  the 
other  powers  of  Italy.  The  opulent  family  of  the  Medici  here 
exercised  a  high  degree  of  influence ;  they  ruled  not  by  force 
but  by  their  munificence,  and  the  judicious  use  which  they  made 
of  their  great  riches.  The  credit  and  popularity  of  the  Medici, 
excited  envy  and  persecution  against  them,  and  caused  them  to 
be  several  times  banished  from  Florence.  They  were  expelled 
from  this  latter  place  at  the  same  time  that  Pope  Clement  VII., 
who  was  of  this  family,  was  besieged  by  the  Imperialists  in  Rome 
(1527.)  That  Pontiff,  in  making  his  peace  with  Charles  V.,  ob- 
tained his  consent  that  the  Medici  should  be  re-established  at 
Florence,  in  the  state  in  which  they  were  before  their  last  ban- 
ishment. The  Emperor  even  promised  the  Pope  to  give  Alex- 
der  de  Medici  his  natural  daughter  in  marriage,  with  a  consid- 
erable dowry.  The  Florentines,  however,  having  shown  some 
reluctance  to  receive  the  Medici,  their  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Imperial  arm)'-,  and  compelled  to  surrender  by  capitulation  (1530.) 

The  Emperor,  by  a  charter  dated  at  Augsburg  on  the  28th  of 
August  following,  preserved  to  the  city  of  Florence  its  ancient 
republican  forms.  Alexander  de  Medici  was  declared  governor- 
in-chief  of  the  state  ;  but  this  dignity  was  vested  in  himself  and 
his  male  descendants,  who  could  only  enjoy  it  according  to  the 
order  of  primogeniture.  He  was  authorized,  moreover,  to  con- 
struct a  citadel  at  Florence,  by  means  of  which  he  afterwards 
exercised  an  absolute  poAver  over  his  fellow-citizens.  As  for 
the  ducal  dignity  with  which  the  new  Prince  of  Florence  was 
vested,  it  properly  belonged  to  the  dutchy  of  Parma,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  which  the  Emperor  had  conferred  on  him. 

Alexander  de  Medici  did  not  long  enjoy  his  new  honours. 
He  was  universally  abhorred  for  his  cruelties,  and  assassinated 
by  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  one  of  his  own  near  relations  (1537.) 
His  successor  in  the  dutchy  was  Cosmo  de  Medici,  who  annexed 
to  the  territory  of  Florence  that  of  the  ancient  republic  of 
Sienna,  which  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  had  conquered,  and 


240  CHAPTER    VII. 

conferred  on  his  son  Philip  II.  in  name  of  the  Empire  (1554.) 
This  latter  prince  being  desirous  of  seducing  Cosmo  from  his 
alliance  with  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  France,  with  whom  the 
Spaniards  were  at  war,  granted  him  the  investiture  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Sienna,  as  a  mesne-tenure  holding  of  the  crown  of 
Spain,  by  way  of  equivalent  for  the  considerable  sums  which 
he  had  advanced  to  Charles  V.  while  he  was  carrying^  on  the 
siege^^  of  Sienna.  In  transferring  the  Siennois  to  the  Duke, 
Philip  reserved  for  himself  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  such  as 
Porto  Ercole,  Orbitello,  Telemone,  Monte-Argentaro,  St.  Ste- 
fano,  Longone,  Piombino,  and  the  whole  island  of  Elba,  with 
the  exception  of  Porto  Ferrajo.  By  the  same  treaty,  Cosmo 
engaged  to  furnish  supplies  to  the  Spaniards,  for  the  defence  of 
Milan  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

At  length  the  Medici  obtained  the  dignity  of  Grand  Dukes, 
on  occasion  of  the  difference  that  had  risen  between  them  and 
the  Dukes  of  Ferrara,  on  the  subject  of  precedency.  The  Pope 
terminated  this  dispute,  by  granting  to  Cosmo  the  title  of  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  with  the  royal  honours  (1569.)  The  Em- 
peror, however,  took  it  amiss  that  the  Pope  should  undertake  to 
confer  secular  dignities  in  Italy ;  thus  encroaching  on  a  right 
which  he  alleged  belonged  only  to  himself,  in  virtue  of  his 
being  King  of  Italy.  The  quarrels  which  this  affair  had  oc- 
casioned between  the  Court  of  Rome  and  the  Empire,  w^ere 
adjusted  in  1576,  when  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II.  granted  to 
Francis  de  Medici,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Cosmo,  the  dig- 
nit)^  of  Grand  Duke,  on  condition  that  he  should  acknowledge 
it  as  a  tenure  of  the  Empire,  and  not  of  the  Pope. 

Among  the  number  of  those  republics  which  the  Visconti  of 
Milan  had  subdued  and  overthrown  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
were  those  of  Parma  and  Placentia.  They  had  formed  a  de- 
pendency of  the  dutchy  of  Milan  until  1512,  when  Louis  XII., 
having  been  expelled  from  the  Milanois  by  the  Allies  of  the 
Holy  League,  these  cities  w^ere  surrendered  by  the  Swiss  to 
Pope  Julius  II.,  who  laid  some  claim  to  them,  as  making  part 
of  the  dowry  of  the  famous  Countess  Matilda.  The  Emperor 
Maximilian  ceded  them  to  the  Pope  by  the  treaty  of  peace  which 
he  made  with  him  in  1512.  Francis  I.  took  these  cities  again 
from  the  court  of  Rome,  when  he  reconquered  the  dutchy  of 
Milan  (1515  ;)  but  this  prince  having  also  been  expelled  from 
the  Milanois  (1521,)  the  Pope  again  got  possession  of  Parma 
and  Placentia,  in  virtue  of  the  treaty  which  he  had  concluded 
with  Charles  V.,  for  the  re-establi£;hment  of  Francis  Sforza  in 
the  dutchy  of  Milan.  These  cities  contiiiued  to  form  part  of 
the  Ecclesiastical  States  until  1545.  when  they  were  dismem- 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453— J  648.  241 

bered  from  it  by  Paul  III.,  who  erected  them  into  dutchies,  and 
conferred  them  on  his  son  Peter  Louis  Farnese,  and  his  heirs- 
male  in  the  order  of  primogeniture  ;  to  be  held  under  the  title 
of  fiefs  of  the  Holy  See,  and  on  condition  of  paying  an  annual 
tribute  of  nine  thousand  ducats. 

This  elevation  of  a  man  whose  very  birth  seemed  a  disgrace 
to  the  pontiff,  gave  universal  offence.  The  new  Duke  of  Parma 
soon  rendered  himself  so  odious  by  his  dissolute  life,  his  crimes 
and  scandalous  excesses,  that  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him  ;  and  he  was  assassinated  in  the  citadel  of  Placentia  in 
1547.  Ferdinand  Gonzaga,  who  was  implicated,  as  is  alleged  in 
this  assassination,  then  took  possession  of  Placentia  in  name  of 
the  Emperor ;  and  it  was  not  till  1557  that  Philip  II.  of  Spain  re- 
stored that  city,  with  its  dependencies,  to  Octavius  Farnese,  son 
and  successor  of  the  murdered  prince.  The  house  of  Farnese 
held  the  dutchy  of  Parma  as  a  fief  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States, 
until  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  in  1731. 

The  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  after  their  expulsion 
from  the  Holy  Land,  had  retired  to  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  and  from 
thence  to  Ehodes,  in  1310,  of  which  they  had  dispossessed  the 
Greeks.  They  did  not  maintain  possession  of  this  place  longer 
than  1523,  when  Soliman  the  Great  undertook  the  siege  of 
Rhodes,  with  an  army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  and  a 
fleet  of  four  hundred  sail.  The  Knights  boldly  repulsed  the 
different  attacks  of  the  Turks  ;  but  being  entirely  dependent 
on  then'  own  forces,  and  receiving  no  succour  from  the  powers 
of  Christendom,  they  were  compelled  to  capitulate,  after  an  ob- 
stinate defence  of  six  months.  Leaving  Rhodes,  these  Knights 
took  shelter  in  Viterbo,  belonging  to  the  States  of  the  Church, 
where  they  were  cordially  received  by  Pope  Clement  VII. 
There  they  remained  until  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  granted 
them  the  Isle  of  Malta,  which  became  their  principal  residence 
(1530.)  That  prince-  ceded  to  them  the  islands  of  Malta  and 
Gozzo,  with  the  city  of  Tripoli  in  Africa,  on  condition  of  hold- 
ing them  from  him  and  his  successors  in  the  kingdom  of  Sicily, 
as  noble  fiefs,  frank  and  free,  without  any  other  obligation  than 
the  annual  gift  of  a  falcon,  in  acknowledgment  of  their  hold-, 
ing  under  the  crown,  and  presenting  to  the  King  of  Sicily  three 
of  their  subjects,  of  whom  he  was  to  choose  one,  on  each  va- 
cancy of  the  bishopric  of  Malta.  Charles  V.  added  another 
clause,  that  if  ever  the  Order  shouhi  leave  Malta  and  fix  their 
residence  elsewhere,  that  island  should  revert  to  the  King  of 
Sicily.  The  Knights  of  St.  John  continued  in  the  sovereignty 
of  Malta  and  Gozzo  till  1798;  but  they  lost  TripoK,  in  1551, 
which  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Turks. 

VOL.  I.  21 


242  CHAPTER  VII. 

A  memorable  revolution  happened  at  Genoa,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century.  That  republic,  after  having  for  a 
long  time  formed  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  recovered  its  an- 
cient independence  about  the  time  when  the  French  and  Span* 
ards  disputed  the  sovereignty  of  Italy,  and  the  conquest  of  the 
Milan ois.  Expelled  by  the  Imperialists  from  the  city  of  Genoa 
in  1522,  the  French  had  found  means  to  repossess  it  (1527,)  with 
the  assistance  of  the  celebrated  Andrew  Doria,  a  noble  Genoese, 
who  had  been  in  the  service  of  Francis  I.  This  distinguished 
admiral,  supplanted  by  favourites,  and  maltreated  by  the  court, 
abandoned  the  cause  of  France  in  the  following  year,  and  es 
poused  that  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 

The  French  then  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Naples,  which  was 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  and  on  the  point  of  surrendering, 
when  Doria,  having  hoisted  the  Imperial  flag,  set  sail  for  Naple:-, 
with  the  galleys  under  his  command,  and  threw  abundance  of 
provisions  into  the  besieged  city.  The  French  army,  now  cut 
off  from  all  communication  by  sea,  soon  began  to  experience 
those  calamities  from  which  the  Imperialists  had  just  been  de- 
livered. Their  whole  troops  being  destroyed  by  famine  and  con- 
tagious disease,  the  expedition  to  Naples  fell  to  the  ground,  and  the 
affairs  of  the  French  in  Italy  were  totally  ruined.  It  is  alleged 
that  Charles  V.,  to  recompense  Doria  for  this  important  service, 
offered  him  the  sovereignty  of  Genoa ;  and  that,  instead  of  ac- 
cepting this  honour,  that  great  man  stipulated  for  the  liberty  of 
his  country,  whenever  it  should  be  delivered  from  tlie  yoke  of 
France.  Courting  the  glory  of  being  the  liberator  of  his  native 
city,  he  sailed  directly  for  Genoa,  of  which  he  made  himself 
master,  in  a  single  night,  without  shedding  one  drop  of  blood 
(1528.)  The  French  garrison  retired  to  the  citadel,  and  were 
obliged  to  capitulate  for  want  of  provisions. 

This  expedition  procured  Doria  the  title  of  Father  of  his 
Country,  which  was  conferred  on  him  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate. 
It  was  by  his  advice  that  a  committee  of  twelve  persons  was 
chosen  to  organize  a  new  scheme  of  government  for  the  republic. 
A  register  was  drawn  up  of  all  those  families  who  were  to  com- 
pose the  Grand  Council,  which  was  destined  to  exercise  the 
supreme  powder.  The  Doge  was  to  continue  in  office  ten  years  , 
and  great  care  was  taken  to  remove  those  causes  which  had  pre- 
viously excited  factions  and  intestine  disorders.  Hence  the 
establishment  of  the  Genoese  aristocracy,  whose  forms  have 
since  been  preserved,  with  some  few  modifications  which  were 
introduced  afterwards,  in  consequence  of  certain  dissensions 
which  had  arisen  between  the  ancient  and  the  new  nobility. 

Venice,  the  eldest  of  the  European  republics,  had  reached  the 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  243 

zenith  of  its  greatness  about  tlie  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  vast  extent  of  its  commerce,  supported  by  a  powerful  ma- 
rine, the  multiplied  sources  of  its  industry,  and  the  monopoly 
of  the  trade  in  the  East,  had  made  it  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  formidable  States  in  Europe.  Besides  several  ports  on 
the  Adriatic,  and  numerous  settlements  which  they  had  in  the 
Archipelago,  and  the  trading  towns  on  the  Levant,  they  gained 
ground  more  and  more  on  the  continent  of  Italy,  where  they 
formed  a  considerable  territory.  Guided  by  an  artful  and  en- 
terprising policy,  this  Republic  seized  with  marvellous  avidity 
every  circumstance  which  favoured  its  views  of  aggrandizement. 
On  the  occasion  of  their  quarrels  with  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  they 
obtained  possession  of  the  province  of  Polesino  de  Rovigo,  by  a 
treaty  which  they  concluded  with  that  prince  in  1484. 

Afterwards,  having  joined  the  League  which  the  powers  of 
Italy  had  opposed  to  Charles  VIII.  and  his  projects  of  conquest, 
they  refused  to  grant  supplies  to  the  King  of  Naples  for  the  re- 
covery of  his  kingdom,  except  by  his  consenting  to  yield  up 
the  cities  of  Trani,  Otranto,  Brindisi,  and  Gallipoli.  Louis  XIL, 
being  resolved  to  enforce  his  claims  on  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  and 
wishing  to  gain  over  this  Republic  to  his  interest,  gave  up  to 
them,  by  the  treaty  of  Blois  (1499,)  the  town  of  Cremona,  and 
the  whole  country  lying  between  the  Oglio,  the  Adda,  and  the 
Po.  On  the  death  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  (1503,)  they  took 
that  favourable  opportunity  of  wresting  from  the  Ecclesiastical 
States  several  towns  of  Romagna  ;  among  others,  Rimini  and 
Faenza. 

Of  all  the  acquisitions  wdiich  the  Venetians  made,  the  most 
important  was  that  of  Cyprus.  That  island,  one  of  the  most 
considerable  in  the  Mediterranean,  had  been  conquered  from  the 
Greeks  by  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  King  of  England,  who  sur- 
rendered it  to  Guy  of  Lusignan  (1192,)  the  last  king  of  Jeru- 
salem, in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  his  kingdom.  From  Guy 
of  Lusignan  descended  a  long  line  of  Cypriot  kings  ;  the  last  of 
whom,  John  III.,  left  an  only  daughter,  named  Charlotte,  w^ho 
succeeded  him  in  that  kingdom,  and  caused  her  husband,  Louis 
of  Savoy,  to  be  also  crowned  king.  There  still  remained  a  Das- 
tard son  of  John  III.,  called  James,  who  was  protected  by  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  to  whom  the  kings  of  Cyprus  were  tributaries, 
and  who  succeeded  in  expelling  Charlotte  and  her  husband,  the 
Prince  of  Savoy,  from  the  throne  (1460.)  James,  who  was  de- 
sirous of  putting  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Venetians, 
married  Catherine  Cornaro,  daughter  of  Marco  Corneille,  a  pa- 
trician of  Venice.  The  Senate,  in  honour  of  this  marriage, 
adopted  Catherine,  and  declared  her  daughter  of  St.  Mark,  or 


244  CHAPTER  VII. 

the  Republic.  James  died  in  1473,  leaving  a  posthumous  son, 
who  died  also  in  the  second  year  of  his  age.  The  Republic 
then  considering  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  as  their  own  inherit- 
ance, took  possession  of  the  natural  children  of  James,  and 
induced  Queen  Catherine,  by  various  means,  to  retire  to  Venice, 
and  there  to  resign  her  crown  into  the  hands  of  the  Senate,  who 
assigned  her  a  pension,  with  the  Castle  of  Azolo,  in  Trevisano, 
for  her  residence ;  and  obtained  for  them&eh'es  the  investiture 
of  that  island  from  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (1490.) 

A  career  so  prosperous  was  eventually  followed  by  a  reverse 
of  fortune ;  and  several  circumstances  concurred  to  accelerate 
the  decline  of  this  flourishing  republic.  They  received  a  ter- 
rible blow  by  the  discovery  of  the  new  passage  to  India  round 
the  Cape,  which  deprived  them  of  the  commerce  of  the  East ; 
thus  drying  up  the  principal  source  of  their  wealth,  as  well  as 
of  their  revenue  and  their  marine.  In  vain  did  they  put  in 
practice  all  the  arts  of  their  policy  to  defeat  the  commercial  en- 
terprises of  the  Portuguese  in  India  ;  exciting  against  them,  first 
the  Sultans  of  Egypt,  and  afterwards  the  Turkish  Em.perors, 
and  furnishing  these  Mahometan  powers  with  supplies.  The 
acti^qty  of  the  Portuguese  surmounted  all  these  obstacles.  They 
obtained  a  firm  settlement  in  the  East,  where  in  course  of  time 
they  became  a  very  formidable  power.  Lisbon,  in  place  of 
Venice,  became  the  emporium  for  the  productions  of  India  ;  and 
the  Venetians  could  no  longer  compete  with  them  in  this  field  of 
Eastern  commerce.  Besides,  the  good  fortune  which  so  long 
attended  the  undertakings  of  the  republic,  had  inspired  them 
with  a  passion  for  conquest.  They  took  ever}^  opportunity  of 
making  encroachments  on  their  neighbours  ;  and  sometimes  for- 
getting the  counsels  of  prudence,  they  drew  down  upon  them- 
selves the  jealousy  and  resentment  of  the  principal  States  of  Italy. 

To  this  jealousy  must  be  attributed  the  famous  League,  which 
Pope  Julius  II.,  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  Louis  XII.,  Ferdinand 
of  Spain,  and  several  of  the  Italian  States,  concluded  at  Cam- 
bray  (1508,)  for  the  partition  of  the  Venetian  territory  on  Terra 
Firma.  Louis  XII.  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  republi- 
cans near  Agnadello,  which  Avas  followed  by  such  a  rapid  suc- 
cession of  conquests,  that  the  Senate  of  Venice  were  struck  with 
consternation ;  and  the  Republic  must  have  been  infallibly  lost, 
had  Louis  been  supported  by  his  allies.  But  the  Pope  and  the 
King  of  Spain,  who  dreaded  the  preponderance  of  the  French 
in  Italy,  suddenly  abandoned  the  League,  and  concluded  sepa- 
rate treaties  of  peace  with  the  republicans ;  nor  was  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  long  in  following  their  example.  In  consequence  of 
this,  the  Venetians,  after  having  been  menaced  with  a  total 


FERioD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  245 

overthrov/,  lost  only,  in  course  of  the  war,  the  territory  of  Cre- 
mona and  Ghiera  d'Adda,  with  the  cities  and  ports  of  Eomagna 
and  Apulia.  But  this  loss  was  far  surpassed  by  that  which  they 
experienced  in  their  finances,  their  commerce  and  manufactures, 
on  account  of  the  expensive  efforts  which  they  were  obliged  to 
make  in  resisting  their  numerous  enemies. 

The  ruin  of  this  Republic  was  at  length  completed  by  the 
prodigious  increase  of  the  power  of  the  Ottomans,  who  took  from 
them,  by  degrees,  their  best  possessions  in  the  Archipelago  and 
the  Mediterranean.  Dragged  as  it  were  in  spite  of  themselves, 
into  the  war  of  Charles  V.  against  the  Turks,  they  lost  four- 
teen islands  in  the  Archipelago ;  among  others  Chios,  Patmos, 
JEgina,  Nio,  Stampalia,  and  Paros ;  and  were  obliged,  by  the 
peace  of  Constantinople  (1540,)  to  surrender  to  the  Turks  Mal- 
vasia  and  Napoli  di  Romagna,  the  only  two  places  which  re- 
mained to  them  in  the  Morea. 

The  Turks  also  took  from  them  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  the  finest 
of  their  possessions  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Sultan  Selim 
II.,  being  determined  to  conquer  that  place,  attacked  it  with  a 
superior  force  (1570,)  although  the  Venetians  had  given  him  no 
gi'ound  for  hostilities.  He  made  himself  master  of  the  cities  of 
Nicosia  and  Famagasta ;  and  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
whole  island,  before  the  succours  which  the  King  of  Spain  and 
the  Pope  had  granted  to  the  Venetians,  could  join  their  fleet. 
On  the  approach  of  the  Christian  army,  the  Turkish  fleet  re- 
tired within  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  where  they  were  attacked  by 
the  allies  under  the  command  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  a  natural 
son  of  Charles  V.  The  Christians  gained  a  complete  victory 
(1571.)  The  whole  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  the  Con- 
federates took  immense  booty.  The  news  of  this  defeat  struck 
terror  into  the  city  of  Constantinople,  and  made  the  Grand  Sig- 
nior  transfer  his  court  to  Adrianople.  The  Christians,  however, 
reaped  no  advantage  from  iheir  victory.  A  misunderstanding 
arose  among  the  Confederates,  and  their  fleets  dispersed  without 
accomplishing  any  thing.  The  Venetians  did  not  return  to  the 
isle  of  Cyprus  ;  and  knowing  well  that  they  could  not  reckon  on 
any  effectual  aid  on  the  part  of  their  allies,  they  determined  to 
make  peace  with  the  Turks  (1573.)  By  this  treaty  they  left 
the  Porte  in  possession  of  Cj^rus,  and  consented  to  pay  it  a  sum 
of  300,000  ducats,  to  obtain  the  restitution  of  their  ancient 
boundaries  in  Dalmatia.  From  this  epoch,  the  republic  of 
Venice  dates  its  entire  decay.  It  was  evident,  that  it  must 
thenceforth  resign  its  pretensions  as  a  leading  power,  and  adopt 
a  system  of  neutrality  which  might  put  it  in  condition  to  main- 
tain peace  with  its  neighbours. 

21  # 


246  CHAPTER  vn. 

England,  as  we  have  mentioned  above,  had  been  the  rival  of 
France,  while  the  latter  now  became  the  rival  of  Austria.  This 
rivalry  commenced  with  the  marriage  of  Maximilian  of  Austria, 
to  Mary,  daughter  anu  heiress  of  Charles,  last  Duke  of  Burgun- 
dy ;  by  which  the  house  of  Austria  succeeded  to  the  whole  do- 
minions of  that  Prince.  The  Low  Countries,  which  at  that 
time  were  the  principal  emporium  for  the  manufactures  and  com- 
merce of  Europe,  formed  a  part  of  that  opulent  succession. 
Louis  XL,  King  of  France,  was  unable  to  prevent  the  marriage 
of  the  Austrian  Prince  with  the  heiress  of  Burgundy ;  but  he 
took  advantage  of  that  event  to  detach  from  the  territories  of 
that  princess  whatever  he  found  convenient.  He  seized  on  the 
dutchy  of  Burgundy  as  a  vacant  fief  of  his  crown,  as  well  as  the 
seigniories  of  Auxerrois,  Maconnois,  Bar-sur-Seine,  and  the 
towns  on  the  Somme ;  and  these  different  countries  were  pre- 
served to  France  by  the  treaties  of  peace  concluded  at  Arras 
(1482)  and  Senlis  (1493.)  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  rivaliy 
and  bloody  wars  between  France  and  Austria.  The  theatre  of 
hostilities,  Avhich,  under  Louis  XL  had  been  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, was  transferred  to  Italy,  under  Charles  VIII.,  Louis  XII., 
and  Francis  I.  From  thence  it  was  changed  to  Germany,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II. 

In  Italy,  besides  this  rivalry  between  the  two  powers,  there 
was  another  motive,  or  pretext,  for  vvar,  viz.  the  claims  of  France 
on  the  kingdom  of  Naples  and  the  dutchy  of  Milan.  The  claim 
of  Louis  XI.  on  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  had  devolved  to  him 
with  the  county  of  Provence,  which  he  inherited  in  virtue  of  the 
will  of  Charles,  Count  of  Provence,  and  the  last  male  descen- 
dant of  the  house  of  Anjou  (1431.)  Charles  VIII.,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Louis  XL,  urged  on  by  youthful  ambition,  was  de- 
termined to  enforce  this  claim,  He  undertook  an  expedition 
into  Italy  (1494,)  and  took  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
without  striking  a  blow.  But  being  opposed  by  a  formidable 
confederacy  of  the  Italian  princes,  with  Maximilian  at  their  head, 
he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  conquests  with  the  same  facility 
he  had  made  them  ;  and  he  was  fortunate  in  being  able  to  effect 
his  retreat,  by  the  famous  victory  which  he  gained  over  the  al- 
lies near  Foronuovo,  in  the  dutchj^  of  Parma. 

The  claim  to  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  was  founded  on  the  con- 
tract of  marriage  between  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  grandfa- 
ther of  Louis  XII.,  and  Valentine  of  Milan.  That  contract  pro- 
vided, that  failing  heirs-male  of  John  Galeas,  Duke  of  Milan, 
the  dutchy  should  fall  to  Valentine,  and  the  children  of  her 
marriage  with  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Louis  XII.  claimed  the 
rights  of  Valentine,  his  grandmother,  in  opposition  to  the  princes 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  247 

of  the  family  of  Sforza,  who  had  taken  possession  of  the 
dutchy  of  Milan,  on  the  extinction  of  the  male-heirs  of  the 
Visconti,  ^vhich  happened  in  1447.  The  different  expeditions' 
v/hich  he  undertook  into  Italy,  both  for  the  conquest  of  Milan 
and  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  met  with  no  better  success  than 
that  of  his  predecessor  had  done ;  in  consequence  of  a  nevv 
League,  called  the  Holy  League^  which  Pope  Julius  II.  raised 
against  him,  and  into  v/hich  he  drew  the  Emperor  Maximilia7\» 
the  Kings  of  Arragon  and  England,  with  the  Venetians  and  the 
Swiss.  Louis  XII.  lost  all  the  advantages  of  his  conquests. 
The  kingdom  of  Naples  fell  under  the  power  of  Ferdinand  thiA 
Catholic,  and  the  family  of  Sforza  were  reinstated  in  the  dutchy 
of  IMilan. 

These  Italian  wars,  which  were  renewed  at  different  times 
under  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  cost  France  much  blood  and  im- 
mense sums.  In  this  struggle  she  was  forced  to  succum.b,  and 
Francis  I.  bound  himself,  by  the  treaty  of  Crepy,  to  abandon  his 
claims  on  Italy  in  favour  of  Charles  V.  The  kingdom  of  Na- 
ples and  the  dutchy  of  Milan  remained  incorporated  with  the 
Spanish  monarchies.  Francis  I.,  nevertheless,  had  the  glory  of 
arresting  the  progress  of  his  rival,  and  effectually  counterbalan- 
cing a  power  which,  at  that  time,  made  all  Europe  tremble. 

Henry  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Francis  I.,  adopted  a  ne^v 
line  of  policy.  He  attacked  the  House  of  Austria,  in  Germany ; 
having  entered  into  a  league  with  Maurice,  Elec*^or  of  Saxony, 
and  the  Protestant  princes  of  the  Empire,  to  oppose  Charles  V. 
That  league,  Avhich  was  ratified  at  Chambord  (1552,)  procured 
for  Henry  IL  possession  of  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and 
Verdun  ;  and  he  even  succeeded  in  forcing  the  Emperor  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Metz,  vv-hich  that  prince  had  undertaken  about  the 
end  of  the  year  1552.  A  truce  of  five  years  was  agreed  on  be- 
tween these  two  sovereigns  at  Vaucelles  ;  but,  in  the  course  of 
a  few  months,  the  war  was  renewed,  and  Philip  II.,  who  had 
succeeded  his  father,  Charles  V.,  induced  his  queen,  Mary' of 
England,  to  join  in  it.  Among  the  events  of  this  war,  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  victory  of  St.  Quentin,  gained  by  the  Span- 
iards (1557,)  and  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Calais,' by  Francis, 
Dake  of  Guise  ;  the  last  possession  of  the  English  in  France 
(155S.)  The  death  of  Queen  Mary  prepared  the  way  for  a 
peace,  which  was  signed  at  Chateau-Cambresis  (1559,)  between 
France,  England,  and  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  obtained 
there  the  restitution  of  his  estates,  of  which  Francis  I.  had  de- 
prived him  in  1536.     Calais  remained  annexed  to  France. 

A  series  of  wars,  both  civil  and  religious,  broke  out  under  the 
feeble  reigns  of  the  three  sons  and  successors  of  Henry  II.    The 


248  CHAPTER  VII. 

great  influence  of  the  Guises,  and  the  factions  whicli  distracted 
the  court  and  the  state,  were  the  true  source  of  hostilities,  though 
religion  was  made  the  pretext.  Francis  II.  having  espoused 
Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland,  the  whole  power  and  authority 
of  the  government  passed  into  the  hands  of  Francis,  Duke  of 
Guise,  and  the  Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  his  brother,  who  were  the 
queen's  maternal  uncles.  The  power  which  these  noblemen  en- 
joyed excited  the  jealousy  of  Anthony,  King  of  Navarre,  and 
his  brother  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde,  who  imagined  that  the  pre- 
cedency  in  this  respect  was  due  to  them  as  princes  of  the  blood, 
in  preference  to  the  Lorraine  family,  who  might  be  considered 
as  strangers  in  France.  The  former  being  Calvinists,  and 
having  enlisted  all  the  leaders  of  that  party  in  their  cause,  it  was 
not  difficult  for  the  Lorraine  princes  to  secure  the  interest  of  all 
the  most  zealous  Catholics. 

The  first  spark  that  kindled  these  civil  wars,  was  the  conspi- 
racy of  Amboise.  The  intention  of  the  conspirators  was  to 
seize  the  Guises,  to  bring  them  to  trial,  and  throw  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs  into  the  hands  of  the  princes  of  the  blood.  The 
conspiracy  having  been  discovered,  the  prince  of  Conde,  who 
"was  suspected  of  being  at  its  head,  was  arrested ;  and  he  would 
have  been  executed,  had  not  the  premature  death  of  Francis  II. 
happened  in  the  meantime.  The  queen-mother,  Catherine  de 
Medici,  who  was  intrusted  with  the  regency  during  the  m^inority 
of  Charles  IX.,  and  desirous 'of  holding  the  balance  between  the 
two  parties,  set  Conde  at  liberty,  and  granted  the  Calvinists  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion,  in  the  suburbs  and  parts  lying 
out  of  the  to\vns.  This  famous  edict  (January  1-562)  occasion- 
ed the  first  civil  war,  the  signal  of  which  was  the  massacre  of 
Vassy  in  Champagne. 

Of  these  wars,  there  have  been  commonly  reckoned  eight 
under  the  family  of  Valois,  viz.  four  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX., 
and  four  in  that  of  Henry  III.  The  fourth,  under  Charles  IX., 
began  with  the  famous  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  authorized 
and  directed  by  the  King  (1572.) 

It  is  of  some  importance  to  notice  here  the  Edict  of  Pacifica- 
tion  of  Henry  III.,  of  the  month  of  May  1576.  The  new  pri- 
vileges whicli  this  edict  granted  to  the  Calvinists,  encouraged 
the  Guises  to  form  a  league  this  same  year,  ostensibly  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Catholic  religion,  but  whose  real  object  was 
the  dethronement  of  the  reigning  dynasty,  and  the  elevation  of 
the  Guises.  The  Duke  of  Alen9on,  only  brother  of  Henry  III., 
being  dead,  and  the  King  of  Navarre,  who  professed  the  Cal- 
vinistic  faith,  having  become  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown,  the 
chiefs  of  the  Catholic  League  no  longer  made  a  secret  of  their 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  249 

measures.  They  concluded  a  formal  alliance  ( 15S4,)  with  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  for  excluding  the  Bourbons  from  the  throne  of 
France.  Henry  III.  was  obliged,  by  the  Leaguers,  to  recom- 
mence the  war  against  the  Calvinists ;  but  perceiving  that  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  and  the  Cardinal  his  brother,  took  every  occa- 
sion to  render  his  government  odious,  he  caused  them  both  to  be 
assassinated  at  Blois  (15SS,)  and  threw  himself  on  the  protec- 
tion of  the  King  of  Navarre.  In  ccajunction  with  that  Prince, 
he  undertook  the  siege  of  Paris,  dur  ng  which  he  was  himself 
assassinated  at  St.  Cloud,  by  a  Jaco  jin  of  the  name  of  James 
Clement  (15S9.) 

The  d^masty  of  Valois  ended  vv'ith  Henry  III.,  after  having 
occupied  the  throne  for  two  hundred  and  sixty-one  years.  Under 
this  dynasty  the  royal  authority  had  gained  considerably,  both 
by  the  annexation  of  the  great  tiefs  to  the  crown-lands,  and  by 
the  introduction  of  regular  armies,  which  put  an  end  to  the  feu- 
dal power.  Louis  XI.  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  bringing  the 
gi-andees  under  subjection,  and  putting  an  end  to  the  cruelties 
and  oppressions  of  anarchy.  If  these  changes,  however,  contri- 
buted to  public  order,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  national 
liberty  suffered  by  them  ;  that  the  royal  authority  daily  received 
new  augmentations ;  and  that,  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Louis  XII., 
it  was  considered  as  high  treason  to  speak  of  the  necessity  of 
assemblmg  the  States-General.  The  practice  of  these  assemblies, 
however,  was  renewed  under  the  successors  of  that  prince  ;  they 
even  became  frequent  under  the  last  kings  of  the  house  of  Valois, 
who  convoked  them  chiefly  with  the  view  of  demanding  supplies. 
Francis  I.  augmented  his  influence  over  the  clergy  by  the  con- 
cordat w^hich  he  concluded  with  Leo  X.  (1516,)  in  virtue  of 
which  he  obtained  the  nomination  to  all  vacant  prelatures  ;  leav- 
ing to  the  Pope  the  confirmation  of  the  prelates,  and  the  liberty 
of  receiving  the  annats. 

The  race  of  Valois  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Bourbons,  who 
were  descended  from  Robert  Count  of  Clermont,  younger  son  of 
St.  Louis.  Henry  IV.,  the  first  king  of  this  dynasty,  Avas  related 
in  the  twenty-first  degree  to  Henry  III.,  his  immediate  predeces- 
sor. That  prince,  who  was  a  Calvinist,  the  more  easily  reduced 
the  party  of  the  League,  by  publicly  abjuring  his  religion  at  St. 
Denis.  He  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Spaniards,  who  were 
allies  of  the  League,  at  Vervins ;  and  completely  tranquillized 
the  kingdom  by  the  famous  edict  of  Nantes,  which  he  published 
in  ftivour  of  the  reformed  religion.  By  that  edict  he  guaranteed 
to  the  Protestants  perfect  liberty  of  conscience,  and  the  public 
exercise  of  their  worship,  with  the  privilege  of  filling  all  offices 
of  trust :  but  he  rendered  them,  at  the  sam^e  time,  a  pieoe  of  dis- 


260  CHAPTER  VII. 

service,  by  granting  them  forfeited  places,  under  the  name  of  places 
of  security.  By  thus  fostering  a  spirit  of  party  and  intestine 
faction,  he  furnished  a  plausible  pretext  to  their  adversaries  for 
gradually  undermining  the  edict,  and  finally  proscribing  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  reformed  religion  in  France. 

That  great  prince,  after  having  established  the  tranquillity  of 
his  kingdom  at  home  and  abroad,  encouraged  arts  and  manufac- 
tures, and  put  the  administration  of  his  finances  into  admirable 
order,  was  assassinated  b\'' Ravaillac  (1610,)  at  the  very  moment 
when  he  was  employed  in  executing  the  grand  scheme  which  he 
had  projected  for  the  pacification  of  Europe.  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
when  he  assumed  the  reins  of  government  under  Louis  XIII. , 
had  nothing  so  much  at  heart  as  the  expulsion  of  the  Calvinists 
from  their  strongholds.  This  he  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
three  wars  which  he  waged  against  them,  and  by  the  famous 
siege  of  Rochelle,  which  he  reduced  in  1628.  That  great  states- 
man next  employed  his  policy  against  the  house  of  Austria,  whose 
preponderance  gave  umbrage  to  all  Europe.  He  took  the  op- 
portunity of  the  vacant  succession  of  Mantua  to  espouse  the  cause 
of  the  Duke  of  Nevers  against  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and  Mad- 
rid, who  supported  the  Duke  of  Guastalla ;  and  maintained  his 
protege  in  the  dutchy  of  Mantua,  by  the  treaties  of  peace  which 
were  concluded  at  Ratisbon  and  Querasque  (1631.)  Having 
afterwards  joined  Sweden,  he  made  war  against  the  two  branches 
of  Austria,  and  on  this  occasion  got  possession  of  the  places  which 
the  Swedes  had  seized  in  Alsace.  ' 

Louis  XIV.  was  only  four  years  and  seven  months  old  when 
he  succeeded  his  father  (1643.)  The  queen-mother,  Anne  of 
Austria,  assumed  the  regency.  She  appointed  Cardinal  Ma- 
zarin  her  prime  minister,  whose  administration,  during  the 
minority  of  the  King,  was  a  scene  of  turbulence  and  distrac- 
tion. The  same  external  policy  which  had  directed  the  minis- 
try of  RicheHeu,  was  followed  by  his  successor.  He  prose- 
cuted the  war  against  Austria  with  vigour,  in  conjunction  with 
Sweden,  and  their  confederates  in  Germany.  By  the  peace 
which  was  concluded  w4th  the  Emperor  at  Munster,  besides 
the  three  bishoprics  of  Lorraine,  France  obtained  the  Land- 
graviate  of  Lower  and  Upper  Alsace,  Sungaw,  and  the  pre- 
fecture of  the  ten  Imperial  cities  of  Alsace.  Spain  was  ex- 
cluded from  this  treaty  ;  and  the  war  continued  between  that 
kingdom  and  France  until  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  by  which 
the  counties  of  Roussillon  and  Conflans  were  ceded  to  France, 
as  well  as  several  cities  in  Flanders,  Hainault,  and  Luxembourg. 
Spain,  which  had  long  been  divided  into  several  States,  and 
1  stranger  as  it  were  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  became  all  of  a  sud- 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  251 

den  a  formidable  power,  turning  the  political  balance  in  her  owu 
favour.  This  elevation  was  the  work  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
a  prince  born  for  great  exploits  ;  of  a  profound  and  fertile  genius , 
but  tarnishing  his  bright  qualities  by  perfidy  and  unbounded 
ambition.  He  was  heir  to  the  throne  of  Arragon,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  greatness  by  his  marriage  with  Isabella 
(1469,)  sister  to  Henry  VI.  last  King  of  Castillo.  That  match 
united  the  kingdoms  of  Castillo  and  Arragon,  which  were  the 
two  principal  Christian  States  in  Spain.  Henry  of  Castillo  had 
left  a  daughter,  named  Jane,  but  she  being  considered  as  illegi- 
timate by  the  Castillians,  the  throne  was  conferred  on  Isabella 
and  her  husband  Ferdinand  (1474.)  The  Infanta  Jane,  in  order 
to -enforce  her  claims,  betrothed  herself  to  Alphonso  V.  King  of 
Portugal ;  but  that  prince  being  defeated  by  Ferdinand  at  the 
battle  of  Toro  (1476,)  was  obhged  to  renounce  Castillo  and  his 
marriage  with  the  Infanta. 

At  the  accession  of  Isabella  to  the  throne  of  Castille,  that 
kingdom  was  a  prey  to  all  the  miseries  of  anarchy.  The  abuses 
of  the  feudal  system  were  there  maintained  by  violence  and  in- 
justice. Ferdinand  demolished  the  fortresses  of  the  nobles  who 
infested  the  country ;  he  gave  new  vigour  to  the  laws  ;  liberated 
the  people  from  the  oppression  of  the  great ;  and,  under  pretence 
of  extirpating  the  Jews  and  Mahometans,  he  established  the 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  (1478,)  which  spread  universal  terror 
by  its  unheard  of  cruelties.  Torquemada,  a  Dominican,  who 
was  appointed  grand  Inquisitor  (1483,)  burnt  in  the  space  of  four 
years  near  6000  individuals. 

The  Moors  still  retained  the  kingdom  of  Grenada.  Ferdinand 
took  advantage  of  their  dissensions  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  it, 
in  which  he  succeeded,  after  a  vigorous  war  of  eighteen  years. 
Abo  Abdeli,  the  last  King  of  Grenada,  fled  to  Africa.  An  edict, 
which  was  published  immediately  after,  ordered  the  expul- 
sion of  all  the  Jews  ;  about  an  hundred  thousand  of  whom  fled 
from  Spain,  and  took  shelter,  some  in  Portugal,  and  others  in 
Africa.  Ferdinand  did  not  include  the  Moors  in  this  proscrip- 
tion, whom  he  thought  to  gain  over  to  Christianity  by  means  of 
persecution ;  but  having  revolted  in  the  year  1500,  he  then  al- 
lowed them  to  emigrate.  It  was  this  blind  and  headlong  zeal 
that  procured  Ferdinand  the  title  of  the  Catholic  King,  which 
Pope  Alexander  III.  conferred  on  bim  and  his  successors  (1493.) 
That  prince  also  augmented  his  power  by  annexing  to  his  crown 
the  Grand  Mastership  of  the  Military  Orders  of  Calatrava,  Al- 
cantara, and  St.  James  of  Compostella. 

Every  thing  conspired  to  aggrandize  Ferdinand  ;  and  as  if  the 
Old  World  had  not  been  sufficient,  a  New  one  was  opened  to 


252 


CHAPTER   VII. 


mm  by  the  discovery  of  America.  He  was  heir,  by  the  father's 
side,  to  the  kingdoms  of  Arragon,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia.  He 
got  possession  of  Castillo  by  his  marriage,  and  of  Grenada  by 
force  of  arms ;  so  that  nothing  was  wanting  except  Navarre  to 
unite  all  Spain  under  his  dominion.  The  H0I3'  League,  which 
Pope  Julias  11.  had  organized  against  Louis  XIL  (1511,)  fur- 
nished him  with  a  pretext  for  seizing  that  kingdom.  Entering 
into  an  alliance  with  the  Pope,  he  concerted  with  the  King  of 
England  to  invade  Guienne,  on  which  the  English  had  some 
ancient  claims.  They  demanded  of  the  King  of  Navarre  that 
he  should  make  common  cause  with  the  allies  of  the  Holy 
League  against  Louis  XII.  That  prince,  hovv'ever,  wishing  to 
preserve  neutrality,  they  prescribed  conditions  so  severe,  that  he 
had  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  seek  protection  in  France. 
Ferdinand  then  obtained  possession  of  all  that  part  of  Navarre 
which  lay  beyond  the  Pj^renees.  Twelve  years  before  that  time 
Ferdinand  had,  by  the  treaty  of  Grenada,  planned  with  Louis 
XII.  the  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Frederic  of  Ar- 
ragon was  then  deprived  of  that  kingdom,  and  his  States  Avere 
divided  between  the  two  allied  kings  ;  but  Ferdinand  having 
soon  quarrelled  with  Louis  XII.  as  to  their  respective  boundaries, 
this  was  made  a  pretext  for  expelling  the  French  from  Naples, 
which  v/as  again  united  to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  in  the  years 
1503  and  1505. 

Charles  I.  of  Austria,  grandson  of  Ferdinand,  and  his  succes- 
sor in  the  Spanish  monarchy,  added  to  that  crown  the  Low 
Countries  and  Franche-Comte,  which  he  inherited  in  right  of 
his  father  Philip  of  Austria,  and  his  grandmother  Mary  of  Bur- 
gundy. He  added  likewise  the  kingdoms  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
on  the  continent  of  America,  and  the  dutchy  of  Milan  in  Italy, 
in  which  he  invested  his  son  Philip,  after  having  repeatedly  ex- 
pelled the  French  in  the  years  1522  and  1525. 

These  were  all  the  advantages  he  derived  from  his  wars 
against  Francis  I.,  which  occupied  the  greater  part  of  his 
reign.  Blinded  by  his  animosit)^  against  that  Prince,  and  by  his 
ruling  passion  for  war,  he  only  exhausted  his  kingdom,  and  im- 
paired his  true  greatness.  Charles  resigned  the  Spanish  mo- 
narchy to  his  son  Philip  II.,  which  then  comprehended  the  Low 
Countries,  the  kingdoms  of  Naples,  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  the 
dutchy  of  Milan,  and  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America.  The 
peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis,  which  Philip  II.  signed  in  1559, 
after  a  long  war  against  France,  may  be  regarded  as  the  era  of 
Spanish  greatness.  To  the  states  which  were  left  him  by  his 
father,  Philip  added  the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  with  the  Portu- 
guese possessions  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  America ;  but  this vas  the 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  253 

termination  of  his  prosperity.  His  reign  after  that  was  only  a 
succession  of  misfortunes.  His  revolting-  despotism  excited  the 
Belgians  to  insurrection,  and  gave  birth  to  the  republic  of  the 
United  Provinces.  Elizabeth  of  England  having  joined  with 
the  Confederates  of  the  Low  Countries,  Philip,  out  of  revenge, 
equipped  a  formidable  fleet,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Imnnci' 
hie  Armada^  which  was  composed  of  ISO  vessels  of  enormous 
size,  manned  with  20,000  soldiers,  exclusive  of  sailors,  and  arm- 
ed with  1330  pieces  of  cannon.  On  entering  the  Channel  they 
were  defeated  by  the  English  (21st  of  July  1588,)  and  the  greater 
part  of  them  destroyed  by  a  storm. 

From  this  calamity  may  be  dated  the  decline  of  the  Spair'sh 
monarch}^,  which  was  exhausted  liy  its  expensive  wars.  Phi.ip, 
at  his  death,  left  an  enormous  debt,  and  the  whole  glory  of  the 
Spanish  nation  perished  with  him.  The  reigns  of  his  feeble 
successors  are  only  remarkable  for  their  disasters.  Philip  III. 
did  irreparable  injury  to  his  crown  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors 
or  Morescoes  (1610,)  which  lost  Spain  nearly  a  million  of  her 
industrious  subjects.  Nothing  can  equal  the  misfortunes  which 
she  experienced  under  the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  During  the  war 
which  he  had  to  support  against  France,  the  Catalans  revolted, 
and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  that  Crown  (1640.) 
Encouraged  by  their  example,  the  Portuguese  likewise  shook 
olf  the  yoke,  and  replaced  the  House  of  Braganza  on  their 
throne.  Lastly,  the  IVeapolitans,  harassed  by  the  Duke  d'Oli- 
varez,  prime  minister  of  Philip  IV.  revolted,  and  attempted  to 
form  themselves  into  a  republic  (1647.)  These  reverses  on  the 
part  of  Spain  added  to  the  number  of  her  enemies.  The  famous 
Cromwell  having  entered  into  an  alliance  with  France  (1655,) 
dispossessed  the  Spaniards  of  Jamaica,  one  of  their  richest  set- 
tlements in  America. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Portugal  had  reach- 
ed a  high  pitch  of  elevation,  which  she  ow^ed  to  the  astonishing 
progress  of  her  navigation  and  her  commerce.  John  II.,  whose 
fleets  first  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  augmented  the  royal 
authority,  by  humbling  the  exorbitant  and  tyrannical  power  of 
the  grandees.  In  the  diet  which  was  assembled  at  Evora,  he 
retracted  the  concessions  which  his  predecessors  had  made  to 
the  nobles,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Crown.  He  abolished  the 
power  of  life  and  death,  which  the  lords  exercised  over  their 
vassals,  and  subjected  their  towns  and  their  territories  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  officers  appointed  by  the  King.  The  nobles,  who 
were  displeased  at  these  innovations,  having  combined  in  de- 
fence of  their  privileges,  and  chosen  the  Duke  of  Braganza  for 
their  leader,  John,  without  being  disconcerted  by  this  opnosition 

VOL.  I.  22 


254  •  CHAPTER  VII. 

had  the  Duke  brought  to  a  trial,  and  his  head  cut  off,  while  his 
brother  Avas  hanged  in  effigy.  This  example  of  severity  intirai- 
dated  the  grandees,  and  made  them  submit  to  his  authority. 
The  most  brilliant  era  of  Portugal  was  that  of  Emmanuel  and 
John  III.,  who  reigned  between  the  years  1495  and  1557.  It 
was  under  these  two  Princes  that  the  Portuguese  formed  their 
powerful  empire  in  India,  of  which  nothing  now  remains  but 
the  ruins. 

The  glory  of  Portugal  suffered  an  eclipse  under  the  feeble 
reign  of  SelDastian,  grandson  and  immediate  successor  of  John. 
That  Prince,  who  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  three  ^^ears, 
had  been  brought  up  by  the  Jesuits,  who  instead  of  instructing 
him  in  the  important  arts  of  government,  had  given  him  the 
education  of  a  monk.  They  had  inspired  him  with  a  dislike 
for  matrimony,  but  with  a  decided  attachment  for  the  crusades. 
Muley  Mahomet,  King  of  Morocco,  having  requested  his  assist- 
ance against  his  uncle  Moluc,  who  had  dethroned  him,  Sebas- 
tian undertook  an  expedition  into  Africa  in  person,  carrying  with 
him  the  flower  of  his  nobility.  A  bloody  battle  was  fought  near 
Alcacar,  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez  (1578,)  where  the  Portuguese 
sustained  a  complete  defeat.  Sebastian  was  slain ;  and,  what  is 
sufficiently  remarkable,  his  enemy  Moluc  died  a  natural  death 
during  the  action,  while  Muley  Mahomet  was  drowned  in  the 
flight. 

[During  the  reign  of  this  king,  every  thing  had  fallen  into 
decay  :  even  the  character  of  the  nation  had  begun  to  degenerate. 
The  spirit  of  chivalry  which  had  distinguished  them,  was  ex- 
changed for  mercantile  adventures,  which  even  infected  the 
higher  classes ;  while  avarice,  luxury,  and  effeminacy,  brought 
on  a  universal  corruption.  The  governors  of  their  colonies  in- 
dulged in  all  sorts  of  violence  and  injustice.  They  seized  the 
more  lucrative  branches  of  commerce.  The  military  force, 
which  Emmanuel  and  John  III.  had  kept  up  in  India,  vvas 
neglected.  The  clergy  usurped  the  whole  wealth  of  the  colo- 
nies, and  exercised  an  absolute  power  by  means  of  the  Inquisition, 
which  was  no  where  more  terrible  than  at  Goa.] 

As  Sebastian  had  never  been  married,  the  throne  passed  at 
his  death  to  Henry  the  Cardinal,  his  grand  uncle  by  the  lather's 
side,  who  was  already  far  advanced  in  life.  Perceiving  his  end 
approach,  and  that  his  death  would  involve  the  kingdom  in  con- 
fusion, he  summoned  an  assembly  of  the  States  at  Lisbon  (1579,) 
in  order  to  fix  the  succession.  The  States  appointed  eleven 
commissioners,  v^dlo  were  to  investigate  the  claims  of  the  diffe- 
rent candidates  for  the  crown.  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who  was  one 
of  this  number,  did  not  pay  the  least  regard  to  the  decisioa  of 


TERioD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  255 

the  Slates.  IN  o  sooner  had  he  learned  the  death  of  Henry  ( 1580,) 
than  he  sent  the  Duke  of  Alva,  at  the  head  of  an  army,  to  take 
possession  of  Portugal.  The  Duke  defeated  the  troops  of  his 
opponent,  Anthony  prior  of  Crato,  one  of  the  claimants,  who 
had  proclaimed  himself  king ;  pretending  that  he  was  the  legiti- 
mate son  of  the  Infant  Don  Louis,  son  of  Emmanuel.  Anthony 
had  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  take  shelter  in  France,  and 
the  whole  of  Portugal  yielded  to  the  yoke  of  the  Spaniards. 

An  inveterate  antipathy,  however,  subsisted  between  the  two 
nations,  which  made  the  Portuguese  detest  their  Spanish  mas- 
ters. This  hatred  was  still  more  increased,  on  account  of  the 
losses  which  the  Portuguese  sustained,  in  the  meantime,  in  their 
commerce  and  possessions  in  the  East  Indies.  The  lucrative 
traffic  which  the  Confederates  in  the  Low  Countries,  called  the 
Dutch,  carried  on  by  importing  the  merchandise  of  the  East 
from  Portugal,  and  hawking  them  over  the  north  of  Europe, 
having  enabled  them  to  support  the  war  against  Spain,  Philip  II. 
thought  to  strike  a  fatal  blow  at  their  prosperity,  by  forbidding 
them  all  commerce  with  Portugal. 

That  Prince,  however,  was  deceived  in  his  expectation.  The 
Confederates,  deprived  of  this  lucrative  branch  of  their  industry, 
and  after  having  made  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to  find  a 
north-west  passage  to  India,  took  the  resolution  of  sailing  directly 
thither  (1595,)  under  the  conduct  of  Cornelius  Houtman  and 
Molinaar,  in  order  to  seek,  at  the  fountain-head,  those  commodi- 
ties which  were  refused  them  in  Portugal.  No  sooner  had  they 
attempted  to  form  settlements  in  India  than  the  Portuguese  de- 
termined to  prevent  them,  and  fought  with  them,  near  Bantam, 
a  town  in  Java,  a  naval  battle,  which  ended  in  favour  of  the 
Confederates. 

Encouraged  by  this  first  success,  the  Dutch  undertook  to  de- 
prive the  Portuguese  of  their  principal  possessions  in  India. 
The  conquest  which  they  made  of  the  Moluccas,  procured  them 
the  spice  trade.  They  likewise  formed  settlements  in  the  island 
of  Java,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Batavia,  which  became 
the  capital  and  emporium  of  their  settlements  in  India.  At 
length  Goa  and  Diu  were  the  only  places  that  remained  to  the 
Portuguese  of  their  numerous  possessions  in  India.  These  im- 
portant losses  greatly  exasperated  the  Portuguese  against  the 
Spaniards.  What  added  still  more  to  their  resentment  was, 
that  in  the  court  of  Madrid  they  saw  a  premeditated  design  to 
make  vassals  of  the  Portuguese ;  and  to  cut  off  the  most  likely 
means  of  enabling  them,  sooner  or  later,  to  recover  their  ancient 
independence.  It  was  with  this  view  that  their  army  and  their 
marine  were  disorganized,  their  crown  revenues  dissipated,  their 


256 


CHAPTER  VII. 


nobility  prerluded  from  the  management  of  affairs,  and  th<^  na- 
tion exliaa-sied  by  exorbitant  assessments. 

The  revolt  of  the  Catalans,  which  happened  in  1640,  at  length 
determined  the  Portuguese  to  shake  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  A 
conspiracy  was  entered  into  b}^  some  of  the  grandees,  in  concert 
with  the  Duke  of  Braganza,  which  broke  out  on  the  1st  Decem- 
ber that  same  year.  On  that  day,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  conspirators,  to  the  number  of  about  four  hundred,  re- 
paired by  different  routes  to  the  palace  of  Lisbon,  where  the 
vice-queen,  Margaret  of  Savoy,  and  dowager  of  Mantua,  resided, 
with  Vasconcellos  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  exercised  the 
functions  of  Prime  Minister  of  the  kingdom.  Part  of  them  dis- 
armed the  guard  bf  the  palace,  while  others  seized  Vasconcel- 
los, Avho  was  the  only  victim  that  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  public 
vengeance.  They  secured  the  pe?son  of  the  vice-queen,  and 
took  measures  to  protect  her  from  insult  or  violence.  The  con- 
spirators then  proclaimed  the  Duke  of  Braganza  King,  under 
the  title  of  John  IV.  That  prince  arrived  at  Lisbon  on  the  6th 
of  December,  and  his  inauguration  took  place  on  the  15tli.  It 
is  not  a  little  surprising  that  this  revolution  became  general  in 
eight  days  time,  and  that  it  was  not  confined  merely  to  Portugal, 
but  extended  even  to  India  and  Africa.  Every  where  the  Por- 
tuguese expelled  the  Spaniards,  and  proclaimed  the  Duke  of 
Braganza,  The  city  of  Geuta  in  Africa,  was  the  only  town  of 
which  the  Spaniards  found  means  to  retain  possession. 

John  IV.  was  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  Alphonso,  na- 
tural son  of  John  the  Bastard,  who  v/as  created  Duke  of  Bra- 
ganza. The  first  care  of  this  new  King  of  Portugal,  on  his  ac- 
cession to  the  throne,  was  to  convene  an  assembly  of  the  States 
at  Lisbon,  in  order  to  make  them  acknowledge  his  right  to  *he 
crown.  The  States,  conformably  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
kingdom,  dedared  that  Catherine,  daughter  of  the  infant  Dun 
Edward,  and  grandmother  of  King  John,  having  become  the 
true  and  legitimate  heiress  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Henry 
the  Cardinal,  her  grandson  John  IV.  was  entitled  to  the  repos- 
session of  those  rights  of  which  that  princess  had  been  unjustly 
deprived  by  the  Spaniards.  The  better  to  establish  himself  on 
the  throne,  John  concluded  treaties  of  peace  with  France,  the 
United  Provinces,  the  Netherlands,  and  Sweden  ;  but  confming 
his  whole  ambition  to  maintaining  the  ancient  limits  of  the  king- 
dom, he  remained  completely  inactive  with  regard  to  Snain, 
which,  being  overpowered  by  numerous  enemies,  was  quite  in- 
capable of  carrying  on  the  war  with  vigour  against  Portugal 
The  truce  and  alliance  \vhich  that  Prince  had  entered  into  with 
the  Dutch,  did  not  prevent  these  republicans  from  continuing 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  ]f453"-1648.  257 

their  conquests  in  India ;  where,  in  process  of  time,  they  strip- 
ped the  Portuguese  of  their  finest  settlements. 

England,  long  before  this  time,  had  emerged  from  the  state  of 
turbulence  and  desolation  into  which  she  had  been  plunged  by 
the  destructive  wars  of  the  two  Roses.  A  new  family,  that  of 
the  Tudors,  had  mounted  the  throne;  Henry  VII.,  who  was  its 
founder,  claimed  the  crown  in  right  of  his  mother  Margaret 
Beaufort,  alleged  heiress  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  or  the  Red 
Rose ;  and  raised  an  insurrection  against  Richard  III.,  the  last 
King  of  the  House  of  York.  This  prince  being  defeated  and 
slain  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  (1485,)  Henry,  who  was  then 
proclaimed  King  of  England,  united  the  titles  or  claims  of  the 
two  Roses,  by  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  and  heiress  of  York,  or  the  White  Rose.  The  country  be- 
ing thus  restored  to  tranquillity  after  thirty  years  of  civil  war, 
every  thing  assumed  a  more  prosperous  appearance.  AgTicul- 
ture  and  commerce  began  to  flourish  anew.  Henry  applied 
himself  to  the  restoration  of  order  and  industry.  He  humbled 
the  factious  nobles,  and  raised  the  royal  authority  almost  to  a 
state  of  absolute  despotism. 

The  reformatiom  of  rehgion  in  England  began  in  the  reign  of 
his  son  Henry  VIII.  That  Prince,  who  was  of  a  very  capricious 
character,  vacillating  continually  between  virtue  and  vice,  ap- 
peared at  first  as  the  champion  of  Popery,  and  published  a  treatise 
against  Luther,  which  procured  him,  from  the  Court  of  Rome, 
the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  But  a  violent  passion,  which 
he  had  conceived  for  Anne  Boleyn,  having  induced  him  to  attempt 
a  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Arragon,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  tha 
Catholic,  he  addressed  himself  for  this  purpose  to  Pope  Clement 
VII.,  alleging  certain  scruples  of  conscience  which  he  felt  on  ac- 
count of  his  marriage  with  Catherine,  who  was  within  the  de- 
grees of  affinity,  prohibited  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  The  Pope 
iDeing  afraid  to  displease  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who  was  the 
nephew  of  Catherine,  thought  proper  to  defer  judgment  in  this 
matter ;  but  the  King,  impatient  of  delay,  caused  his  divorce  to 
be  pronounced  by  Thomas  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1532,)  and  immediately  married  Anne  Boleyn, 

The  sentence  of  the  Archbishop  was  annulled  b}^  the  Pope, 
who  published  a  threatening  bull  against  Henry.  This  incensed 
the  King,  who  caused  the  Papal  authority  in  England  to  be  abro- 
gated by  the  Parliament,  and  installed  himself  in  the  capacity  of 
supreme  head  of  the  English  Church  (1534  ;)  a  title  which  was 
conferred  on  him  by  the  clergy,  and  confirmed  by  the  Parliament. 
He  also  introduced  the  oath  of  supremacy,  in  virtue  of  which  all 
who  were  employed  in  offices  of  trust,  were  obliged  to  acknow- 

22^ 


253  CHAPTER  VII. 

ledge  him  as  head  of  the  Church.  A  court  of  High  Commission 
was  established,  to  judge  ecclesiastical  causes  in  name  of  the 
king,  and  from  whose  sentence  there  was  iio  appeal.  The  con- 
vents or  monasteries  w^ere  suppressed,  and  their  revenues  confis- 
cated to  the  crown  (1536-1539.)  Hemy*even  became  a  dogma- 
list  in  theolog}^ ;  and  discarding  the  principles  of  Luther,  as  well 
as  those  of  Calvin  and  Rome,  he  framed  a  religion  according  to 
his  own  fancy.  Rejecting  the  worship  of  im.ages,  relics,  purga- 
tory, monastic  vows,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  he  gave  his 
sanction,  by  the  law  of  the  Six  Articles,  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
real  presence,  the  communion  in  one  kind,  the  vow  of  chastity, 
the  celibacy  of  the  priests,  the  mass,  and  auricular  confession : 
inflicting  very  severe  penalties  on  all  who  should  deny  or  disobey 
one  or  other  of  these  articles. 

This  monarch,  w^ho  was  the  first  of  the  English  kings  that 
took  the  title  of  King  of  Ireland  (1542,)  w^as  involved  in  the  dis- 
putes which  then  embroiled  the  Continental  powers  ;  but  instead 
of  holding  the  balance  between  France  and  Austria,  he  adhered 
in  general  to  his  friend  and  ally  Charles  V.  against  France. 
This  conduct  was  regulated  less  by  politics  than  by  passion,  and 
the  personal  interest  of  his  minister  Cardinal  Wolsey,  whom  the 
Emperor  had  attached  to  his  cause,  by  the  hope  of  the  papal  tiara. 

The  religi'^n  w^hich  Henry  had  planted  in  England,  did  not 
continue  after  his  death.  Edv/ard  VI.,  his  son  and  immediate 
successor,  introduced  pure  Calvinism  or  Presbyterianism. 
Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Catherine  of  Arragon,  on 
her  accession  to  the  throne,  restored  the  Catholic  religion  (1553,) 
and  likewise  received  the  new  legate  of  the  Pope  into  England. 
She  iiPiflicted  great  cruelties  on  the  Protestants,  many  of  whom, 
were  burnt  at  the  stake ;  among  others,  Cranmer,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  the  Bishops  of  London  and  Worcester. 
With  the  view  of  more  firmly  establishing  the  Catholic  religion 
in  her  dominions,  she  espoused  Philip,  presumptive  heir  to  the 
Spanish  monarchy  (1554.)  The  restrictions  with  which  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  fettered  his  contract  of  marriage  with  the  Queen, 
so  displeased  that  prince,  that,  finding  himself  without  power  or 
authority,  he  speedily  w^ithdrew  from  England.  Mary's  reign 
lasted  only  five  years :  she  was  succeeded  by  her  sister  Eliza- 
beth (1558,)  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Anne  Boleyn.  This 
princess  once  more  abrogated  the  authority  of  the  iPope,  and 
claimed  to  herself  the  supreme  administration,  both  spiritual 
and  temporal,  within  her  kingdom.  Though  she  adopted  the 
Calvmistic  principles  in  every  thing  regarding  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church,  she  retained  many  of  the  Romish  ceremonies,  and 
the  government  of  Bishops.     It  was  this  that  gave  rise  to  the 


PEPioD  VI,     A.  D.  1453 — 1643.  259 

distinction  between  the  English  or  High  Church,  and  the  Cal- 
vanistic  or  Presbyterian. 

About  the  time  when  the  High  Church  par'y  rose  in  England, 
a  change  of  religion  took  place  in  Scotland,  protected  by  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  regency  of  that  kingdom  was  then  vested  in 
the  Queen-dowager,  Mary  of  Lorraine,  the  widow  of  James  V,, 
and  mother  of  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland  and  France. 
That  princess,  who  v/as  guided  solely  by  the  councils  of  her 
brothers  of  Lorraine,  had  introduced  a  body  of  French  troops  U-> 
repress  the  follov/ers  of  the  new  doctrines,  who  had  formed  a 
new  league,  under  the  name  of  the  Congregatio7i.  These,  re- 
inforced by  the  Catholic  malecontents,  who  were  apprehensive 
of  falling  under  a  foreign  yoke,  took  the  resolution  of  applying 
for  assistance  to  the  English  Queen,  which  it  was  by  no  means 
difficult  to  obtain.  Elizabeth  readily  foresaw,  that  so  soon  as 
Francis  became  master  of  Scotland,  he  would  attempt  to  enforce 
Mary's  claims  to  the  throne  of  England,  grounded  partly  on  the 
assumption  of  her  being  illegitimate.  A  considerable  number  of 
English  troops  were  then  marched  to  Scotland,  and  having 
formed  a  junction  with  the  Scottish  malecontents,  they  besieged 
the  French  in  the  town  of  Leith,  near  Edinburgh.  The  latter 
were  soon  obliged  to  capitulate.  By  the  articles  signed  at  Leith 
(1560,)  the  French  and  English  troops  were  to  evacuate  Scot- 
land ;  Francis  IL  King  of  France,  and  his  wife  Mary  Stuart, 
were  to  renounce  the  titles  and  arms  of  the  sovereigns  of  Eng- 
land, which  they  had  assumed ;  while  a  Parliament  was  to  be 
assembled  at  Edinburgh  for  the  pacification  of  the  kingdom. 

The  parliament  which  met  soon  after,  ratified  the  Confession 
of  Faith,  drawn  up  and  presented  by  the  Presbyterian  ministers. 
The  Presbyterian  worship  was  introduced  into  Scotland ;  and 
the  parliament  even  went  so  far  as  to  prohibit  the  exercise 
of  the  Catholic  religion.  Mary  Stuart,  on  her  return  to  Scot- 
land (1561,)  after  the  death  of  her  husband  Francis,  was  obliged 
to  acquiesce  in  all  these  changes  ;  and  it  was  with  difficulty  she 
was  allowed  the  liberty  of  having  a  Catholic  chapel  attached  to 
her  court.  This  unfortunate  princess  was  afterwards  accused 
of  having  caused  the  assassination  of  Henry  Darnley,  her  se- 
cond husband  ;  and  being  obliged  to  fly  the  country,  she  took 
shelter  in  England  (156S,)  where  she  was  arrested  and  impri- 
soned by  order  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  After  a  captivity  of  nine- 
teen years  she  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  beheaded  (ISth  Feb. 
15S7,)  as  an  accomplice  in  the  different  plots  which  had  been 
formed  against  the  life  of  her  royal  relative. 

The  troubles  which  the  reformation  of  religion  had  excited  in 
Scotland,  extended  also  to  Ireland.     A  kind  of  corrupt  feudal 


260  CHAPTER  VII. 

system  had  prevailed  originally  in  that  island,  which  Henry  II. 
had  not  been  able  to  extirpate.  The  English  proprietors,  who 
were  vassals  of  the  cro\\Ti,  and  governed  by  the  laws  of  Eng- 
land, possessed  nearly  one-third  of  the  whole  country ;  while 
:he  rest  of  the  island  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Irish  proprietors, 
who,  although  they  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  Eng- 
lish kings,  preserved  nevertheless  the  language  and  manners  of 
iheir  native  land ;  and  were  inclined  to  seize  every  opportunity 
of  shaking  off  the  English  yoke,  which  they  detested.  Hence, 
a  continued  series  of  wars  and  feuds,  both  among  the  Irish 
them-selves,  and  against  the  English,  who  on  their  part  had  no 
other  object  than  to  extend  their  possessions  at  the  expense  of 
the  natives.  The  kings  of  England,  guided  by  an  injudicious 
policy,  for  several  centuries  exhausted  their  resources  in  perpetual 
wars^  sometimes  against  France,  sometimes  against  Scotland, 
and  sometimes  against  their  own  subjects,  without  paying  the 
least  attention  to  Ireland,  of  which  they  appear  to  have  kno^\^l 
neither  the  importance  nor  the  effectual  advantages  which  they 
might  have  reaped  from  it  by  means  of  a  wise  administration. 
Th°e  progress  of  agriculture  and  industry  became  thus  completely 
impracticable;  a  deep-rooted  hatred  was  established  between 
the  islanders  and  the  English,  who  in  fact  seemed  two  distinct 
nations,  enemies  of  each  other,  and  forming  no  alliances  either 
by  marriage  or  reciprocal  intercourse. 

The  resentment  of  the  Irish  against  the  English  government 
was  aggravated  still  more,  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  by 
the  vigorous  measures  that  were  taken,  subsequently  to  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII. ,  to  extend  to  Ireland  the  laws  framed  in  Eng- 
land against  the  court  of  Rome  and  the  Catholic  clergy.  A 
general  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1596,) 
the  chief  instigator  of  which  was  Hugh  O'Neal,  head  of  a  clan 
in  the  province  of  Ulster,  and  Earl  of  Tyrone.  Having  gained 
over  the  whole  Irish  Catholics  to  his  cause,  he  planned  an  ex-' 
tensive  conspiracy,  with  the  design  of  effecting  the  entire  expul- 
sion of  the  English  from  the  island.  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain, 
supplied  the  insurgents  with  troops  and  ammunition  ;  and  Pope 
Clement  VIII.  held  out  ample  indulgences  in  favour  of  those 
who  should  enlist  under  the  banners  of  O'Neal,  to  combat  the 
English  heretics.  This  insurgent  chief  met  at  first  with  con- 
siderable success  ;  he  defeated  the  English  in  a  pitched  battle, 
and  maintained  his  ground  against  the  Earl  of  Essex,  whom 
Elizabeth  had  despatched  to  the  island  with  a  formidable  army. 
The  rebels,  however,  ultimately  failed  in  their  enterprise,  after 
a  sanguinary  war  which  lasted  seven  years.  Charles,  Lord 
Mountjoy,  governor  of  Ireland,  drove  the  insurgents  to  their  las* 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  261 

recesses,  and  had  the  glory  of  achieving  the  entire  reduction  oi 
the  island.  ^ 

The  maritime  greatness  of  England  began  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  That  Princess  gave  new  vigour  to  industry  and 
commerce  ;  and  her  efforts  were  seconded  by  the  persecuting 
zeal  of  the  French  and  Spanish  governm.ents.  The  numerous 
refugees  from  France  and  the  Netherlands,  found  a  ready  asy- 
lum in  England,  under  the  protection  of  Elizabeth  ;  and  her 
kingdom  became,  as  it  were,  the  retreat  and  principal  residence 
of  their  arts  and  manufactures.  She  encouraged  and  protected 
navigation,  which  the  English,  by  degrees,  extended  to  all  parts 
of  the  globe.  An  Englishman,  named  Richard  Chancellor, 
having  discovered  the  route  to  Archangel  in  the  Icy  Sea  (1555,) 
the  Czar,  John  Basilowitz  II.,  granted  to  an  English  company 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  with  Russia  (1569.)  The 
commerce  of  the  English  with  Turkey  and  the  Levant,  which 
began  in  1579,  was  likewise  monopolized  by  a  Company  of  mer- 
chants. Francis  Drake,  a  distinguished  navigator,  and  the  rival 
of  Magellan,  was  the  first  Englishman  that  performed  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  between  1577  and  15S0.  The  intercourse  be- 
tween England  and  the  East  Indies  began  in  1591  ;  and  the 
East  India  Company  was  instituted  in  1600.  Attempts  were 
also  made,  about  the  same  time,  to  form  settlements  in  North 
America  ;  and  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had  obtained  a  charter  from 
the  Queen  (15S4,)  endeavoured  to  found  a  colony  in  that  part 
of  the  American  Continent,  now  called  Virginia,  in  compliment 
to  Elizabeth.  That  colony,  however,  did  not,  properly  speak- 
ing, take  root  or  flourish  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  compe- 
tition with  Spain,  and  the  destruction  of  the  In\'incible  Armada 
of  Philip  II.,  by  the  combined  fleets  of  England  and  Holland, 
gave  a  new  energj"  to  the  English  marine,  the  value  of  Avhich 
they  had  learned  to  appreciate,  not  merely  in  guarding  the  in- 
dependence of  the  kingdom,  but  4n  securing  the  prosperity  of 
their  commerce  and  navigation. 

The  House  of  Tudor  ended  in  Queen  Elizabeth  (1603,)  after 
having  occupied  the  throne  of  England  about  a  hundred  and 
eighteen  years.  It  was  replaced  by  that  of  the  Stuarts.  James 
VI.,  King  of  Scotland,  son  of  Mary  Stuart,  and  Henry  Darnley, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  and  took  the  title  of  King  of 
Great  Britain,  which  his  successors  still  retain.  This  prince  de- 
rived his  right  to  the  crown,  from  the  marriage  of  his  gi'eat  grand- 
mother, Margaret  Tudor,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  with  James 
IV.  of  Scotland.  Vain  of  his  new  elevation,  and  fond  of  pre- 
rogative, James  constantly  occupied  himself  with  projects  for 
augmenting  his  royal  power  and  authority  in  England  ;  and  by 


262 


CHAPTER  VII. 


instilling  these  principles  into  his  son,  he  became  the  true  archi- 
tect of  all  the  subsequent  misfortunes  of  his  house. 

Charles  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  James,  seldom  convened 
the  Parliament ;  and  when  they  did  assemble,  he  provoked  them 
by  the  measures  he  proposed,  and  was  then  obliged  to  dissolve 
them.  Being  entirely  guided  by  his  ministers  Laud,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  Earl-s  of  Strafford  and  Hamilton,  and 
his  Queen,  Henrietta  of  France,  he  ventured  to  levy  taxes  and 
impositions  without  the  advice  of  Parliament.  This  conduct 
on  the  part  of  the  King  produced  a  general  discontent.  The 
flames  of  civil  war  began  to  kindle  in  Scotland,  where  Charles 
had  introduced  Episcopacy,  as  more  favourable  than  Presbyte- 
rianism  to  royalty.  But  the  Scottish  nobility,  having  formed  a 
confederac^r,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Covenant,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  their  ecclesiastical  liberties,  abolished  Episcopacy 
(1638,)  and  subsequently  took  up  arms  against  the  King.  The 
Parliament  of  England,  under  such  circumstances,  rose  also 
against  Charles  (1641,)  and  passed  an  act  that  they  should  not 
be  dissolved  without  previously  obtaining  redress  for  the  com- 
plaints of  the  nation.  This  act,  which  deprived  the  King  of  his 
principal  prerogative,  proved  fatal  to  the  royal  dignity.  A  trial 
was  instituted  by  the  Parliament  against  the  King's  ministers. 
The  Earl  of  Strafford  and  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  were 
beheaded ;  and  Charles  had  the  weakness  to  sign  the  death-war- 
rant of  his  faithful  servants. 

The  Presbyterians  soon  became  the  prevailing  party,  and  ex- 
cluded the  Bishops  from  the  Upper  House.  The  management 
of  affairs  fell  then  into  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Commons  ; 
Episcopacy  was  abolished  ;  and  the  Parliament  of  England  ac- 
ceded to  the  Scottish  Covenant.  War  now  broke  out  between 
the  King  and  the  Parliament ;  a  battle  was  fought  near  York, 
m  which  the  latter  was  victorious  (1644.)  Charles,  seeing  his 
affairs  ruined,  took  the  determination  to  throw  himself  into  the 
arms  of  the  Scots  (1646,)  who,  he  supposed,  might  still  retain 
an  affection  for  the  race  of  their  ancient  Kings.  He  soon  found 
reason,  however,  to  repent  of  this  step  ;  the  Scots  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  sell  him  to  the  English  Parliament  for  a  sum  of  £400,000, 
Sterling,  which  they  found  necessary  for  the  payment  of  their 
troops. 

A  new  revolution,  w^hich  soon  after  happened  in  the  Parlia- 
ment, completed  the  ruin  of  the  King.  The  Presbyterians,  or 
Puritans,  who  had  suppressed  the  Episcopalians,  were  crushed, 
in  their  turn,  by  the  Independents.  These  latter  were  a  sort  of 
fanatics,  who  admitted  no  subordination  whatever  in  the  Church, 
entertained  a  perfect  horror  for  royalty,  and  were  inclined  for  a 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  263 

republican  or  democratic  form  of  government.  The  head  and 
soul  of  this  faction  was  the  famous  Oliver  Cromwell,  who,  with 
great  dexterity,  made  it  an  engine  for  raising  himself  to  the 
sovereign  authority.  The  whole  power  of  the  Legislature  fell 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Independent  party ;  who,  by  one 
act,  expelled  sixty  members  from  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
Parlian^ent,  now  completely  under  their  dominion,  appointed  a 
commission  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  persons,  whom  they  vested 
with  power  to  try  the  King.  In  vain  did  the  Upper  House 
oppose  this  resolution;  in  vain  did  the  King  object  to  the  Judges 
named  by  the  House  ;  the  commission  proceeded,  and  pronounced 
the  famous  sentence,  by  virtue  of  which  Charles  was  beheaded 
on  the  30th  of  January  1649.  His  family  were  dispersed,  and 
saved  themselves  by  flight. 

The  revolutions  in  the  North  of  Europe,  about  the  period  of 
which  we  now  speak,  were  nol,  less  important  than  those  which 
agitated  the  West  and  the  South.  These  arose  chiefly  from 
the  dissolution  of  the  Union  of  Calmar,  and  the  reformation  in. 
religion  ;  both  of  which  happened  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  Union  of  Calmar,  between  the  three 
kingdoms  of  the  North,  had  been  renewed  several  times ;  but, 
being  badly  cemented  from  the  first,  it  was  at  length  irreparably 
broken  by  Sweden.  This  latter  kingdom  had  been  distracted 
by  intestine  feuds,  occasioned  by  the  ambition  and  jealousy  of 
the  nobles,  which  continued  during  the  whole  reign  of  CiiHr^es 
VIII.,  of  the  House  of  Bonde.  After  the  death  of  that  Prii:u:e 
(1470,)  the  Swedes,  without  renouncing  the  Union,  had  regu- 
larly appointed  as  administrators  of  the  kingdom,  from  the  year 
1471  till  1520,  three  individuals  of  the  family  of  Sture,  viz. 
Steno  Sture,  called  the  Old,  Suante  Sture  and  Steno  Sture, 
called  the  Young. 

Meantime,  John,  King  of  Denmark,  and  son  of  Christian  I., 
had  governed  the  three  kingdoms  since  1497,  when  Steno  Sture 
the  elder  had  resigned,  until  1501,  when  he  resumed  the  admin- 
istration. At  length,  however.  Christian  II.,  son  of  John,  made 
war  on  Steno  Sture,  surnamed  the  Young,  with  a  view  to 
enforce  the  claims  which  he  derived  from  the  act  of  union. 
Being  victorious  at  the  battle  of  Bogesund,  where  Sture  lost 
his  life,  he  succeeded  in  making  himself  acknowledged  by  the 
Swedes  as  king,  and  was  crowned  at  Stockholm  (1520.)  Within 
a  short  time  after  this  ceremony,  he  violated  the  amnesty  which 
he  had  publicly  announced  ;  and  to  gratify  the  revenge  of  Gusta- 
vus  TroUe,  Archbishop  of  Upsal,  whom  the  Swedes  had  deposed, 
he  caused  ninety-four  of  the  most  distinguished  personages  in  the 
kingdom  to  be  arrested,  and  publicly  l>eheaded  at  Stockholm. 


264  CHAPTER  VII. 

This  massacre  caused  a  revolution,  by  which  Sweden  recover- 
ed its  ancient  state  of  independence.  Gustavus  Vasa  put  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  Dalecarlians,  ambiiious  to  become  the 
liberator  of  his  country  (1521.)  He  was  declared  Eegent,  and 
two  years  after,  King-  of  Sweden.  The  example  of  the  Swedes 
was  soon  followed  by  the  Danes,  who,  indigriant  at  the  excest:es 
and  cruelties  of  Christian  II.,  deposed  him,  and  conferred  their 
crown  on  Frederic,  Duke  of  Holstein,  and  paternal  uncle  to  that 
prince.  Christian,  after  having  long  wandered  about  the  Low 
Countries,  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Danes,  and  remained  in 
captivity  the  res-t  of  his  days.  The  Kings  of  Denmark  having 
renewed,  from  time  to  time,  their  pretensions  to  the  Swedish 
throne,  and  still  continued  t'le  three  crowns  on  their  escutcheon, 
several  wars  broke  out  on  this  subject  between  the  two  nations ; 
and  it  was  not  till  the  peace  of  Stettin  (1570,)  that  the  Danes 
acknowledged  the  entire  independence  of  Sweden. 

Denmark  then  lost  the  ascendency  which  she  had  so  long 
maintained  in  the  North.  The  government  of  the  kingdom  un- 
derwent a  radical  change.  A  corrupt  aristocracy  rose  on  the 
ruins  of  the  national  liberty.  The  senate,  composed  wholly  of 
the  nobles,  usurped  all  authority ;  they  overruled  the  election  of 
the  kings,  and  appropriated  to  themselves  the  powers  of  the 
States-General,  which  they  had  not  convoked  since  1536  ;  they 
encroached  even  on  the  royal  authority,  w^hich  was  curtailed 
more  and  more  every  day  ;  while  the  prerogatives  of  the  nobility 
were  extended  by  the  conditions  which  the  Senate  prescribed  to 
the  kings  on  their  accession  to  the  crown.  The  reformation  of 
religion  took  place  in  Denmark,  in  the  reign  of  Frederic  I.,  the 
successor  of  Christian  11.  That  prince  employed  an  eloquent 
preacher,  named  John  Tausen,  and  several  other  disciples  of 
Luther,  to  promulgate  the  Protestant  doctrines  in  his  kingdom. 
In  a  diet  held  at  Odensee  (1527,)  the  King  made  a  public  pro- 
fession of  the  new  faith ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of 
the  bishops,  he  passed  a  decree,  in  virtue  of  which,  liberty  of 
conscience  was  established,  and  permission  granted  to  the  priests 
and  monks  to  marry.  These  articles  were  renev*'ed  in  another 
diet,  assembled  at  Copenhagen  (1530;)  where  the  King  ratified 
the  Confession  of  Faith  presented  to  him  hj  the  Protestant  min- 
iate.-s,  similar  to  what  had  taken  place  the  same  year  at  the  diet 
of  Augsburg. 

At  length  Christian  III.  who  was  elected  in  1534,  brought 
these  changes  in  religion  to  a  close.  The  bishops,  during  the 
last  interregnum,  had  done  every  thing  to  stop  the  progress  of 
the  Reformation.  The  King,  desirous  of  annihilating  their 
temporal  power,  colluded  with  the  principal  nobility  to  have  all 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  265 

the  bishops  in  the  kingdom  arrested  ;  and  having  then  assem- 
bled a  meeting  of  the  States  at  Copenhagen,  he  abolished  Epis- 
copacy, and  suppressed  the  public  exercise  of  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion. The  castles,  fortresses,  and  vast  domains  of  the  prelates 
were  annexed  to  the  crown ;  and  the  other  benefices  and  reve- 
nues of  the  clergy  were  appropriated  to  the  support  of  the  minis- 
ters of  religion,  public  schools,  and  the  poor.  The  monks  and 
nuns  were  left  at  liberty,  either  to  quit  their  convents,  or  remain 
there  during  their  lives.  The  bishops  were  replaced  by  super- 
intendents, the  nomination  of  whom  was  vested  in  the  King ; 
while  each  congregation  retained  the  privilege  of  choosing  its 
own  pastors.  From  Denmark  this  revolution  passed  to  Norway, 
which  at  that  time,  on  account  of  having  joined  the  party  of 
Christian  II.,  who  was  deposed  by  the  Danes,  lost  its  indepen- 
dence, and  was  declared  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark. 

The  House  of  Oldenburg,  which  had  occupied  the  throne  of 
Denmark  since  1448,  was  separated  in  the  reign  of  Christian 
III.  into  two  pov/erful  branches,  viz.  the  Royal,  descended  from 
that  prince  ;  and  the  family  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  descended  from 
his  brother  the  Duke  Adolphus.  This  latter  branch  was  after- 
wards divided  into  three  others,  viz.  those  of  Russia,  Sweden 
and  Holstein-Oldenburg.  As  the  law  of  primogeniture  was  not 
established  in  the  dutchies  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein,  which  had 
fallen  into  the  succession  of  the  House  of  Oldenburg,  the  Kings 
of  Denmark  soon  found  themselves  under  the  necessity  of  divi- 
ding these  dutchies  among  the  younger  princes  of  their  family. 
The  treaty  of  partition,  which  was  entered  into  (1544)  between 
Christian  III.  and  his  brother,  had  been  preceded  by  a  treaty  of 
perpetual  union,  annexing  these  dutchies  to  the  kingdom,  and 
intended  to  preserv^e  the  throne,  which  was  elective,  in  the  House 
of  Oldenburg ;  as  well  as  to  prevent  any  portion  of  these  two 
dutchies  from  falling  into  the  possession  of  strangers.  The 
union  was  to  endure  as  long  as  the  descendants  of  Frederic  I. 
reigned  in  Denmark.  They  promised  to  settle,  by  arbitration, 
whatever  differences  might  arise  betw^een  the  states  of  the  union , 
to  afford  each  other  mutual  succour  against  every  external  ene- 
my ;  and  to  undertake  no  war  but  by  common  consent. 

The  treaty  of  1544  which  regulated  this  partition,  made  seve- 
ral exceptions  of  matters  that  were  to  be  managed  and  adminis- 
tered in  common;  such  as,  the  customs,  jurisdiction  over  the 
nobles,  the  bishops,  and  certain  cities.  This  gave  rise  to  a  sort 
of  copartnership  of  power,  common  to  all  the  princes  of  the  union. 
Every  thing  regarding  either  the  general  safety  as  stipulated  in 
the  treaty,  or  the  exercise  of  these  privileges  included  in  the  ex- 
ceptions, was  to  be  discussed  and  settled  by  unanimous  consent , 

VOL.  I.  23 


266  CHAPTER  VIl. 

and  for  this  purpose  a  council  of  regency,  an  exchequer,  anJ 
common  courts  were  established.  This  union  and  community 
of  rights  were  followed,  as  a  natural  consequence,  by  long  and 
destructive  feuds  betAveen  the  Kings  of  Denmark  and  the  Dukes 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  in  which  the  other  powers  of  the  North 
were  also  im.plicated. 

Christian  IV.,  grandson  of  Christian  III.,  was  distinguished 
not  more  by  the  superiority  of  his  talents,  than  by  the  indefati- 
gable zeal  with  which  he  applied  himself  to  every  department  of 
the  administration.  It  was  in  his  reign  that  the  Danes  extend- 
ed their  commerce  as  far  as  India.  He  founded  the  first  Danish 
East  India  Company  (1616.)  who  formed  a  settlement  in  Tran- 
quebar  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  which  had  been  ceded  to  them 
by  the  Rajah  of  Tanjore.  Various  manufactories  of  silk  stuffs, 
paper,  and  arms,  were  constructed,  and,  several  towns  built  un- 
der the  auspices  of  Christian  IV.  The  sciences  were  also  much 
indebted  to  him  ;  he  gave  a  new  lustre  to  the  University  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  founded  the  Academy  of  Soroe  in  Zealand,  be- 
sides a  number  of  colleges.  If  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  wars 
against  Sweden  and  Austria,  it  must  be  ascribed  to  the  narrow 
limits  of  his  power,  to  the  influence  of  the  aristocratic  spirit,  and 
of  the  feudal  regime  which  still  prevailed  in  Denmark.  He 
succeeded,  however,  in  excluding  the  Svv'edes  from  access  to  the 
Icy  Sea,  which  opened  them  a  way  to  the  coasts  of  Lapland,  by 
obtaining  possession,  at  the  peace  of  Siorod  (1613,)  of  that  part 
of  Lapland  which  extends  along  the  Northern  and  Icy  Seas, 
from  Titisfiord  to  Waranger  and  Ward  buys.  The  disputes  con- 
cerning the  three  crowns  was  settled  by  the  same  treaty,  in  such 
a  way  that  both  sovereigns  v^^ere  permitted  to  use  them,  withoul 
authorizing  the  King  of  Denmark  to  la}''  any  claim  to  the  Swe- 
dish crown. 

Sweden,  which  had  long  maintained  a  struggle  against  Den- 
mark, at  length  acquired  such  a  preponderance  over  her  as  to 
threaten,  more  than  once,  the  entire  subversion  of  the  throne. 
This  preponderance  was  the  achievement  of  two  great  men,  who 
rose  in  the  period  we  now  speak  of,  viz.  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  his 
grandson  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Gustavus  Vasa  was  not  merely 
the  liberator,  but  the  restorer  of  his  country.  Elevated  to  the 
throne  b}^  the  free  choice  of  the  nation,  he  gave  Sweden  a  power 
and  an  influence  which  it  never  had  before.  Every  thing 
under  him  assumed  a  new  aspect,  the  government,  the  religion, 
the  finances,  the  commerce,  the  agriculture,  the  sciences  and  the 
morals  of  the  Swedes.  Instead  of  the  assemblies  of  the  nobles, 
formerly  in  use,  and  destructive  of  the  national  libertj%  he  sub- 
stituted Diets  composed  of  the  different  orders  of  the  State,  the 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  267 

nobility,  the  clergy,  the  citizens,  and  the  peasantry.  By  this 
means  he  acquired  a  new  influence,  of  which  he  took  advantage 
to  humble  the  power  of  the  church  and  the  nobles,  which  had 
long- been  a  source  of  oppression  to  Sweden. 

The  reformation  of  religion,  which  then  occupied  every  mind, 
appeared  to  Gustavus  a  very  proper  expedient  to  second  his 
views,  and  introduce  a  better  order  of  things.  On  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  he  authorized  the  two  brothers  Olaus  and  Lau- 
rentius  Petri,  to  preach  publicly  at  Stockholm  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  and  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  accelerate  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Reformation  in  his  kingdom.  The  bishops,  who 
were  apprehensive  for  their  benefices  and  their  authority,  having 
drawn  the  greater  part  of  the  nobility  over  to  their  interest,  the 
king,  in  the  presence  of  a  Diet  of  the  four  orders  assembled  at 
Westeras,  took  the  determination  of  formally  abdicating  the 
crown.  This  step  threw  the  Diet  into  a  state  of  consternation, 
and  encouraged  the  two  lower  orders,  the  citizens  and  peasants, 
to  declare  themselves  loudly  for  the  King.  The  bishops  and 
nobles  were  obliged  to  comply  ;  and  the  King,  resuming  the 
reins  of  government,  succeeded  in  overruling  the  deliberations 
of  the  Diet.  By  the  authority  of  a  decree,  he  annexed  the  strong 
castles  of  the  bishops  to  the  demesnes  of  the  crov/n,  and  retrench- 
ed from  their  vast  possessions  whatever  he  judged  convenient. 
The  prelates  at  the  same  time  were  excluded  from  the  senate  ; 
the  ties  that  bound  them  to  the  Court  of  Rome  were  broken  ; 
and  they  were  enjoined  henceforth  to  demand  confirmation  from 
the  King,  and  not  from  the  Pope.  The  revenues  of  the  clergy 
in  general,  and  those  of  the  convents,  were  left  at  the  free  dis- 
posal of  the  king,  and  the  nobles  were  permitted  to  bring  forward 
whatever  claims  they  could  adduce  over  lands  granted  to  these 
convents  by  their  ancestors.  There  was  nothing  now  to  retard 
the  march  of  reformation.  The  Lutheran  religion  was  introdu- 
ced universally  into  Sweden,  and  that  event  contributed  not  a 
little  to  exalt  the  royal  authority. 

Gustavus  secured  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  crown  in 
favour  of  his  male  descendants.  The  States,  anxious  to  obvi- 
ate the  troubles  and  disorders  which  the  demise  of  their  kings 
had  often  produced,  regulated  the  succession  by  an  act  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Hereditary  Union.  It  was  passed  at  Ore- 
bro  (1540,)  and  ratified  anew  by  the  States  assembled  at  Wes- 
teras. The  Union  Act  was  renewed  at  the  Diet  of  Nordkoping, 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  (1604,)  when  the  succession  was 
extended  to  females. 

The  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  son  of  Charles  IJC., 
raised  the  glory  of  Sweden  to  its  height.     The  virtues  and 


268  CHAPTER  VII. 

energies  of  that  prince,  the  sagacity  of  his  views,  the  admirable 
order  which  he  introduced  into  every  branch  of  the  administra- 
tion, endeared  him  to  his  subjects  ;  while  his  mihtary  exploits, 
and  his  superiority  in  the  art  of  war,  fixed  upon  him  the  admi- 
ration of  all  Europe. 

Gustavus  brought  the  wars,  which  he  had  to  sustain  against 
the  different  powers  of  the  North,  to  a  most  triumphant  conclu- 
sion. By  the  peace  which  he  concluded  at  Stolbova  with  Rus- 
sia (1617,)  he  obtained  possession  of  all  Ingria,  Kexholm,  and 
Russian  Carelia ;  and  even  cut  that  Empire  off  from  all  com- 
munication with  Europe  by  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  Baltic 
Sea.  His  success  was  not  less  brilliant  in  his  campaigns  against 
Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland,  who  persisted  in  contesting 
with  him  his  right  to  the  crown  of  Sweden.  He  took  from  the 
Poles  the  whole  of  Livonia,  with  a  part  of  Prussia  ;  and  kept 
possession  of  these  conquests  by  the  six  years  truce  which  he 
concluded  with  the  latter  at  Altmark  (1629.) 

It  was  about  this  time  that  Sweden  began  to  occupy  a  distin- 
guished place  among  the  powers  of  Europe  ;  and  that  she  was 
.called  on  to  take  the  lead  in  the  League  which  was  to  protect 
the  Princess  and  States  of  the  Empire  against  the  ambition  of 
Austria.  Gustavus,  who  was  in  alliance  with  France,  under- 
took a  task  as  difficult  as  it  was  glorious.  In  the  short  space  of 
two  years  and  a  half,  he  overran  two-thirds  of  Germany  with 
his  victorious  arms.  He  vanquished  Tilly  at  the  famous  battle 
of  Leipsic  (1631,)  and  extended  his  conquests  from  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  Every  thing  yield- 
ed before  him,  and  every  place  opened  its  gates  to  him.  This 
great  prince,  who  had  made  war  a  new  art,  and  accustomed  his 
army  to  order,  and  a  system  of  tactics  never  before  known,  per- 
ished at  the  memorable  battle  of  Lutzen  (1632,)  which  the 
Swedes  gained  after  his  death,  in  consequence  of  the  skilful  dis- 
positions he  had  formed. 

This  war  was  continued  under  the  minority  of  Queen  Chris- 
tina, his  daughter  and  heir.  It  was  still  carried  on,  although 
the  Swedes  had  undertaken  a  new  war  against  Denmark,  with 
the  view  of  disengaging  themselves  from  the  mediation  which 
Christian  IV.  had  undertaken  between  the  Emperor  and  Swe- 
den, al  the  congress  which  was  to  meet  at  Munster  and  Osna- 
burg.  The  result  of  that  war  was  completely  to  the  advantage 
of  Sweden,  which  gained  by  the  peace  of  Bromsbro  (1645)  the 
freedom  of  the  Sound,  as  also  the  possession  of  the  provinces 
and  islands  of  Jamptland,  Herjedalen,  Gothland,  Oesel,  and  Hal- 
land.  Lastly,  the  peace  of  Westphalia  secured  to  Sweden  con- 
siderable possessions  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
such  as  Wismar.  Bremen  and  Verden.  and  nart  of  Pomerauia. 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  ^69 

The  power  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  which  had  been  greatly 
reduced  during  the  preceding  period,  by  the  defection  of  a  part 
of  Prussia,  was  completely  annihilated  in  the  North,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  changes  introduced  by  the  reformation  of  religion. 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grandson  of  the  Elector  Albert  Achilles> 
on  his  elevation  to  the  dignity  of  Grand  Master  of  the  Order, 
thought  himself  obliged  to  withdra.w  from  Poland  that  fealty  and 
homage  to  which  the  Knights  had  bound  themselves  by  the 
treaty  of  Thorn  in  1466.  This  refusal  furnished  matter  for  a 
war  between  them  ;  which  began  in  1519,  and  ended  in  1521, 
by  a  truce  of  four  years  ;  at  the  expiration  of  which  the  Grand 
Master,  who  saw  the  doctrines  of  Luther  disseminated  in  Prus- 
sia, and  who  had  himself  imbibed  these  principles  in  Germany, 
found  means  to  settle  all  differences  with  the  King  of  Poland, 
by  a  treaty  which  he  concluded  with  him  at  Cracow  (1521.) 
He  there  engaged  to  do  homage  and  fealty  to  the  crown  of  Po- 
land, which  he  had  refused ;  and  Sigismund  I.,  who  was  his 
maternal  uncle,  granted  him  Teutonic  Prussia,  with  the  title  of 
Dutchy.  as  a  hereditary  fief,  both  for  himself  and  his  male-heirs, 
and  for  his  brothers  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg  and  Franconia, 
and  their  feudal  heirs  ;  reserving  the  right  of  reversion  in  favour 
of  Poland,  failing  the  male-descendants  of  these  princes. 

The  Teutonic  Knights  thus  lost  Prussia,  after  having  possess- 
ed it  for  nearly  three  hundred  years.  Retiring  to  their  pos- 
sessions in  Germany,  they  established  their  principal  residence 
at  Mergentheim  in  Franconia,  where  they  proceeded  to  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  Grand  Master,  in  the  person  of  Walter  de  Cron- 
berg.  The  Poles,  in  getting  rid  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  whom 
they  had  regarded  with  jealousy,  and  substituting  the  House  of 
Brandenburg  in  their  place,  never  dreamed  of  adopting  an  enemy 
still  more  dangerous,  who  would  one  day  concert  the  ruin  and 
annihilation  of  their  country. 

Immediately  after  the  treaty  of  Cracow,  the  new  Duke  of 
Prussia  made  a  public  profession  of  the  Lutheran  religion,  and 
married  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  This  princess 
dying  without  male  issue,  he  married  for  his  second  wife  a  prin- 
cess of  the  Brunswick  family,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Albert 
Frederic,  v/ho  succeeded  him  in  the  dutchy  of  Prussia.  The 
race  of  these  new  dukes  of  Prussia  (1568,)  as  well  as  that  of 
Franconia,  which  should  have  succeeded  them,  appearing  to  be 
nearly  extinct,  Joachim  II.,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  obtained 
from  the  King  of  Poland  the  investiture  of  Prussia,  in  fief,  con- 
junctly with  the  reigning  dukes.  This  investiture,  which  was 
renewed  in  favour  of  several  of  his  successors,  secured  the  suc- 
ctssion  of  that  dutchy  in  the  electoral  family  of  Brandenburg;  to 

23=^ 


270 


CHAPTER    VU. 


whom  it  devolved  on  the  death  of  Albert  Frederic  (1618,)  who 
left  no  male  descendants.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Elector 
John  Sigismiind,  who  had  been  coinvested  with  him  in  the 
dutchy.  That  prince,  who  had  married  Anne,  eldest  daughter 
of  Albert  Frederic,  obtained  likewise,  in  right  of  that  princess, 
part  of  the  succession  of  Juliers,  viz.  the  dutchy  of  Cleves,  the 
counties  of  Marck  and  Raven sberg,  which  had  been  adjudged 
to  the  house  of  Brandenburg, by  the  provisional  act  of  partition 
concluded  at  Santern  (1614,)  and  converted  into  a  definiiive 
treaty  at  Cleves.  The  grandson  of  John  Sigismund,  the  Elector 
Frederic  William,  was  a  prince  of  superior  genius,  and  the  true 
founder  of  the  greatness  of  his  family.  Illustrious  in  war  as  in 
peace,  and  respected  by  all  Europe,  he  acquired  by  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia,  a  part  of  Pomerania,  the  archbishopric  of  Magde- 
burg under  the  title  of  a  dutchy,  with  the  bishoprics  of  Halber- 
stadt,  Minden,  and  Camin,  under  the  title  of  principalities.  His 
son  Frederic  was  the  first  King  of  Prussia. 

[The  Teutonic  Knights  had  nearly  lost  Livonia  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century ;  but  that  province  was  saved  by 
the  courage  and  talents  of  the  Provincial  Master,  Walter  de 
Plattenberg.  The  Grand  Duke  Iwan,  or  John  III.,  having 
threatened  Livonia  with  an  invasion,  Plattenberg  concluded  a 
defensive  alliance  at  Walik  (1501,)  with  Alexander  II.,  Grand 
Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  the  bishops  of  that  country.  After  having 
assembled  troops  to  the  number  of  14,000  men,  he  defeated  the 
Russian  army,  which  was  40,000  strong,  at  Maholm  ;  a  second 
victory,  which  he  gained  with  the  same  number  of  troops  over 
100,000  Russians  at  Pleskow  (1-502,)  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
exploits  in  the  history  of  the  North.  Next  3^ear  he  concluded  a 
truce  of  six  years  with  the  Livonian  Order,  which  was  afterwards 
renewed  for  fifty  years. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  Walter,  the  Provincial  Master,  taking 
advantage  of  the  distresses  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  urging 
the  repeated  succours  which  he  had  furnished  them  against  the 
Poles,  purchased  from  them  his  own  independence,  and  that  of 
his  Order  ;  but  a  recent  author  (Le  Comte  de  Bray)  has  shown 
that  this  was  not  exactly  the  case.  By  a  first  agreement  signed 
at  Koningsberg  (1520,)  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  who  was  then 
only  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  confirmed  to  the 
Knights  of  Livonia  the  free  right  of  electing  a  chief  of  their  ovati 
number,  promising  to  sustain  the  individual  whom  they  should 
nominate.  He  secured  them  the  possession  of  the  whole  sove- 
reignty of  Reval  and  Narva;  the  countries  of  x4.1tentirken,  Jer- 
wen,  and  Wierland  ;  as  also  the  town  and  castle  of  Wesenberg, 
with  their  dependencies.  This  agreement  was  revived  and 
ratified  by  a  second,  signed  at  Grobin  (1525,)  when  it  was  for- 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  ^71 

mally  stipulated,  that  the  relations  between  the  Knights  of  Li- 
vonia and  the  Teutonic  Order  should  be  maintained  as  they  were. 
and  that  the  Livonians  should  continue  to  regard  the  Graiid 
Master  as  their  true  head,  and  render  him  homage  and  obe- 
dience. They  were  forbidden  to  solicit  from  the  Emperor  oi 
the  Pope  any  privilege  inconsistent  with  their  allegiance.  It  ap- 
pears, consequently,  that  Walter  de  Plattenberg  did  not  purcha^^e 
the  independence  of  his  Order,  but  that  he  regarded  those  ti'=!5 
which  existed  between  it  and  the  Teutonic  Order  as  broken, 
when  Albert  of  Brandenburg  was  declared  Duke  of  Prussia.  IJe 
next  renewed  those  connexions  with  the  German  Empire,  whicli 
had  existed  since  the  thirteenth  century  ;  and  was  declared  by 
Charles  V.  (1527)  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  having  a  vote  and  a 
seat  in  the  Diet. 

It  was  during  the  mastership  of  Plattenberg  that  the  Lutheran 
doctrines  penetrated  into  Livonia,  where  they  made  rapid  pro- 
gress, especially  in  the  cities.  Walter  dexterously  turned  the 
disturbances  caused  by  the  opposition  of  the  clergy  to  the  new 
tenets,  into  an  occasion  for  establishing  his  authority  over  all 
Livonia  and  Esthonia,  which  the  Order  had  formerly  shared 
with  the  bishops.  The  citizens  of  Riga  acknowledged  him  as 
their  only  sovereign,  and  expelled  the  archbishop.  The  bur- 
gesses of  Revel  followed  their  example.  The  clergy  were  so 
frightened  at  these  movements,  that  the  archbishop  of  Riga,  and 
the  bishops  of  Dorpat,  Oesel,  Courland  and  Revel,  formally  sub- 
mitted to  the  Order.  The  clergy  themselves  soon  after  embraced 
the  reformed  religion.] 

The  dominion  of  the  Knights  Sword-bearers,  had  continued 
in  Livonia  until  the  time  of  the  famous  invasion  of  that  country 
by  the  Czar,  John  Basilovitz  IV.  That  prince,  Avho  had  laid 
open  the  Caspian  Sea  by  his  conquest  of  the  Tartar  kingdoms  of 
Casan  and  Astrachan,  meditated  also  that  of  Livonia,  to  obtain 
a  communication  with  Europe  by  the  Baltic.  Gotthard  Kettler, 
who  was  then  Grand  Master,  finding  himself  unable  to  cope 
with  an  enemy  so  powerful,  implored  first  the  assistance  of  the 
Germanic  Body,  of  which  he  was  a  member  ;  but  having  got 
nothing  but  vague  promises,  he  next  addressed  himself  to  Sigis- 
mund  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  and,  in  concert  Avith  the  arch- 
bishop of  Riga,  he  concluded  with  that  prince  a  treaty  of  sub- 
mission at  Wilna  (1561;)  in  virtue  of  which,  the  whole  of 
Livonia,  with  Esthonia,  Courland  and  Semigallia,  comprising 
not  only  what  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  Order,  but  those 
parts  which  had  b?en  seized  by  the  enemy,  were  ceded  to  the 
crown  of  Poland  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  use  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  should  be  pre- 
served on  the  same  footing  as  it  then  was,  and  that  all  orders  of 


272  CHAPTER  vn. 

the  State  should  be  maintained  in  their  goods,  properties,  rights, 
privileges  and  immunities. 

By  this  same  treaty,  Courland  and  Semigallia  were  reserved 
to  Gotthard  Kettler,  the  last  Grand  Master  of  Livonia,  to  be 
enjoyed  by  himself  and  his  heirs-male,  with  the  title  of  datchy, 
and  as  a  fief  of  the  king  and  crown  of  Poland.  The  new  Duke, 
on  taking  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  King  of  Poland,  solemnly 
}aid  aside  all  the  badges  of  his  former  dignity.  He  married 
Anne,  daughter  to  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schewerin,  and 
transmitted  the  dutchy  of  Courland  to  his  male-descendants, 
who  did  not  become  extinct  until  the  eighteenth  century.  Ihe 
Order  of  Livonia  was  entirely  suppressed,  as  were  also  the 
archbishoprics  of  Riga,  and  the  bishoprics  under  its  jurisdiction. 

The  revolution  in  Livonia  caused  a  violent  commotion  among 
the  powers  of  the  North,  who  were  all  eager  to  share  in  the 
plunder.  While  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Order  was  in  treaty 
with  Poland,  the  city  of  Revel,  and  the  nobles  of  Esthonia,  left 
without  aid,  and  oppressed  by  the  Russians,  put  themselves  under 
the  protection  of  Eric  XIV.,  King  of  Sweden,  who  obtained 
possession  of  that  province.  The  Isle  of  Oesel,  on  the  contrary, 
and  the  district  of  Wyck  in  Esthonia,  were  sold  to  Frederic  II., 
King  of  Denmark,  by  the  last  bishop  of  the  island,  who  also 
ceded  to  him  the  bishopric  and  district  of  Pilten  in  Courland. 
Poland  at  first  held  the  balance,  and  maintained  Livonia  against 
the  Russians,  by  the  peace  which  she  concluded  with  that  power 
at  Kievorova-Horca  (15S2.)  A  struggle  afterwards  ensued  be- 
tween Poland  and  Sweden  for  the  same  object,  which  was  not 
finally  terminated  until  the  peace  of  Oliva  (1660.) 

Russia,  during  the  period  of  which  we  now  treat,  assumed 
an  aspect  entirely  new.  She  succeeded  in  throwing  ofl^  the 
yoke  of  the  Moguls,  and  began  to  act  a  conspicuous  part  on  the 
theatre  of  Europe.  The  Horde  of  Kipzach,  called  also  the 
Grand,  or  the  Golde?i  Horde,  had  been  greatly  exhausted  by  its 
territorial  losses,  and  the  intestine  wars  which  followed  ;  while 
the  Grand  Dukes  of  Moscow  gained  powerful  accessions  by  the 
union  of  several  of  these  petty  principalities,  which  had  for  a 
long  time  divided  among  them  the  soA'ereignty  of  Northern  Rus- 
sia. John  Basilovitz  III.,  who  filled  the  grand  ducal  throne 
about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  knew  well  how  to  profit 
by  these  circumstances  to  strengthen  his  authority  at  home,  and 
make  it  respected  abroad.  In  course  of  severai  expeditions,  he 
subdued  the  powerful  republic  of  Novogorod,  an  ancient  ally  of 
the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  which  had  for  a  long  time  affected  an 
entire  independence.  He  was  also  the  first  sovereign  of  Russia 
that  dared  to  refuse  a  humiliating  ceremony,  according  to  which 
the  Grand  Dukes  were  obliged  to  walk  on  foot  before  the  envoys 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453 — 1648.  273 

that  came  from  the  Khan  of  Kipzach.  He  even  suppressed  the 
residence  of  Tartar  envoys  at  his  court ;  and  at  length  shook 
off  their  yoke  entirely,  refusing-  to  pay  the  tribute  which  the 
Grand  Dukes  had  owed  to  the  Khans  for  several  centuries. 
Achmet,  Khan  of  Kipzach,  having  despatched  certain  deputies 
with  an  order,  under  the  great  seal,  to  demand  paymenl  of  this 
tribute,  the  Grand  Duke  trampled  the  order  under  his  feet,  spit 
upon  it,  and  then  put  all  the  deputies  to  death  except  one,  whom 
he  sent  back  to  his  master. 

The  Khan,  with  the  view  of  revenging  that  insult,  invaded 
Russia  several  times,  but  the  Grand  Duke  vigorously  repulsed 
all  his  attacks ;  and  w^hile  he  was  arresting  the  progress  of  his 
arms  on  the  borders  of  the  Ugra,  he  despatched  a  body  of  troops 
to  the  centre  of  the  Grand  Horde,  who  laid  every  thing  desolate 
(1481.)  The  Nogai  Tartars  joined  the  Russians  to  finish  the 
destruction  of  the  Grand  Horde,  whose  different  settlements  on 
the  Wolga  they  laid  completely  in  ruins  ;  so  that  nothing  more 
remained  of  the  powerful  empire  of  Kipzach  than  a  few  de- 
tached hordes,  such  as  those  of  Casan,  Astracan,  Siberia,  and 
the  Crimea.  Iwan  rendered  himself  formidable  to  the  Tartars  ; 
he  subdued  the  Khans  of  Casan,  and  several  times  disposed  of 
*.heir  throne.  The  entire  reduction  of  that  Tartar  state  was  ac- 
complished by  his  grandson,  John  Basil  ovitz  IV.,  who  twice 
undertook  the  siege  of  Casan,  and  seized  and  made  prisoner 
of  the  last  Khan  (1552.)  The  fall  of  Casan  was  followed  bv  that 
of  Astracan.  But  John  was  by  no  means  so  fortunate  in  his  en- 
terprises against  Livonia,  which,  as  we  have  already  said,  he  was 
obliged  to  abandon  to  Poland  by  the  peace  of  Kievorova-Horca. 

John  IV.  was  inspired  wdth  noble  views  of  policy.  Being 
anxious  to  civilize  his  subjects,  he  sent  for  workmen  and  artists 
from  England.  He  requested  Charles  V.  to  send  him  men  of 
talents,  well  versed  in  the  different  trades  and  manufactures. 
He  introduced  the  art  of  printing  at  Moscow,  and  established 
the  first  permanent  army  in  the  country,  that  of  the  Streliizes, 
Avhich  he  employed  in  keeping  the  nobles  in  check.  The  dis* 
covery  of  Siberia  is  one  of  the  events  that  belong  to  his  reign. 
A  certain  chief  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  named  Jermak,  who  em- 
ployed himself  in  robberies  on  the  borders  of  the  Wolga  and  the 
Caspian  Sea,  being  pursued  by  a  detachment  of  Russian  troops, 
retired  to  the  confines  of  Siberia.  He  soon  entered  these  re- 
gions at  the  head  of  seven  thousand  Cossacks,  and  having  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Tartars  of  Siberia,  and  their  Khan 
Kutschem,  he  got  possession  of  the  city  of  Sibir,  which  was  their 
principal  fortress  (15S1.)  Jermak,  in  order  to  obtain  his  pardon 
of  the  Czar,  made  him  an  offer  of  all  he  had  conquered  ;  which 
was  agreed  to  by  that  Prince,  and  the  troops  of  the  Ru.^sians 


274  CHAPTER  VII. 

then  took  possession  of  Siberia  (1583.)  The  total  reduction  of 
the  country,  however,  did  not  take  place  until  the  reign  of  the 
Czar  Theodore  or  Fedor  Iwanovitz,  the  son  and  successor  of 
John,  who  built  the  city  of  Tobolsk  (1587,)  wdiich  has  since  be- 
come the  capital  of  Siberia. 

Fedor  Iwanovitz,  a  prince  weak  both  in  mind  and  body,  was 
entirely  under  the  counsels  of  his  brother-in-law  Boris  Godunow, 
who,  with  the  view  of  opening  a  way  for  himself  to  the  throne, 
caused  the  young  Demetrius,  Fedor's  only  brother,  to  be  assas- 
sinated (1591.)  This  crime  gave  rise  to  a  long  series  of  trou- 
bles, which  ended  in  the  death  of  Fedor  (1598.)  AVith  him,  as 
he  left  no  children,  the  reigning  family  of  the  ancient  sovereigns 
of  Russia,  the  descendants  of  Ruric,  became  extinct ;  after  having 
occupied  the  throne  for  more  than  eight  hundred  years. 

After  this,  the  Russian  Cro^vn  was  worn  by  persons  of  diffe- 
rent houses.  Their  reigns  were  disturbed  by  various  preten- 
ders, who  assumed  the  name  of  Demetrius,  and  were  supported 
by  the  Poles.  During  fifteen  years  Russia  presented  a  shock- 
ing spectacle  of  confusion  and  carnage.  At  length,  as  a  remedy 
for  these  disasters,  they  thought  of  bestowing  the  crown  on  a 
foreign  prince.  Some  chose  Charles  Philip,  the  brother  of  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  ;  and  others  voted  for  Uladislaus,  the 
son  of  Sigismund  IV.,  King  of  Poland.  These  resolutions  tended 
only  to  increase  the  disorders  of  the  state.  The  Swedes  took  ad- 
vantage of  them  to  seize  Ingria  and  the  city  of  Novogorod  ;  while 
the  Poles  took  possession  of  Smolensko  and  its  dependencies. 

The  Russians,  now  seeing  their  monarchy  on  the  edge  of  a 
precipice,  adopted  the  plan  of  electing  a  new^  Czar  of  their  own 
nation.  Their  choice  fell  on  Michael  Fedrovitz,  who  became 
the  founder  of  the  new  dynasty,  that  of  Romanow  (1613,)  under 
whom  Russia  attained  to  the  zenith  of  her  greatness.  That 
prince,  guided  by  the  sage  councils  of  his  father,  Fedor  Roma- 
now, Archbishop  of  Rostow,  soon  rectified  all  the  disorders  of 
the  state ;  he  purchased  peace  of  the  Swedes,  by  surrendering 
to  them  Ingria  and  Russian  Carelia.  The  sacrifices  which  he 
made  to  Poland,  were  not  less  considerable.  By  the  truce  of 
Divilina  (1618,)  and  the  peace  of  Wiasma  (1634,)  he  ceded  to 
them  the  vast  territories  of  Smolensko,  Tschernigou,  and  Novo- 
gorod, with  their  dependencies. 

Poland,  at  this  time,  presented  a  corrupt  aristocracy,  Avhich 
had  insensibly  degenerated  into  complete  anarchy.  The  nobles 
were  the  only  persons  that  enjoyed  the  rights  of  citizenship  ; 
they  alone  were  represented  in  the  Diets,  by  the  nuncios  or  de- 
puties which  they  elected  at  the  Dietines  ;  the  honours  and  dig- 
nities both  in  church  and  state,  and  in  general  all  prerogatives 
wha.tever,  w^ere  reserved  for  them ;  while  the  burgesses  and 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  276 

peasantry  alone  supported  the  whole  burden  of  expenses.  This 
constitution,  at  the  same  time,  was  under  the  control  of  a  sort  of  de- 
mocracy, in  as  far  as  the  nobles,  without  exception,  were  held  to 
be  perfectly  equal  in  their  rights  and  dignities.  Imperfect  as  a 
government  must  have  been,  established  on  such  a  basis,  it  still 
continued,  nevertheless,  to  preserve  some  degree  of  vigour ;  and 
Poland  supported,  though  feebly,  the  character  of  being  the  ru- 
ling power  of  the  North,  so  long  as  the  House  of  Jagellon  occu- 
pied the  throne.  Besides  Prussia,  of  which  she  had  disposses- 
sed the  Teutonic  Knights,  she  acquired  Livonia,  and  maintained 
it  in  spite  of  Russia. 

The  reformation  of  religion  was  likewise  promulgated  in  Po- 
land, where  it  was  particularly  patronized  by  Sigismund  II.  A 
great  part  of  the  senate,  and  more  than  half  of  the  nobility 
made,  with  their  King,  a  profession  of  the  new  opinions  ;  and  if 
the  reformation  did  not  take  deeper  root  in  that  kingdom,  or  if  it 
had  not  a  more  conspicuous  influence  on  the  civilization  of  the 
people,  it  was  from  ths  want  of  a  middle  class  in  the  kingdom, 
by  Avhich  it  could  be  supported. 

The  male  line  of  Jagellon,  having  become  extinct  with  Sigis- 
mund II.  (1572,)  the  throne  became  purely  elective  ;  and  it  was 
ordained  that,  during  the  King's  life,  no  successor  could  be  ap- 
pointed ;  but  that  the  States,  on  his  demise,  should  enjoy  for 
ever  a  perfect  freedom  of  election  on  every  vacancy  of  the  throne. 
Such  was  the, origin  of  the  Diets  of  Election,  which,  from  their 
very  constitution,  could  not  fail  to  be  always  tum.ultuous  in  their 
proceedings.  The  nobles  in  a  body  appeared  at  these  Diets ; 
thither  they  repaired  in  arms  and  on  horseback,  ranked  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  the  Palatinates,  in  a  Camp  prepared  for  the 
purpose  near  Warsaw.  The  custom  of  the  Pacta  Conventa, 
took  its  rise  about  the  same  time.  Henr}^  de  Valois,  who  was 
elected  King  on  the  death  of  Sigismund  II.,  was  the  first  that 
swore  to  these  conventional  agreements,  [by  which  he  engaged, 
that  no  foreigner  should  be  introduced  either  in  a  civil  or  mili- 
tary department.]  These  Pacta,  which  had  all  the  force  of  a 
fundamental  law,  specified  those  conditions  under  which  the 
throne  was  conferred  on  the  new  monarch.  The  royal  authori- 
ty was  thus  curtailed  more  and  more,  and  the  prerogatives  of 
the  nobility  exalted  in  proportion. 

Polnnd,  in  consequence,  soon  lost  its  influence ;  the  govern- 
ment was  altered  in  its  fundamental  principles,  and  the  kingdom 
plunged  into  an  abyss  of  calamities.  Among  the  elective  Kings 
who  succeeded  Henry  de  Valois,  the  last  that  supported  the  dig- 
nity of  the  crown  against  Russia,  v/as  Uladislaus  IV.,  the  son  of 
Sigismund  III.,  of  the  House  of  Vasa.  In  an  expedition  which 
he  undertook  into  the  interior  of  Russia  (1618,)  he  penetrated 


276  CHAPTER   VII. 

as  far  as  Moscow ;  and  in  a  second  which  he  made  (1634,)  he 
compelled  the  Russians  to  raise  the  siege  of  Smolensko  ;  and 
shut  them  up  so  closely  in  their  camp,  that  they  were  obliged  to 
capitulate  for  want  of  provisions.  He  then  made  a  new  attack 
on  the  capital  of  Russia ;  and  at  the  peace  of  Wiasma,  he  ob- 
tained conditions  most  advantageous  to  Poland. 

In  the  history  of  Hungary,  the  most  splendid  era  was  the 
reign  of  Matthias  Corvin,  who,  at  the  age  of  scarcely  sixteen, 
had  been  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  free  choice  of  the  nation 
(145S.)  Like  his  father  the  valorous  John  Hunniades,  he  was 
the  terror  of  the  Turks  during  his  Avhole  reign  ;  he  took  Bosnia 
from  them,  and  kept  Transylvania,  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Scla- 
vonia,  and  Servia  in  dependence  on  his  crown,  in  spite  of  the 
incessant  efforts  which  the  Turks  made  to  rescue  these  provinces. 
He  likewise  conquered  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lusatia  ;  he  even 
took  Austria  from  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.,  and  came  to  fix 
his  residence  at  Vienna  (1485.)  It  was  in  that  city  that  he  ter- 
minated his  brilliant  career,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-seven  (1490.) 
That  great  prince  added  to  his  military  talents,  a  love  for  elegant 
literature,  of  which,  from  the  first  revival  of  letters,  he  showed 
himself  a  zealous  protector. 

The  glory  of  Hungary  suffered  an  eclipse  in  the  loss  of  Mat- 
thias. His  successors,  Uladislaus  II.,  the  son  of  Casimir  IV. 
King  of  Poland,  and  Louis  the  son  of  Uladislaus,  who  held  at 
the  same  time  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  were  weak  and  indolent 
princes,  who  saw  Hungary  torn  bj^  factions,  and  ravaged  with 
impunity  by  the  Turks.  Soliman  the  Great  taking  advantage 
of  the  youth  of  Louis,  and  the  distressed  state  in  which  Hungary 
was,  concerted  his  plans  for  conquering  the  kingdom.  He  at- 
tacked the  fortress  of  Belgrade  (1521,)  and  made  himself  master 
of  that  important  place,  before  the  Hungarians  could  march  to 
its  relief.  His  first  success  encouraged  him  to  return  to  the 
charge.  Having  crossed  the  Danube  and  the  Drave  without 
meeting  with  any  resistance,  he  engaged  the  Hungarians  near 
Mohacz  (J526,)  in  that  famous  battle  which  cost  them,  the  life 
of  their  king  and  their  principal  nobility.  Twenty-two  thousand 
Hungarians  were  left  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  the  whole  king- 
dom lay  at  l»he  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  Soliman  now  proceeded 
as  far  as  the  Raab ;  but  instead  of  completing  the  conquest  of 
Hungary  as  he  miglit  have  done,  he  contented  himself  with  the 
laying  waste  all  that  part  of  the  country  with  fire  and  sword ; 
and  carrying  several  hundred  thousand  prisoners  into  slavery. 

The  premature  death  of  the  young  King  who  left  no  progeny, 
occasioned  a  vacancy  in  the  throne  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 
Ferdinand  of  Austria  who  married  Anne,  sister  to  Louis,  claimed 
the  succession  in  virtue  of  the  different  treaties  signed  in  the 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453— 164S.  277 

years  1463, 1468, 1491,  and  1515,  between  the  Austrian  princes 
and  the  last  kings  of  Hung-ary.  But  though  the  Bohemian 
States  were  disposed  to  listen  to  the  pretensions  of  Ferdinand, 
it  was  not  so  with  those  of  Hungary,  who  transferred  the  crown 
to  John  de  Zapolya,  Count  of  Zips,  and  Palatine  of  Transylvania. 
That  prince  being  hardly  pressed  by  Ferdinand,  at  length  de- 
termined to  throw  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Turks. 
Soliman  marched  in  person  to  his  assistance,  and  laid  siege  to 
the  city  of  Vienna  (1529.)  In  this  enterprise,  however,  he  failed, 
after  sacrificing  the  lives  of  nearly  eighty  thousand  men. 

In  1538,  a  treaty  was  agreed  on  between  the  two  competitors, 
in  virtue  of  which  the  whole  kingdom  of  Hungary,  on  the  death 
of  John  Zapolya,  w^as  to  devolve  on  Ferdinand.  This  treaty 
was  never  carried  into  execution.  John  at  his  death  having 
left  a  son  named  John  Sigismund,  then  an  infant  in  his  cradle, 
Bishop  George  Martinuzzi,  prime  minister  of  the  deceased  king, 
proclaimed  the  young  prince,  and  secured  for  him  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Turks.  Soliman  undertook  a  new  expedition  into 
Hungary  in  his  favour  (1541 ;)  but  by  a  piece  of  signal  perfidy, 
he  took  this  occasion  to  seize  the  city  of  Buda,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  and  several  other  places  ;  and  banished  the  prince 
with  his  mother  the  queen-dowager,  to  Transylvania,  which  he 
gave  up  to  him,  with  several  other  districts  in  Hungary.  The 
city  of  Buda  with  the  greater  part  of  Hungary  and  Sclavonia 
remained  in  the  power  of  the  Turks  ;  and  Ferdinand  was  obliged 
to  pay  an  annual  tribute  for  the  protection  of  that  kingdom,  the 
possession  of  which  ^vas  guaranteed  to  him  by  the  truce  which 
he  concluded  with  them  in  1562. 

In  the  midst  of  these  unfortunate  events,  the  Austrian  princes 
had  again  the  imprudence  to  alienate  the  affections  of  the  Hun- 
garians, by  the  intolerant  spirit  they  displayed,  and  the  efforts 
which  they  incessantly  made  to  extirpate  the  Protestant  religion 
from  that  kingdom.  The  opinions  of  Luther  and  Calvin  had 
already  been  propagated  in  Hungary  during  the  reign  of  Louis, 
the  predecessor  of  Ferdinand.  They  had  even  made  great  pro- 
gress ;  especially  in  Transylvania,  where  the  German  language 
and  literature  were  generally  cultivated.  The  oppressions  which 
the  partisans  of  the  new^  doctrines  experienced,  added  to  the  at- 
ttjnipts  which  the  Austrian  princes  made,  from  time  to  time,  to 
subvert  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  kingdom,  excited  fresh 
troubles,  and  favoured  the  designs  of  the  discontented  and  am- 
bitious, who  were  watching  their  opportunity  to  agitate  the 
state,  and  make  encroachments  on  the  government.  Stephen 
Botschkai,  Bethlem  Gabor,  and  George  Ragoczi,  princes  of 
Transylvania,  were  successively  the  chiefs  or  leaders  of  these 

VOL.  I.  24 


278  CHAPTER  VU. 

malecontents,  in  the  reigns  of  Rodolph  II.,  Ferdinand  II.,  and 
Ferdinand  III.,  Emperors  of  Germany.  According  to  the  Paci- 
fication of  Vienna  (1606,)  and  that  of  Lintz  (1645,)  as  well  as 
by  the  decrees  of  the  Diet  of  Odenburg  (1622,)  and  of  Presburg 
(1647,)  these  princes  were  compelled  to  tolerate  the  public  exer- 
cise of  the  reformed  religion  ;  and  to  redress  the  political  com- 
plaints of  the  Hungarian  malecontents. 

The  same  troubles  on  the  score  of  religion,  which  infested 
Hungary,  extended  likewise  to  Bohemia,  where  the  new  doc- 
trines met  with  a  much  better  reception,  as  they  were  in  unison 
with  the  religious  system  of  the  Hussites,  who  had  already  nu- 
merous partisans  in  that  kingdom.  It  was  chiefly  under  the 
reign  of  the  mild  and  tolerant  Maximilian  II.  that  Protestantism 
made  its  way  in  Bohemia.  All  those  who  were  formerly  called 
Utraquists,  from  their  professing  the  Communion  in  both  kinds, 
joined  the  followers  either  of  Luther  or  Calvin.  Rodolph  II., 
the  son  and  successor  of  Maximilian,  was  obliged,  at  the  Diet  of 
Prague  (1609,)  to  grant  them  the  free  exercise  of  their  worship, 
without  distinction  of  place  ;  and  even  to  extend  this  indulgence  to 
the  Protestants  of  Silesia  and  Lusatia  by  letters-patent,  known 
by  the  name  of  Letters  of  Majesty  ;  copies  of  which  were  made 
at  Prague  on  the  11th  of  July  and  20th  of  August  1609.  These 
letters  were  confirmed  by  King  Matthias,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Bohemia;  as  also  by  Ferdinand  III.,  when  he  was 
acknowledged  by  the  Bohemian  States,  as  the  adopted  son  and 
successor  of  Matthias. 

The  different  interpretations  which  were  put  on  these  letters 
occasioned  ihe  war,  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  The  Emperor  Matthias  happening  to  die  in  the 
midst  of  these  disturbances,  the  Bohemian  States,  regarding 
their  crown  as  elective,  annulled  the  election  of  Ferdinand  II. 
(1619,)  and  conferred  the  crown  on  Frederic,  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine. Being  in  strict  alliance  with  the  States  of  Silesia,  Mora- 
via, and  Lusatia,  they  declared  war  against  Ferdinand,  who  was 
supported,  on  the  other  hand,  by  Spain,  the  Catholic  princes  of 
the  Empire,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony. 

The  famous  battle  of  Prague  (1620,)  and  the  fall  of  the  Elec- 
tor Palatine,  brought  about  a  revolution  in  Bohemia.  The  ring- 
leaders of  the  insurrection  were  executed  at  Prague,  and  their 
goods  confiscated.  Ferdinand,  who  treated  that  kingdom  as  a 
conquered  country,  declared  that  the  States  had  forfeited  their 
rights  and  privileges ;  and,  in  the  new  constitution  which  he 
gave  them,  he  consented  to  restore  these,  only  on  condition  of 
expressly  excepting  the  rights  which  they  had  claimed  in  the 
election  of  their  kings,  as  well  as  the  Letters  of  Majesty  which 


PERIOD  VI.     A.  D.  1453—1648.  279 

granted  to  the  Protestants  the  free  exercise  of  their  Avorship 
But  this  prince  did  not  stop  with  the  suppression  of  their  reli- 
gious liberties,  he  deprived  them  also  of  their  rights  of  citizen- 
ship. Laws  the  most  atrocious  were  published  against  them, 
and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  d»8ny  them  the  liberty  of  making 
testaments,  or  contracting  legal  marriages.  All  their  ministers, 
without  exception,  were  banished  the  kingdom ;  and  the  most 
iniquitous  means  were  employed  to  bring  back  the  Protestants 
to  the  pale  of  the  Catholic  Church.  At  length  it  was  enjoined, 
by  an  edict  in  1627,  that  all  Protestants  who  persisted  in  their 
opinions  should  quit  the  kingdom  Avithin  six  months.  Thirty 
thousand  of  the  best  families  in  the  kingdom,  of  whom  a  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  were  nobility,  abandoned  Bohemia,  trans- 
porting their  talents  and  their  industry  to  the  neighbouring 
States,  such  as  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  &c. 

Ferdinand  judged  it  for  his  interest  to  detach  the  Elector  of 
Saxony  from  the  alliance  with  Sweden,  which  he  had  joined. 
He  concluded  a  special  peace  with  him  at  Prague,  in  virtue  ol 
which  he  made  over  to  him  the  two  Lusatias,  which  he  had  dis- 
membered from  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  to  reimburse  the  Elec- 
tor for  those  sums  which  he  claimed,  as  having  been  the  ally  of 
Austria  against  the  Elector  Palatine,  then  King  of  Bohemia. 
That  province  was  ceded  to  the  Elector  John  George,  for  him- 
self and  his  successors,  as  a  fief  of  the  Bohemian  crown,  under 
the  express  condition,  that  failing  the  male  line  of  the  Electoral 
branch,  it  should  pass  to  the  female  heirs ;  but  that  it  should 
then  be  at  the  option  of  the  King  of  Bohemia  to  use  the  right  of 
redemption,  by  repaying  to  the  female  heirs  the  sum'  for  which 
Lusatia  had  been  mortgaged  to  Saxony.  This  sum  amounted 
to  seventy-two  tons  of  gold,  valued  at  seven  millions  two  hundred 
thousand  florins. 

The  Turkish  empire  received  new  accessions  of  territory,  both 
in  Asia  and  Europe,  under  the  successors  of  Mahomet  II.,  who 
had  fixed  their  capital  at  Constantinople.  The  conquest  of  Bes- 
sarabia belongs  to  the  reign  of  Bajazet  II.,  about  the  year  1484. 
That  prince  had  a  brother  named  Jem  or  Zizim,  who  had  been 
his  competitor  for  the  throne ;  and  having  fled  to  Rome,  he  was 
imprisoned  by  order  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  at  the  instance  of 
Bajazet,  who  had  engaged  to  pay  the  Pope  a  large  pension  for 
him.  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  when  he  made  his  expedition 
into  Italy  for  the  conquest  of  Naples,  compelled  the  Pope  to  sur- 
render up  the  unfortunate  Zizim,  whom  he  designed  to  employ 
in  the  expedition  which  he  meditated  against  the  Turks,  but 
which  never  took  place.  Selim  I.  the  son  and  successor  of  Ba- 
jazet, taking  advantage  of  a  revolution  which  happened  in  Persia, 
and  of  the  victory  which  he  gained  near  Taurus  over  the  S  havj 


280  CHAPTER  VII. 

Ismail  Sophi  I.  (1514,)  conquered  the  provinces  of  DiarbetiT 
and  Algezira,  beyond  the  Euphrates. 

The  same  prince  overturned  the  powerful  Empire  of  the  Ma- 
melukes, who  reigned  over  Egypt,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  part  of. 
Arabia.  He  defeated  the  last  Sultans,  Cansoul-Algouri,  and 
Toumanbey  (l'5l6,)  and  totally  annihilated  that  d^masty.  Cairo, 
the  capital  of  the  Empire  of  Egypt,  was  taken  by  assault  (1517,) 
and  the  whole  of  the  Mameluke  States  incorporated  with  the 
Ottoman  Empire.  The  Scheriff  of  Mecca  likewise  submitted 
to  the  Porte,  with  several  tribes  of  the  Arabs. 

Soliman  the  Great,  Avho  succeeded  his  father  Selim,  raised 
the  Turkish  Empire  to  the  highest  pitch  of  glory.  Besides  the 
island  of  Ehodes,  which  he  took  from  the  Knights  of  St.  John, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  he  reduced  the  provinces  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  a  state  of  dependence,  and  made 
their  princes  vassals  and  tributaries  of  his  Empire.  He  likewise 
conquered  Bagdad  and  Irak-Arabia,  which  happened,  according 
to  the  Turkish  authors,  about  the  year  1534. 

That  prince  distinguished  his  reign,  by  the  efforts  which  he 
made  to  increase  the  maritime  strength  of  the  Empire,  which 
his  predecessors  had  neglected.  He  took  into  his  service  the 
famous  pirate  Barbarossa,  King  of  Algiers,  whom  he  created 
Capitan  Pacha,  or  Grand  Admiral.  Barbarossa  equipped  a  fleet 
of  more  than  a  hundred  sail,  with  which  he  chased  the  Imperi- 
alists from  the  Archipelago ;  and  infested  the  coasts  of  Spain, 
Italy  and  Sicily  (1565.)  Soliman  miscarried,  however,  in  his 
enterprise  against  Malta.  The  courageous  defence  made  by  the 
Knights,  together  with  the  arrival  of  the  fleet  from  Sicily,  obliged 
the  Ottomans  to  retreat. 

The  decline  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  began  with  the  death  of 
Soliman  the  Great  (1566.)  The  sultans,  his  successors,  sur- 
rendering themselves  to  luxury  and  effeminacy,  and  shut  up  in 
their  seraglios  and  harems,  left  to  their  Grand  Viziers  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Empire,  and  the  management  of  the  army.  The 
sons  of  these  Sultans,  educated  by  women  and  eunuchs,  and  se- 
cluded from  all  civil  and  military  affairs,  contracted  from  their 
earliest  infancy  all  the  vices  of  their  fathers,  and  no  longer 
brought  to  the  throne  that  vigorous  and  enterprising  spirit, 
which  had  been  the  soul  of  the  Ottoman  government,  and  the 
basis  of  all  their  institutions.  Selim  II.,  the  son  of  Soliman, 
was  the  first  who  set  this  fatal  example  to  his  successors.  In 
his  time,  the  Turks  took  the  Isle  of  Cyprus  from  the  Venetians 
(1570,)  which  they  maintained  in  spite  of  the  terrible  defeat 
Avhich  they  received  at  Lepanto  (1571,)  and  which  was  followed 
by  tlie  ruin  of  their  marine. 

END  OF  THE  FIKST  VOLUME. 


HISTORY 

OF  THE 

REVOLUTIONS   IN   EUROPE, 

FROM 

THE   SUBVERSION 

OF  THE 

ROMAN  EMPIRE  IN  THE  WEST, 

TO  THE 

CONGRESS    OF    VIENNA. 

FROM 
'   THE  FRENCH  OF  CHRISTOPHER  WILLIAM  KOCH. 

WITH  A 

CONTINUATION   TO   THE   YEAR  1815, 
BY  M.  SCHCELL. 


REVISED  AND  CORRECTED  BY  J.  G.  COGSWELL. 


WITH  A 


SKETCH  OF  THE  LATE  REVOLUTIONS  IN  FRANCE, 
BELGIUM,  POLAND,  AND  GREECE. 


3Sm6elUst)e"0  toitl)  SnflrabmsK. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 

VOL.  II. 

N  E  W  -  Y  O  R  K  : 
PUBLISHED  BY  N.  B.  PRATT. 

1836.. 


REVOLUTIONS  OF  EUROPE. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

PERIOD  VII. 

From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  to  that  of  Utrecht. — a.  d.  1648 — 

1713. 

The  politieal  system  of  Europe  underwent  a  great  cnange  at 
the  commencement  of  this  period.  France,  after  having  long 
struggled  for  her  own  independence  against  Austria,  at  length 
turned  the  balance,  and  became  so  formidable  as  to  combine 
against  herself  the  whole  policy  and  military  power  of  Europe. 
The  origin  of  this  extraordinary  influence  of  France,  belongs  to 
the  reigns  of  Charles  VII.,  and  Louis  XL  Several  important 
accessions  which  she  made  at  this  epoch,  together  with  the 
change  which  happened  in  her  government,  gave  her  a  power 
and  energy,  which  might  have  secured  her  a  decided  preponde- 
rance among  the  Continental  States,  had  not  her  influence  been 
overbalanced  by  Austria,  which,  by  a  concurrence  of  fortunate 
events,  and  several  wealthy  marriages,  had  suddenly  risen  to  a 
degree  of  power  that  excited  the  jealousy  of  all  Europe.  Hence, 
for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  it  required  all  the  political  re- 
sources of  France  to  make  head  against  her  rival ;  and  what 
added  to  her  misfortunes  was,  that,  though  freed  from  the  dis- 
traction of  the  Italian  war,  she  was  still  agitated  by  civil  wars, 
which  employed  her  whole  military  force. 

It  was  not  till  near  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  that 
she  extricated  herself  from  this  long  struggle ;  and  that,  disen- 
gaged from  the  shackles  of  her  own  factions  and  internal  dis- 
sensions, her  power  assumed  a  new  vigour.  The  well  regulated 
condition  of  her  finances,  the  prosperity  of  her  commerce  and 
manufactures,  and  the  respectable  state  of  her  marine,  all  con- 
curred to  diffuse  wealth  and  abundance  over  the  kingdom. 
The  abasement  of  the  House  of  Austria,  effected  at  once  by  the 
treaties  of  Westphalia  and  the  PjTenees,  together  with  the 
consolidation  of  the  Germanic  body,  and  the  federal  system  of 
the  Provinces  in  the  Netherlands,  put  the  last  climax  on  her 
glory,  and  secured  to  her  the  preponderance  in  the  political  scale 
of  Europe.     This  change  in  her  political  system  was  achieved 


4  CHAPTER  VIU. 

principally  by  the  two  great  statesmen,  Cardinals  Richelieu  and 
Mazarin,  who,  by  drying  up  the  fountains  of  civil  dissensions, 
and  concentrating  the  reins  of  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  go- 
vernment, raised  that  monarchy  to  the  rank  which  its  position, 
its  population,  and  its  internal  resources,  had  assigned  it  among 
the  powers  of  the  Continent. 

Mazarin  left  the  kingdom  in  a  flourishing  state  to  Louis  XIV., 
who,  aided  by  the  counsels  and  assistance  of  the  famous  Col- 
bert, became  the  patron  of  letters  and  the  fine  arts,  and  finished 
the  work  which  was  begun  by  his  prime  minister.  Nothing 
could  equal  the  ardour  which  inspired  that  prince  for  military 
fame.  France  would  have  been  prosperous  under  his  reign, 
and  respected  even  by  all  Europe,  had  he  kept  nothing  else  in 
view  than  the  true  interests  and  happiness  of  his  people ;  but 
he  was  ambitious  of  that  sort  of  glory  which  is  the  scourge  of 
mankind,  the  gloiy  of  heroes  and  conquerors.  Hence  there  re- 
sulted a  long  series  of  wars,  which  exhausted  the  strength  and 
resources  of  the  state,  and  introduced  a  new  change  in  its  po- 
litical system.  The  same  States  which  had  formerly  made 
common  cause  with  France  against  Austria,  now  combined 
against  the  former,  to  humble  that  gigantic  power  which  seemed 
to  threaten  their  liberty  and  independence. 

[In  these  alliances  the  maritime  powers  voluntarily  took  part ; 
and,  having  less  fear  than  the  others  of  falling  under  the  yoke 
of  a  universal  monarchy,  they  joined  the  Confederates  merely 
for  the  protection  of  their  commerce — the  true  source  of  their 
influence  and  their  wealth.  They  undertook  the  defence  of  the 
equilibrium  system,  because  they  perceived,  that  a  State  which 
could  command  the  greater  part  of  the  continental  coasts,  might 
in  many  ways  embarrass  their  commerce,  and  perhaps  become 
dangerous  to  their  marine.  They  soon  acquired  a  very  great 
influence  in  the  affairs  of  this  system,  by  the  subsidies  with 
which  from  time  to  time  they  furnished  the  States  of  the  Con- 
tinent. From  this  period  the  principal  aim  of  European  policy 
was  their  finances  and  their  commercial  interests,  in  place  ot 
religion,  which  had  been  the  grand  motive  or  pretext  for  the 
preceding  wars.  With  this  new  system  began  those  abuses  oi 
commercial  privileges  and  monopolies,  prohibitions,  imposts, 
and  many  other  regulations,  which  acted  as  restraints  on  natural 
liberty,  and  became  the  scourge  of  future  generations.  It  was 
then  that  treaties  of  commerce  first  appeared,  by  which  every 
trading  nation  endeavoured  to  procure  advantages  to  itself,  at 
the  expense  of  its  rivals ;  and  it  was  then  that  the  belligerent 
powers  began  to  lay  restraints  and  interdicts  on  the  commerce 
of  neutral  States. 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  t).  164S — 1713.  5 

But  the  political  system  of  Europe  experienced  other  changes 
at  this  period.  Standing  armies  were  introduced,  and  augment- 
ed to  a  degree  that  proved  ruinous  both  to  the  agriculture  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  the  finances  of  the  government,  which,  by  this? 
means,  was  rendered  more  and  more  dependent  on  those  States. 
whose  principal  object  was  commerce.  The  frequent  commu- 
nication between  foreign  courts,  wdiich  the  policy  of  Richelieu 
had  rendered  necessary,  gave  occasion  for  envoys  and  resident 
ministers  ;  whereas  formerly  scarcely  any  other  intercourse  was 
known,  except  by  extraordinary  embassies.] 

The  first  war  that  roused  the  European  pow'ers,  was  thai 
which  Louis  XIV.  undertook  against  Spain,  to  enforce  the 
claims  which  he  advanced,  in  name  of  his  Queen  Maria  The- 
resa, over  several  provinces  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  espe- 
cially the  dutchies  of  Brabant  and  Limburg,  the  seigniories  of 
Mechlin,  the  marquisate  of  Antwerp,  Upper  Gueldres,  the 
counties  of  Namur,  Hainault  and  Artois,  Cambray  and  Cam- 
bresis,  which  he  alleged  belonged  to  him,  in  virtue  of  the  jus 
devolutionis,  according  to  the  usage  of  that  country.  According 
to  that  right,  the  property  of  goods  passed  to  the  children  of  the 
first  marriage,  when  their  parents  contracted  another.  Maria 
Theresa,  Queen  of  France,  was  the  daughter,  by  the  first  mar- 
riage of  Philip  IV.  King  of  Spain;  whereas  Charles  11. ,  his 
successor  in  that  monarchy,  was  descended  of  the  second  mar- 
riage. Louis  XIV.  contended,  that  from  the  moment  of  Philip's 
second  marriage,  the  property  of  all  the  countries,  which  were 
affected  by  the  7'ight  of  devolution^  belonged  to  his  Queen  ;  and 
that,  after  the  death  of  her  father,  that  Princess  should  enjoy 
the  succession.  In  opposition  to  these  claims  cff  France,  the 
Spaniards  alleged,  that  the  right  of  aemlution,  being  founded 
merely  on  custom,  and  applicable  only  to  particular  successions, 
could  not  be  opposed  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  Spain,  which 
maintained  the  indivisibility  of  that  monarchy,  and  transferred  the 
whole  succession  to  Charles  II.  without  any  partition  whatever. 

In  course  of  the  carmpaign  of  1667,  the  French  made  them- 
selves masters  of  several  cities  in  the  Low  Countries,  such  as 
Bruges,  Furnes,  Armentieres,  Charleroi,  Binch,  Ath,  Tournay, 
Douay,  Courtray,  Oudenarde,  and  Lille  ;  and  in  course  of  the 
following  winter,  they  got  possession  of  Franche-Comte.  The 
Pope  and  several  princes  having  volunteered  their  good  offices 
for  the  restoration  of  peace,  they  proposed  a  congress  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  ;  but  the  principal  scene  of  the  negotiation  was  at  the 
Hague,  where  Louis  sent  the  Count  d'Estrades,  to  treat  sepa- 
rately with  the  States-General.  This  negotiation  was  greatly 
accelerated  by  the   famous  Triple  Alliance,  concluded  at  the 


6  CHAPTER  VIII. 

Ha^e  1668,  between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  the  States- 
General.  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty,  the  Allied  Powers  re- 
quired Louis  to  offer  Spain  the  option,  either  to  leave  him  in 
possession  of  the  places  which  he  had  conquered,  during  the 
campaign  of  1667,  or  to  cede  to  him  either  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
emburg, or  Franche-Comte  with  the  cities  of  Cambray,  Douay 
Aire,  St.  Omer,  and  Fumes,  with  their  dependencies.  The 
Spaniards  having  accepted  the  former  of  these  alternatives,  the 
draught  of  a  treaty  of  peace  was  agreed  on,  and  signed  by  the 
ministers  of  France,  England,  and  the  States-General ;  and  this 
scheme  served  as  the  basis  of  the  treaty,  which  was  concluded 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  between  France  and  Spain  (May  2d  1668.) 
In  consideration  of  the  restitutions  which  she  had  made  to  Spain, 
France  retained,  in  terms  of  this  treaty,  the  to\^Tis  of  Charleroi, 
Binch,  Ath,  Douay,  Tournay,  Oudenarde,  Lille,  Armentieres, 
Courtray,  Bergues,  and  Furnes,  with  their  bailiwicks  and  de- 
pendencies. 

This  peace  was  soon  followed  by  a  new  war,  which  Louis 
XIV.  undertook  against  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  United  Pro- 
vinces. Wishing  to  be  avenged  on  the  Dutch,  whom  he  knew 
to  be  the  principal  authors  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  consult- 
ing only  his  own  propensity  for  war,  he  alleged,  as  a  pretext, 
certain  insulting  medals  which  had  been  struck  in  Holland,  on 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  the  Triple  Alliance.^  In  vain 
did  the  States-General  offer  him  every  satisfaction  ;  he  persist- 
ed in  his  purpose  of  declaring  war ;  and  the  better  to  succeed  in 
his  design,  he  endeavoured  first  to  dissolve  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Colbert  de  Croissy,  whom  he  sent  to  England,  found  means  to 
detach  Charles  11.  from  the  alliance,  and  to  draw  him  over  to 
side  with  Louis  against  the  Republic.  The  same  success  at- 
tended the  negotiation  which  he  set  on  foot  with  the  Court  of 
Stockholm.  Following  the  example  of  England,  the  Swedes 
renounced  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  joined  with  France.  Seve- 
ral princes  of  the  Empire,  such  as  the  Elector  of  Cologne  and 
the  Bishop  of  Munster,  adopted  the  same  line  of  conduct.  The 
war  broke  out  in  1672;  and  so  rapid  were  the  conquests  of 
Louis,  that  he  subdued  in  one  single  campaign  the  provinces  of 
Gueldres,  Utrecht,  Overyssel,  and  part  of  Holland.  He  would 
have  carried  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  if  the  Dutch  had  not  cut 
their  dikes  and  inundated  the  country. 

Alarmed  at  these  extraordinary  successes,  and  apprehending 
the  entire  subversion  of  the  Republic,  the  Emperor  Leopold  I. 
the  King  of  Spain,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  Impe- 
rial States,  leagued  in  their  favour,  and  marched  to  their  relief. 
The  Parliament  of  England  obliged  Charles  II.  to  make  peace 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  7 

with  the  Republic,  by  refusing  to  grant  him  supplies  (1674.) 
The  Elector  of  Cologne  and  the  Bishop  of  Munster  did  the 
bame  thing.  Louis  XIV.  then  thought  proper  to  abandon  his 
conquests  in  Holland  ;  and  directed  his  principal  strength  against 
Spain  and  the  Germanic  Stages.  He  subdued  Franche-Com'e 
in  the  spring  of  1674  ;  and  in  course  of  the  same  year,  the 
Prince  of  Conde  gained  the  battle  of  Senef.  In  the  followiui^ 
winter  Turenne  attacked  the  quarters  of  the  Imperialists  in 
Alsace,  and  chased  them  from  that  province,  in  spite  of  their 
superior  numbers.  That  great  general  was  slain  at  Saspach  in 
Ortenau  when  he  was  on  the  point  of  fighting  the  famous  battie 
with  Montecuculi  (11th  Aug.  1674.)  Next  year  Admiral  du 
Quesne  gained  two  naval  victories,  near  the  islands  of  Lipari 
and  Messina,  over  De  Ruyter,  who  died  of  the  wounds  he  had 
received. 

The  Swedes,  according  to  the  secret  articles  of  their  alliance 
with  France,  had  penetrated,  in  the  month  of  December  1674, 
inio  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg,  to  cause  a  diversion  against 
the  Elector  Frederic  AVilliam,  who  commanded  the  Imperial 
army  on  the^  Rhine  ;  but  the  Elector  surprised  then^jDy  forced 
inarches  at  Rathenow,  and  completely  routed  their  army  near 
Fehrbellin  (1675.)  The  Emperor  then  declared  war  against 
Sweden  ;  and  the  Elector,  in  concert  with  the  princes  of  Bruns- 
wick, the  Bishop  of  Munster,  and  the  King  of  Denmark,  strip- 
ped the  Swedes  of  the  greater  part  of  their  possessions  in  the 
Empire. 

At  length,  in  the  years  1678-79,  a  peace  was  concluded  at 
INimeguen,  under  the  mediation  of  England.  Louis  XIV.  con- 
trived to  divide  the  allies,  and  to  make  a  separate  treaty  with 
the  Dutch,  by  which  he  restored  to  them  the  city  of  Maestricht, 
which  he  had  again  seized.  The  example  of  the  Dutch  v/as  fol- 
lowed by  the  Spaniards,  who  in  like  manner  signed  a  special 
treaty  with  France ;  in  virtue  of  which,  they  gave  up  to  her 
Franche-Comte,  with  several  cities  in  Flanders  and  Hainault, 
such  as  Valenciennes,  Bouchain,  Conde,  Cambray,  Aire,  St. 
Omer,  Ypres,  Warwick,  Warneton,  Poperingen,  Eailleul,  Cas- 
sel,  Bavay,  and  Maubeuge,  with  their  dependencies.  The  peace 
of  Munster  (1648)  was  renewed  by  that  which  was  concluded 
at  Nimeguen,  between  France,  the  Empire,  and  the  Emperor. 
France,  on  renouncing  her  right  to  a  garrison  in  Philipsbiirg, 
got  possession  of  the  city  of  Friburg  in  Brisgaw,  but  refused  to 
restore  what  s'.-e  had  wrested  from  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  except 
on  conditions  so  burdensome,  that  the  Duke  would  hot  accept 
them  and  preferred  to  abandon  the  repossession  of  his  dutchy. 
As  to  the  peace  which  France  and  Sweden  had  negotiated  vriih 


8  CHAPTER  Vlli. 

Denmark  and  her  allies  the  Princes  of  the  Empire,  it  was  re- 
newed by  diiTerent  special  treaties,  concluded  in  course  of  the 
year  1679. 

No  sooner  was  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  concluded,  than  there 
sprung-  up  new  troubles,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Troubles  oj 
rhe  Reiniiojis.  Louis  XIV.,  whose  ambition  was  without  bounds, 
had  instituted  a  Chamher  of  Reunion,  in  the  parliament  of  Metz-. 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  terri- 
tories ceded  to  him  by  the  treaties  of  Westphalia,  the  Pyrenees, 
Aix-xa-Chapelle,  and  Nimeguen.  This  Chan:iber,  as  well  as  the 
Parliament  of  Besan9on,  and  the  Sovereign  Council  of  Alsace, 
adjudged  to  the  King,  by  their  decree,  several  towns  and  seignio- 
ries, as  being  fiefs  or  dependencies  of  Alsace  ;  as  also  the  three 
bishoprics,  Franche-Comte,  and  the  territories  which  had  been 
ceded  to  him  in  the  Netherlands. 

The  King's  views  were  principally  directed  to  Alsace.  He 
had  already  tendered  his  claims  on  this  province,  shortly  after 
the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  when  the  matter  had  been  referred 
to  the  decision  of  arbiters  chosen  by  the  Emperor  himself.  The 
work  of  arbitration  was  not  far  advanced,  when,  it  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  Dutch  war,  in  which  the  Emperor  and  the  Em- 
pire were  both  implicated.  The  peace  of  Nimeguen  havmg 
confirmed  the  treaty  of  Munster,  he  preferred  the  method  of  re- 
•miion  to  that  of  arbitration,  for  reclaiming  his  alleged  rights. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  general  terms  in  which  the  cession  of 
Alsace  was  announced  in  the  seventy-third  and  seventy-fourth 
articles  of  the  said  treaty,  he  claimed  the  absolute  sovereignty 
of  the  whole  province,  and  obliged  the  immediate  states,  inclu- 
ded in  it,  to  acknowledge  his  sovereignty,  and  to  do  him  fealty 
and  homage,  notwithstanding  the  reservations  which  the  eighty- 
seventh  article  of  the  same  treaty  had  stipulated  in  favour  of 
these  very  States.  M.  de  Louvois  appeared  before  Strasburg 
at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  and  summoned  that  city  tt)  sub- 
mit to  the  King.  Accordingly,  it  surrendered  by  capitulation 
on  the  30th  September  1681.  These  reunions  extended  also  to 
the  Netherlands,  where  the  French  seized,  among  others,  the 
cities  of  Courtray,  Dixmude  and  Luxemburg. 

Louis  XIV.,  in  thus  taking  upon  himself  alone  the  interpre- 
tation of  these  treaties  of  peace,  could  not  but  offend  the  powers 
interested  in  maintaining  them.  A  new  general  league  was 
jM'ojected  against  France,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  they  de- 
liberated on  the  means  of  setting  on  foot  an  Imperial  army  ;  but 
the  want  of  unanimity  among  the  members  of  the  Germanic  bo- 
d;  'he  troubles  in  Hungary,  which  were  immediately  succeed- 
ei    ,     a  war  with  the  Porte,  and  the  march  of  a  Turkish  army 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  9 

on  Vienna,  threw  them  into  a  stale  of  consternation,  and  pre- 
vented the  Imperial  Diet  from  adopti'ng  any  vigorous  resolution. 
Spain,  exhausted  by  protracted  wars,  and  abandoned  hj  Eno-- 
land  and  Holland,  was  quite  incapacitated  from  taking  arms. 
Nothing  else,  therefore,  remained  for  the  parties  concerned,  than 
to  have  recourse  to  negotiation.  Conferences  were  opened  at 
Frankfort,  which,  after  having  languished  for  fifteen  months  in 
that  city,  were  transferred  to  Ratisbon,  where  a  truce  of  twenty 
years  was  signed  (15th  August  1684)  between  France  and  Spain; 
as  also  between  France,  the  Emperor  and  the  Empire.  By  the 
former  of  these  treaties,  Louis  retained  Luxemburg,  Bo  vines, 
and  Chimay,  with  their  dependencies  ;  restoring  all  the  places 
which  he  had  occupied  in  the  Netherlands  prior  to  the  20th  Au- 
gust  1683.  As  to  the  treaty  between  France  and  the  Emperor, 
the  former  retained,  during  the  truce,  the  city  of  Strasburg,  and 
the  fort  of  Kehl,  besides  all  the  places  and  seigniories  which 
they  had  taken  possession  of,  since  the  commencement  of  the 
troubles  till  the  1st  of  August  1681.  In  all  the  places  that  were 
surrendered  to  him,  Louis  preserved  the  exercise  of  his  sover- 
eign rights,  leaving  to  the  proprietors  or  seigniors  the  entire  en- 
joyment of  the  fruits  and  revenues  belonging  to  their  territorial 
rights. 

It  was  nearly  about  this  same  time  that  Louis  XIV.  under- 
took to  extirpate  Calvinism  from  France.  Incensed  against  the 
Protestants  by  the  old  chancellor  Letellier,  and  his  minister  Lou- 
vois,  the  chancellor's  son,  he  circumscribed,  by  repeated  declara- 
tions, the  privileges  which  they  enjoyed  in  virtue  of  former 
edicts.  The  holding  of  general  synods  was  forbidden  ;  the  two 
Chambers  were  suppressed ;  and  they  were  all,  without  excep- 
tion, debarred  from  exercising  any  public  function.  At  last, 
Louis  went  so  far  as  to  send,  immediately  after  the  truce  of  Ra- 
tisbon (1634,)  dragoons  over  all  France,  to  endeavour,  as  was 
said,  to  convert  the  Protestants  by  gentle  compulsion.  This 
measure  was  next  followed  by  the  famous  Edict  of  1685,  which 
revoked  that  of  Nantes,  published  in  1593,  and  that  of  Nismes 
in  1629.  All  exercise  of  their  religion — all  assemblies  for  wor- 
ship, even  in  the  house,  were  forbidden  to  the  Protestants,  under 
pain  of  imprisonment  and  confiscation  of  goods.  Their  churches 
were  ordered  to  be  demolished.  Parents  were  enjoined  to  have 
their  children  baptized  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  to  bring  them 
up  in  the  religion  of  the  state.  The  ministers  were  banished, 
and  the  other  Protestants  were  forbidden  to  depart  the  country, 
imder  pain  of  the  galleys  for  men,  and  imprisonment  and  confis- 
cation for  women.  The  rigour  of  these  prohibitions,  however, 
did  not  prevent  a  vast  multitude  of  the  French  Protestants  from 


10  CHAPTER   Vni. 

removing  to  foreign  countries,  and  transferring  the  seat  of  their 

industry  to  Germany,  England,  and  Holland. 

This  blindfold  zeal  for  religion,  however,  did  not  hinder  Louis 
from  vigorously  supporting  the  rights  of  his  crown  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  court  of  Kome.  Among  the  different  dis- 
putes that  arose  between  him  and  the  Popes,  that  which  regard- 
ed the  prerogative  of  Regale  deserves  to  be  particularly  remark- 
ed. The  King,  by  declarations  issued  in  1673  and  1675,  having 
extended  that  right  to  all  the  archbishoprics  and  bishoprics  within 
the  kingdom,  the  bishops  of  Aleth  and  Pamiers,  who  pretended 
to  be  exempt  from  it,  applied  to  the  Pope,  claiming  his  protection. 
Innocent  XI.  interposed,  by  vehement  briefs  which  he  addressed 
to  the  King  in  favour  of  the  bishops.  This  induced  Louis  to 
convoke  an  assembly  of  the  French  clergy,  in  which,  besides 
the  extension  of  the  Regale,  he  caused  them  to  draw  up  the  four 
famous  propositions,  which  are  regarded  as  the  basis  of  the  li- 
berties of  the  Galilean  Church.  These  propositions  were,  (1.) 
That  the  power  of  the  Pope  extends  only  to  things  spiritual,  and 
has  no  concern  with  temporal  matters.  (2.)  That  the  authority 
of  the  Pope  in  spiritual  affairs  is  subordinate  to  a  general  coun- 
cil. (3.)  That  it  is  even  limited  by  the  canons,  the  customs, 
and  constitution  of  the  kingdom  and  the  Galilean  Church.  (4.) 
That  in  matters  of  faith  the  Pope's  authority  is  not  infallible. 

The  truce  which  had  been  concluded  for  twenty  years  at  Ra- 
tisbon,  continued  only  four  ;  at  the  end  of  which  Louis  again 
took  up  arms.  He  pretended  to  have  got  information,  that  the 
Emperor  Leopold  only  waited  till  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
with  the  Turks,  to  make  war  upon  him  ;  and  he  thence  inferred, 
that  prudence  required  him  rather  to  anticipate  his  enemy,  than 
allow  himself  to  be  circumvented.  In  proof  of  this  assertion, 
he  cited  the  treaty  concluded  at  Augsburg  in  1686,  between  the 
Emperor,  the  King  of  Spain,  the  States-General,  Sweden,  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  principal  States  of  the  Empire,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  treaties  concluded  with  France.  Louis 
wished  moreover  to  enforce  the  claims  which  the  Dutchess  of 
Orleans,  his  sister-in-law,  alleged  to  the  succession  of  the  Pala- 
tinate. That  princess  was  the  sister  of  Charles,  the  last  Elector 
Palatine,  of  the  family  of  Simmern,  who  died  in  1685.  She 
did  not  dispute  the  fiefs  with  her  brother's  successor  in  the 
Electorate  ;  she  claimed  the  freeholds,  which  comprehended  a 
considerable  part  of  the  Palatinate  ;  while  the  new  Elector, 
Philip  William,  of  the  family  of  Neuburg,  maintained  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  and  usages  of  Germany,  the  entire  succes- 
sion belonged  to  him,  without  any  partition  whatever. 

Besides  these  motives  which  Louis  XIV.  set  forth  in  a  long 


PERIOD  vir.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  11 

manifesto,  there  was  another  which  he  kept  concealed,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was,  to  prevent  the  expedition  which  the  Prince 
of  Orange.  Stadtholder  of  the  United  Provinces,  was  preparing 
to  send  to  England,  against  James  II.  his  brother-in-law,  who 
had  become  odious  to  the  whole  English  nation.  It  was  of  great 
importance  for  France  to  maintain,  on  the  throne  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, a  prince  whom  she  protected,  and  who  would  always  es- 
pouse her  interests ;  while  it  was  easy  to  foresee,  that  if  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  the  declared  enemy  of  Louis,  and  the  author 
of  the  league  of  Augsburg,  should  succeed  in  uniting  the  cro^vn 
of  England  to  the  stadtholdership,  he  would  not  fail  to  employ 
this  new  influence,  and  turn  the  combined  force  of  both  states 
against  France.  The  only  method  of  preventing  an  event  so 
prejudicial  to  the  true  interests  of  that  kingdom  would  have  been, 
doubtless,  to  equip  an  expedition,  and  pitch  his  camp  on  the 
frontiers  of  Holland.  The  Court  of  France  knew  this  well,  and 
vet  they  contented  themselves  with  sending  an  army  to  the 
!Rhine,  which  took  possession  of  Philipsburg,  Mayence,  and  the 
whole  Palatinate,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  Electorate  of  Treves 
(Sept.  and  Oct.  1688.)  Louvois,  the  French  minister  who  di- 
rected these  operations,  had  flattered  himself  that  the  Dutch, 
when  they  beheld  the  war  breaking  out  in  their  vicinity,  would 
not  dare  to  take  any  part  in  the  troubles  of  England.  In  this 
opinion  he  was  deceived ;  the  Prince  of  Orange,  supported  by  the 
Dutch  fleet,  effected  a  landing  in  England  (16th  November  1688.) 
The  revolution  there  was  soon  completed,  by  the  dethronement 
of  James  II. ;  and  Louis  XIV.,  ending  where  he  should  have 
begun,  then  declared  war  against  the  States-General.  This 
mistaken  policy  of  the  French  minister  became  the  true  source  of 
all  the  subsequent  reverses  that  eclipsed  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
A  powerful  league  was  nov/  formed  against  France,  which 
was  joined  successively  by  the  Emperor,  the  Empire,  England, 
Holland,  Spain  and  Savoy  (1689.)  Louis  XIV.,  in  order  to 
make  head  against  these  formidable  enemies,  recalled  his  troops 
from  those  places  which  they  occupied  in  the  Palatinate,  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine  ;  but  in  withdrawing  them,  he  ordered 
a  great  number  of  the  towns  to  be  burnt  to  ashes,  and  laid  waste 
the  whole  country.  By  this  barbarity,  which  circumstances  by 
no  means  called  for,  he  only  aggravated  the  hatred  and  increased 
the  ardour  of  his  enemies.  War  was  commenced  by  sea  and 
land;  in  Italy,  Spain,  Ireland,  the  Low  Countries,  and  on  the 
Rhine.  Louis  supported  it  nobly  against  a  great  part  of  Europe, 
now  combined  against  him.  His  armies  were  victorious  every 
where.  Marshal  Luxembourg  signalized  himself  in  the  cam- 
'^aigns  of  Flanders,  by  the  victories  which  he  gained  over  the 


12  CHAPTER  VIII. 

allies  at  Fleurus  (1st  July  1690,)  Steinkirk  (3d  Aug.  1692,)  and 
Landen  or  Nerwinden  (29th  July  1693.)  In  Italy.  Marshal  Ca- 
tinat  gained  the  battle  of  Stafarda  (18th  Aug.  1690,)  and  Mar- 
sagha  (4th  Oct.  1693)  over  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  The  naval 
glory  of  France  was  well  supported  by  the  Count  de  Tourville 
at  the  battles  of  Beachy-head  (10th  July  1690,)  and  La  Hogue 
(29th  May  1692.) 

However  brilliant  the  success  of  her  arms  might  be,  the  pro-  * 
digious  efforts  which  the  war  required  could  not  but  exhaust 
France,  and  make  her  anxious  for  the  return  of  peace.  Besides, 
Louis  XIV.  foresaw  the  approaching  death  of  Charles  II.  of 
Spain  ;  and  it  was  of  importance  for  him  to  break  the  grand 
alliance  as  soon  as  possible ;  as  one  of  its  articles  secured  the 
succession  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  to  the  Emperor  and  his' 
descendants,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  King  of  France.  In  this 
case,  he  wished,  for  his  own  interest,  to  give  every  facility  for 
the  restoration  of  peace  ;  and  by  the  treaty  which  he  concluded 
separately  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  he  granted  that  Prince,  be- 
sides the  fortress  of  Pignerol,  and  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
wilh  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  the  privilege  of  royal  honours  for 
his  ambassadors.  This  treaty,  concluded  at  Turin  (29th  Aug. 
1696,)  was  a  preliminary  to  the  general  peace,  signed  at  Rys- 
wick,  between  France,  Spain,  England,  and  Holland  (20th  Sept. 
1697.)  Each  of  the  contracting  parties  consented  to  make 
mutual  restitutions.  France  even  restored  to  Spain  all  the  towns 
and  territories  which  she  had  occupied  in  the  Low  Countries, 
by  means  of  the  reunions ;  with  the  exception  of  eighty-two 
places,  mentioned  in  a  particular  list,  as  being  dependencies  of 
Charlemont,  Maubeuge,  and  other  places  ceded  by  the  preceding 
treaties.  Peace  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  the  Empire 
was  also  signed  at  Kyswick.  The  treaties  of  Westphalia  and 
Nimeguen  were  there  renewed ;  and  the  decrees  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Reunion  at  Metz,  and  of  the  Sovereign  Courts  at  Besan- 
^on  and  Brisach,  were  rescinded  and  annulled.  Louis  XIV. 
engaged  to  restore  to  the  Empire  all  that  he  had  appropriated  to 
himself,  by  means  of  the  reunions,  either  before  or  during  the 
v.'ar  ;  that  is  to  say,  all  places  situated  or  acquired  beyond  the 
bounds  of  Alsace.  The  city  of  Strasburg  was  ceded  to  France, 
by  a  particular  article  of  the  treaty  ;  but  the  fortress  of  Kehl,  the 
cities' cfFriburg,  Brisach,  and  Philipsburg,  were  surrendered  to 
the  Emperor.  Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  and  son  of  Charles 
v.,  v/as  reinstated  in  his  dutchy,  without  any  other  reservation 
ihan  that  of  Saar-Louis,  and  the  city  and  prefecture  of  Longwy. 
As  to  the  claims  of  the  Dutchess  of  Orleans' on  the  Palatinate, 
they  were  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  the  Emperor  and  the 


Execution  of  Charles  L  1649.     V^ol.  1,  p.  263. 


Cromwell  dissolving  the  Long  Farliament. 
Vol.  2,  p.  28. 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  164&— 1713.  13 

Kimg  of  France  ;  to  be  referred  to  the  decision  of  the  Pope, 
should  these  two  Sovereigns  happen  to  differ  in  opinion. 

The  peace  of  Ryswick  was  followed  by  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  which  embroiled  Europe  afresh,  and  occasioned 
considerable  changes  in  its  political  state.  Charles  II.  King  of 
Spain,  son  of  Philip  IV.,  and  last  male  descendant  of  the  Spanish 
branch  of  the  House  of  Austria,  having  neither  son,  nor  daughter, 
nor  brother,  the  Spanish  monarchy,  according  to  a  fundamental 
law  of  the  kingdom,  which  fixed  the  succession  in  the  cognate 
lijie,  appeared  to  belong  to  Maria  Theresa,  Queen  of  France 
eldest  sister  of  Charles,  and  to  the  children  of  her  marriage  with 
Louis  XIV.  To  this  title  of  Maria  Theresa,  was  opposed  her 
express  renunciation,  inserted  in  her  marriage-contract,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees  ;  but  the  French  maintained, 
that  that  renunciation  was  null,  and  that  it  could  not  prejudice 
the  children  of  the  Queen,  who  held  their  right,  not  from  their 
mother,  but  by  the  fundamental  law  of  Spain. 

Admitting  the  validity  of  the  Queen's  renunciation,  the  lineal 
order  fixed  the  Spanish  succession  on  her  younger  sister,  Mar- 
garet Theresa,  who  had  married  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  and 
left  an  only  daughter,  Maria  Antoinette,  spouse  to  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria,  and  mother  of  Joseph  Ferdinand,  the  Electoral 
Prince  of  Bavaria. 

The  Emperor,  who  wished  to  prese-rve  the  Spanish  monarchy 
in  his  own  family,  availed  himself  of  the  renunciation  which  he 
had  exacted  from  his  daughter,  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Antoi- 
nette, when  she  married  Maximilian,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  to 
appear  as  a  candidate  himself,  and  advance  the  claims  of  his 
mother,  Maria  Anne,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  King  of  Spain,  and 
aunt  of  Charles  II.  He  alleged,  that  the  Spanish  succession 
had  been  secure^  to  this  latter  Princess,  both  by  her  marriage- 
contract,  and  by  the  testaments  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  ;  and  as 
he  had  two  sons,  the  Archdukes  Joseph  and  Charles,  by  his 
marriage  with  the  Princess  Palatine  of  Neuburg,  he  destined 
the  elder  for  the  Imperial  throne  and  the  States  of  Austria,  and 
the  younger  for  the  Spanish  monarchy. 

These  different  claims  having  excited  apprehensions  of  a  ge- 
neral war,  England  and  Holland,  from  a  desire  to  prevent  it, 
drew  up  a  treaty  of  partition,  in  concert  with 'Louis  XIV.  (11th 
Oct.  1698,)  in  virtue  of  which  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  se- 
cured to  Joseph  Ferdinand,  in  case  of  the  death  of  Charles  II. ; 
while  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of  Tusca- 
ny, the  marquisate  of  Finale,  and  the  province  of  Guipuscoa, 
were  reserved  to  the  Dauphin  of  France.  The  Archduke 
Charles,  son  to  the  Emperor,  was  to  have  the  dutchy  of  Milan. 

VOL.  ii.  2 


14 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Although  the  King  of  Spain  disapproved  of  the  treaty,  so  far  as 
it  admitted  a  partition,  nevertheless,  in  his  will,  he  recognised 
the  Prince  of  Bavaria  as  his  successor  in  the  Spanish  monarchy. 

A  premature  death  having  frustrated  all  the  high  expectations 
of  that  prince,  the  powers  who  had  concluded  the  first  treaty  of 
partition  drew  up  a  second,  which  Avas  signed  at  London  (March 
13,  1700.)  According  to  this,  the  Archduke  Charles,  youngest 
son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold,  was  destined  the  presumptive  heir 
to  the  Spanish  monarchy.  They  awarded  to  the  Dauphin  the 
dutchy  of  Lorraine,  with  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and 
the  province  of  Guipuscoa ;  assigning  to  the  Duke  of  Lorraine 
the  dutchy  of  Milan  in  exchange.  Louis  XIV.  used  every  effort" 
to  have  this  new  treaty  of  partition  approved  by  the  Court  of 
Vienna.  He  sent  thither  the  Marquis  Villars,  who,  after  having 
been  long  amused  with  vague  promises,  failed  entirely  in  his 
negotiation ;  and  the  Emperor,  whose  main  object  was  to  con- 
ciliate the  Court  of  Madrid,  lost  the  only  favourable  moment 
which  might  have  fixed  the  succession  of  the  Spanish  monarchy 
in  his  family,  with  the  consent  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  principal 
Courts  of  Europe. 

At  Madrid,  this  affair  took  a  turn  diametrically  opposite  to 
the  views  and  interests  of  the  Court  of  Vienna.  Charles  II., 
following  the  counsels  of  his  prime  minister.  Cardinal  Porto- 
carrero,  and  after  having  taken  the  advice  of  the  Pope,  and  of 
the  most  eminent  theologians  and  laAvyers  in  his  kingdom,  de- 
termined to  make  a  second  will,  in  which  he  recognised  the 
rights  of  Maria  Theresa,  his  eldest  sister  ;  and  declared,  that  as 
the  renunciation  of  that  princess  had  been  made  solely  to  pre- 
vent the  union  of  Spain  with  the  kingdom  of  France,  that  mo- 
tive ceased  on  transferring  the  Spanish  monarchy  to  one  of  the 
younger  sons  of  the  Dauphin.  Accordingly,  he  nominated  Phi- 
lip of  Anjou,  the  Dauphin's  second  son,  heir  to  his  whole  do- 
minions ;  in  case  of  his  death,  the  Duke  of  Berri,  his  younger 
brother  ;  next,  the  Archduke  Charles  ;  and  lastly,  the  Duke  of 
Savoy ;  expressly  forbidding  all  partition  of  the  monarchy. 

Charles  II.  having  died  on  the  1st  of  November  following, 
the  Junta,  or  Council  of  Regency,  which  he  had  appointed  by 
his  will,  sent  to  Louis  XIV.,  praying  him  to  accede  to  the  set- 
tlement of  their  late  King,  and  give  up  his  grandson  to  the 
wishes  of  the  Spanish  nation.  The  same  courier  had  orders  to 
pass  on  to  Vienna,  in  case  of  a  refusal  on  his  part,  and  make 
the  same  offer  to  the  Archduke.  The  Court  of  France  then 
assembled  a  Grand  Council,  in  which  they  held  a  deliberation 
as  to  what  step  it  was  best  to  adopt,  in  an  affair  which  so  nearly 
concerned  the  general  repose  of  Europe.     The  result  of  this 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648—1713.  15 

Council  was,  that  they  ought  to  accede  to  the  will  of  Charles 
II.,  and  renounce  the  advantages  which  the  second  treaty  of 
partition  held  out  to  France.  It  was  alleged,  as  the  reason  of 
this  resolution,  that  by  refusing  to  accept  the  will,  Louis  must 
■either  abandon  altogether  his  pretensions  to  the  Spanish  mo- 
oarchy,  or  undertake  an  expensive  war  to  obtain  by  conquest 
what  the  treaty  of  partition  assigned  him ;  without  being  able, 
in  this  latter  case,  to  reckon  on  the  effectual  co-operation  of  the 
two  maritime  courts. 

Louis  XIV.  having  therefore  resolved  to  accede  to  the  will, 
Philip  of  Anjou  was  proclaimed  King  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
made  his  solemn  entry  into  Madrid  on  the  14th  of  April  1701. 
Most  of  the  European  powers,  such  as  the  States  of  Italy,  Swe- 
den, England,  Holland,  and  the  kingdoms  of  the  North,  ac- 
knowledged Philip  V. ;  the  King  of  Portugal,  and  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  even  concluded  treaties  of  alliance  with  him.  More- 
over, the  situation  of  political  affairs  in  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
the  North  was  such,  that  it  would  have  been  easy  for  Louis 
XIV.,  with  prudent  management,  fo  preserve  the  Spanish  crown 
on  the  head  of  his  grandson ;  but  he  seemed,  as  if  on  purpose, 
to  do  every  thing  to  raise  all  Europe  against  him.  It  was  al- 
leged, that  he  aimed  at  the  chimerical  project  of  universal  mo- 
narchy, and  the  union  of  France  with  Spain.  Instead  of  trying 
to  do  away  this  supposition,  he  gave  it  additional  force,  by 
issuing  letters-patent  in  favour  of  Philip,  at  the  moment  when 
he  was  departing  for  Spain,  to  the  effect  of  preserving  his  rights 
to  the  throne  of  France.  The  Dutch  dreaded  nothing  so  much 
as  to  see  the  French  making  encroachments  on  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  which  they  regarded  as  their  natural  barrier  a- 
gainst  France  Tthe  preservation  of  which  appeared  to  be  equally 
interesting  to  England. 

It  would  have  been  prudent  in  Louis  XIV.  to  give  these  ma- 
ritime powers  some  security  on  this  point,  who,  since  the  eleva- 
tion of  William  Prince  of  Orange  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain, 
held  as  it  were  in  their  hands  the  balance  of  Europe.  Without 
being  swayed  by  this  consideration,  he  obtained  authority  from 
the  Council  of  Madrid,  to  introduce  a  French  army  into  the  Spa- 
nish Netherlands  ;  and  on  this  occasion  the  Dutch  troops,  who 
were  quartered  in  various  places  of  the  Netherlands,  according 
to  a  stipulation  with  the  late  King  of  Spain,  were  disarmed.  This 
circumstance  became  a  powerful  motive  for  King  William  to 
rouse  the  States-General  against  France.  He  found  some  diffi- 
culty, however,  in  drawing  over  the  British  Parliament  to  his 
views,  as  a  great  majority  in  that  House  were  averse  to  mingle 
in  the  quarrels  of  the  Continent;  but  the  death  of  James  II.  aj 


16  CHAPTER   VIII. 

tered  the  minds  and  inclinations  of  the  English.  Louis  XIV. 
having  formerly  acknowledged  the  son  of  that  prince  as  King  of 
Great  Britain,  the  English  Parliament  had  no  longer  any  hesi- 
tation in  joining  the  Dutch,  and  the  other  enemies  of  France. 
A  new  and  powerful  league  w^as  formed  against  Louis.  The 
Emperor,  England,  the  United  Provinces,  the  Empire,  the 
Kings  of  Portugal  and  Prussia,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  all 
joined  it  in  succession.  The  allies  engaged  to  restore  to  Aus- 
tria, the  Spanish  Netherlands,  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  the  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of  Tuscany ;  and  nevei 
to  permit  the  union  of  France  wdth  Spain. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  war,  Louis  for  some  time  main- 
tained the  glory  and  superiority  of  his  arms,  notwithstanding 
the  vast  number  of  adversaries  he  had  to  oppose.  It  w^as  not 
until  the  campaign  of  1704  that  fortune  abandoned  him  ;  when 
one  reverse  was  only  succeeded  by  another.  The  Duke  of 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  defeated  Marshal  de  Tallard  at 
Hochstett  or  Blenheim,  (Aug.  13,)  where  he  lost  thirty  thousand 
men,  and  w^as  himself  carried  prisoner  to  England.  This  disas- 
ter was  followed  by  the  loss  of  Bavaria,  and  all  the  French  pos- 
sessions beyond  the  Rhine.  The  battle  which  Marlborough 
gained  (May  23,  1706)  at  Ramillies  in  Brabant  was  not  less  dis- 
astrous ;  it  secured  to  the  allies  the  conquest  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  Netherlands  ;  and  to  increase  these  misfortunes, 
Marshal  de  Marsin  lost  the  famous  battle  of  Turin  against 
Prince  Eugene  (Sept.  7,)  wdiich  obliged  the  French  troops  to 
evacuate  Italy.  The  battle  which  was  fought  at  Oudenarde  in 
Flanders  (July  11,  1708)  was  not  so  decisive.  Both  sides 
fought  with  equal  advantage ;  but  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  who 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army,  having  quitted 
the  field  of  battle  during  the  night,  contrary  to  the  advice  of 
Vendome,  Marlborough  made  this  an  occasion  for  claiming  the 
victory. 

At  "'length  the  dreadful  winter  of  1709,  and  the  battle  of 
Malplaquet,  which  Marlborough  gained  over  Villars  (Sept.  11,) 
reduced  France  to  the  greatest  distress,  and  brought  Louis  un- 
der the  necessity  of  suing  for  peace,  and  even  descending  to 
the  most  humiliating  conditions.  M.  de  Torcy,  his  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  was  despatched  to  the  Hague  ;  and,  among  a 
number  of  preliminary  articles,  he  agreed  to  make  restitution  of 
all  the  conquests  which  the  French  had  made  since  the  peace  of 
Munster.  He  consented  to  surrender  the  city  of  Strasburg,  and 
henceforth  to  possess  Alsace  according  to  the  literal  terms  of 
the  treaty  of  Munster ;  the  throne  of  Spain  was  reserved  for 
the  archduke  ;  and  Louis  consented  to  abandon  the  interests  of 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  19 

Hudson's  Bay,  and  Straits,  the  Island  of  St.  Christopher,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Newfoundland  in  America.  Spain  gave  up  Gib- 
raltar and  Minorca,  both  of  which  had  been  conquered  by  the 
English  during  the  Avar;  they  secured  to  her,  besides,  for  thirty 
years,  the  privilege  of  furnishing  negroes  for  the  Spanish  Ameri- 
can colonies. 

The  King  of  Prussia  obtained  the  Spanish  part  of  Gueldres, 
wdth  the  city  of  that  name,  and  the  district  of  Kessel,  in  lieu  of 
the  principality  of  Orange,  which  w^as  given  to  France  ;  though 
he  had  claims  to  it  as  the  heir  of  William  III.  King  of  England. 
The  kingdom  of  Sicily  w^as  adjudged  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  to 
be  possessed  by  him  and  his  male  descendants ;  and  they  con- 
firmed to  him  the  grants  which  the  Emperor  had  made  him,  of 
that  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Milan  Avhich  had  belonged  to  the  Duke 
of  Mantua,  as  also  Alexandria,  Valencia,  the  Lumelline,  and  the 
Valley  of  Sessia.  Finally,  Sardinia  was  reserved  for  the  Elec- 
tor of  Bavaria,  the  ally  of  France  in  that  war. 

As  the  Emperor  had  not  acceded  to  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the 
war  was  continued  between  him  and  France.  Marshal  Villars 
took  Landau  and  Friburg  in  Brisgaw  ;  afterwards  a  conference 
took  place  between  him  and  Prince  Eugene  at  Rastadt.  New 
preliminaries  were  there  drawn  up  ;  and  a  congress  was  opened 
at  Baden  in  Switzerland,  Avhere  a  definitive  peace  was  signed 
(Sept.  7th  1714.)  The  former  treaties,  since  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia, were  there  renewed.  The  Electors  of  Cologne  and  Ba- 
varia, who  had  been  put  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  and  deprived 
of  their  estates,  were  there  fully  re-established.  Sardinia,  which 
had  been  assigned  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  remained  in  possession  of  the  Emperor,  w^ho  likewise 
recovered  Brisach  and  Friburg  in  Brisgaw^,  instead  of  Landau 
which  had  been  ceded  to  France. 

Louis  XIV.  did  not  long  survive  this  latter  treaty.  Never 
did  any  sovereign  patronize  literature  and  the  fine  arts  like  him. 
Many  celebrated  academies  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  owe  their  origin  to  his  auspices,  such  as  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  Belles-Lettres,  Sciences,  Painting,  and  Archi- 
tecture. His  reign  was  illustrious  for  eminent  men,  and  talents 
of  every  description,  which  were  honoured  and  encouraged  by 
him.  He  even  extended  his  favour  to  the  philosophers  and  lit- 
erati of  foreign  countries.  This  prince  has  been  reproached  for 
his  two  great  partiality  to  the  Jesuits,  his  confessors,  and  for 
the  high  importance  which  he  attached  to  the  dispute  betw^een 
the  Jansenists  and  the  Molinists,  which  gave  rise  to  the  famous 
Bull  TJiiigenitus^  ^  approved  by  the  clergy,  and  published  by  the 
King  as  a  law  of  the  state  over  all  France.     This  illustrious 


20  CHAPTER  vm. 

Prince  ended  his  days  after  a  reign  of  seventy-two  years,  fertile 
in  great  events  ;  he  transmitted  the  crown  to  his  great  grand- 
son, Louis  XV.,  who  was  only  five  years  of  age  when  he  mount- 
ed the  throne  (Sept.  1,  1714.)   . 

In  the  course  of  this  period,  several  memorable  events  hap- 
pened in  Germany.  The  Emperor,  Leopold  I.,  having  assem- 
bled a  Diet  at  Ratisbon,  to  demand  subsidies  against  the  Turks, 
and  10  settle  certain  matters  which  the  preceding  Diet  had  left 
undecided,  the  sittings  of  that  assembly  w^ere  continued  to  the 
present  time,  without  ever  having  been  declared  permanent  by 
any  formal  law  of  the  Empire.  The  peace  of  Westphaha,  had 
instituted  an  eighth  Electorate  for  the  Palatine  branch  of  Wit- 
tlesbach  ;  the  Emperor,  Leopold  I.,  erected  a  ninth,  in  favour  of 
the  younger  branch  of  the  House  of  Brunswick.  The  first  Elec- 
tor of  this  family,  known  by  the  name  of  Brunswick-Luneburg, 
or  Hanover,  was  the  Duke  Ernest  Augustus,  w^hom  the  Em- 
peror invested  in  his  new  dignity,  to  descend  to  his  heirs-male, 
on  account  of  his  engaging  to  furnish  Austria  with  supplies  in 
money  and  troops,  for  carrying  on  the  war  against  the  Turks. 
This  "^innovation  met  with  decided  opposition  in  the  Empire. 
Several  of  the  Electors  were  hostile  to  it ;  and  the  whole  body 
of  Princes  declared,  that  the  new  Electorate  was  prejudicial  to 
their  dignity,  and  tended  to  introduce  an  Electoral  Oligarchy. 
The  Duke  of  Brunswick- WolfFenbuttel  especially  protested 
against  the  preference  which  was  given  to  the  younger  branch 
of  his  House  over  the  elder,  in  spite  of  family  compacts,  and  the 
right  of  primogeniture  established  in  the  House  of  Brunswick. 

°A  confederacy  was  thus  formed  against  the  ninth  Electorate. 
The  allied  Princes  resolved,  in  an  assembly  held  at  Nuremberg, 
to  raise  an  army,  and  apply  to  the  powers  that  had  guaranteed 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia.  France  espoused  the  quarrel  of  these 
Princes  ;  she  concluded  with  the  King  of  Denmark,  a  treaty  of 
allipdice  and  subsidy  against  the  ninth  Electorate,  and  declared, 
before  the  Diet  of  the  Empire,  that  she  regarded  this  innovation 
as  a  blow  aimed  at  the  treaty  of  Westphalia.  In  course  of  time, 
however,  these  animosities  were  allayed.  Tlie  Princes  recog- 
nised the  ninth .  Electorate,  and  the  mtroduction  of  the  new 
Elector  took  place  in  1708.  A  decree  was  passed  at  the  Diet^ 
which  annexed  a  clause  to  his  admission,  that  the  CathoHc  Elec- 
tors should  have  the  privilege  of  a  casting  vote,  in  cases  where 
tlie  number  of  Protestant  Electors  should  happen  to  equal  that 
of  the  Catholics.  By  the  same  decree,  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
who  had  formerly  never  been  admitted  but  at  the  election  of  the 
Emperors,  obtained  a  voice  in  all  the  deliberations  of  the  EmpirG 
and  the  Electoral  College,  on  condition  of  his  paying,  in  time, 
'•omiag,  an  Electoral  quota  for  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia, 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  17 

Philip.  But  the  allies,  rendered  haughty  by  their  success,  de* 
manded  of  the  King  that  he  should  oblige  his  gi'andson  volun- 
tarily to  surrender  his  crown,  otherwise  they  would  compel  him 
by  force  of  arms,  and  that  within  the  short  space  of  two  months. 
The  conferences,  which  had  been  transferred  from  the  Hague 
to  Gertruydenberg,  were  consequently  broken  off,  and  the  war 
continued. 

In  this  critical  state  of  things,  two  unexpected  events  happened, 
which  changed  the  face  of  affairs;  and  Louis  XIV.,  far  from 
being  constrained  to  submit  to  the  articles  of  the  preliminaries 
at  Gertruydenberg,  saw  himself  even  courted  by  England,  and 
in  a  condition  to  dictate  the  law  to  several  of  the  powers  that 
were  leagued  against  him.  The  Emperor  Joseph  I.  died  (April 
11th  1711)  without  leaving  any  male  offspring.  His  brother  the 
Archduke  Charles,  who  took  the  title  of  King  of  Spain,  now 
obtained  the  Imperial  dignity,  and  became  heir  of  all  the  States 
belonging  to  the  German  branch  of  the  House  of  Austria.  It 
appeared,  therefore,  that  the  system  of  equilibrium  could  not 
possibly  admit  the  same  prince  to  engross  likewise  the  whole 
Spanish  monarchy.  This  event  was  coupled  with  another,  rela- 
tive to  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  ministr}'-  and 
Parliament  of  Great  Britain.  The  Whigs,  who  had  been  the 
ruling  party  since  the  Revolution  of  16S9,  were  suddenly  sup- 
planted by  the  Tories.  This  overthrow  brought  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  into  disgrace,  v/ho  had  long  stood  at  the  head  of 
affairs  in  England,  as  chief  of  the  Whig  faction.  Queen  Anne, 
who  stood  in  awe  of  him,  found  no  other  expedient  for  deprivino- 
him  of  his  influence,  than  to  make  peace  with  France.  L'Abbe 
Gualtier,  who  resided  at  London  in  quality  of  almoner  to  the 
ambassador  of  Charles  of  Austria,  was  despatched  by  her  Ma- 
jesty to  France,  to  make  the  first  overtures  of  peace  to  Louis.  A 
secret  negotiation  was  set  on  foot  between  the  two  Courts,  the 
result  of  which  was  a  preliminary  treaty  signed  at  London 
(October  Sth  1711.) 

A  congress  was  opened  at  Utrecht,  with  the  view  of  a  general 
pacification.  The  conferences  which  took  place  there,  after  the 
month  of  February  1712,  met  with  long  interruptions;  both  on 
account  of  the  disinclination  of  several  of  the  allied  powers  for 
peace,  and  because  of  the  matters  to  be  separately  treated  be- 
tween France  and  England,  which  retarded  the  progress  of  the 
general  negotiation.  The  battle  of  Denain,  which  Marshal  Vil- 
lars  gained  over  the  Earl  of  Albemarle  (July  24,)  helped  to  ren- 
der the  allies  more  tractable.  Peace  was  signed  at  Utrecht  in 
the  month  of  April  1713,  between  France  and  the  chief  bellige- 
rent powers.     The  Emperor  alone  refused  to  take  part  in  it,  as 

2# 


18 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


he  could  not  resolve  to  abandon  his  claims  to  the  Spanish 
monarchy. 

The  grand  aim  of  England  in  that  transaction,  was  to  limit 
the  overwhelming  power  of  France  ;  for  this  purpose  she  took 
care,  in  that  treaty,  to  establish  as  a  fundamental  and  inviolable 
law,  the  clause  which  ordained  that  the  kingdoms  of  France  and 
Spain  never  should  be  united.  To  effect  this,  it  was  necessary 
that  Philip  of  Anjou  should  formally  renounce  his  right  to  the 
crown  of  France  ;  while  his  brother  the  Duke  de  Berri,  as  well 
as  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  should  do  the  same  in  regard  to  the 
claims  which  they  might  advance  to  the  Spanish  monarchy. 
The  deeds  of  these  renunciations,  drawn  up  and  signed  in 
France  and  in  Spain,  in  presence  of  the  English  ambassadors, 
were  inserted,  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht ;  as  were  also  the  letters- 
patent  which  revoked  and  annulled  those  that  Louis  had  given, 
for  preserving  the  right  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou  to  the  succession 
of  the  French  crown.  Louis  XIV.  promised  for  himself,  his 
heirs  and  successors,  never  to  attempt  either  to  prevent  or  elude 
the  effect  of  these  renunciations  ;  and  failing  the  descendants 
of  Philip,  the  Spanish  succession  was  secured  to  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  his  male  descendants,  and  the  other  princes  of  his 
family,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  French  princes. 

Another  fundamental  clause  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  declared, 
that  no  province,  city,  fortress  or  place,  in  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, should  ever  be  ceded,  transferred,  or  granted  to  the  crown 
of  France  ;  nor  to  any  prince  or  princess  of  French  extraction, 
under  any  title  whatever.  These  provinces,  designed  to  serve 
as  a  barrier  for  the  Low  Countries  against  France,  were  ad- 
judged to  the  Emperor  and  the  House  of  Austria,  together  with 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  and  the  dutch}?-  of 
Milan  ;  and  as  the  Emperor  was  not  a  party  to  the  treaty,  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Spanish  Netherlands  should  remain  as  a  deposit 
in  the  hands  of  the  States-General,  until  that  prince  should  ar- 
range with  them  respecting  the  barrier-towns.  The  same  stipu- 
lation was  made  in  regard  to  that  part  of  the  French  Nether- 
lands which  Louis  had  ceded  in  favour  of  the  Emperor ;  such 
as  Menin,  Tournay,  Furnes,  and  Furnes-Ambacht,  the  fortress 
of  Kenock,  Ypres,  and  their  dependencies. 

England,  in  particular,  obtained  by  this  treaty  various  and 
considerable  advantages.  Louis  XIV.  withdrew  his  protection 
from  the  Pretender,  and  engaged  never  to  give  him  harbour  in 
France.  The  succession  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  was 
guaranteed  to  the  House  of  Hanover.  They  agreed  to  raze  the 
fortifications  of  the  port  of  Dunkirk,  which  had  so  much  excited 
the  jealousy  of  England ;  while  France  likewise  ceded  to  hei 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  21 

The  Imperial  capitulations  assumed  a  form  entirely  new,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  difference  had  for- 
merly existed  among  the  members  of  the  Germanic  body  on  this 
important  article  of  public  law.  They  regarded  it  as  a  thing 
illegal,  that  the  Electors  alone  should  claim  the  right  of  drawing 
up  the  capitulations ;  and  they  maintained,  with  much  reason, 
that  before  these  compacts  should  have  the  force  of  a  fundamen- 
tal law  of  the  Empire,  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  have 
the  deliberation  and  consent  of  the  whole  Diet.  The  Princes, 
therefore,  demanded,  that  there  should  be  laid  before  the  Diet  a 
scheme  of  perpetual  capitulation,  to  serve  as  a  rule  for  the  Elec- 
tors on  every  new  election.  That  question  had  already  been 
debated  at  the  Congress  of  Westphalia,  and  sent  back  by  it  for 
the  decision  of  the  Diet.  There  it  became  the  subject  of  long 
discussion  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  interregnum,  which  followed 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.,  that  the  principal  points  of 
the  perpetual  capitulation  were  finally  settled.  The  plan  then 
agreed  to  was  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  capitulation,  which  they 
prescribed  to  Charles  VI.  and  his  successors.  Among  other 
articles,  a  clause  was  inserted  regarding  the  election  of  a  king  of 
the  Romans.  This,  it  v/as  agreed,  should  never  take  place 
during  the  Emperor's  life,  except  in  a  case  of  urgent  necessity  ; 
and  that  the  proscription  of  an  elector,  prince,  or  state  of  the 
Empire,  should  never  take  place,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Oiet,  and  observing  the  formalities  enjoined  by  the  new  capi- 
ilation. 

Three  Electoral  families  of  the  Empire  were  raised  to  the 
oyal  dignity ;  viz.  those  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  Bruns- 
Ack-Luneburg.  Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  after  hav- 
n.g  made  a  profession  of  the  Catholic  religion,  was  elected  to 
he  throne  of  Poland  ;  a  dignity  which  was  afterwards  conf^ii-ed, 
ilso  by  election,  on  his  son  Augustus  III.  That  chang?  of  re- 
'igion  did  not  prevent  the  Electors  of  Saxony  from  remaining 
it  the  head  of  the  Protestant  interest  in  the  Diet  of  the  Em- 
pire, as  they  had  given  them  assurance  that  they  would  make 
no  innovations  in  the  religion  of  their  country,  and  that  they 
would  appoint  a  council  entirely  composed  of  Protestant  mem- 
bers, for  administering  the  affairs  of  the  Empire.  These  prin- 
ces, however,  lost  part  of  their  influence ;  and  so  far  was  the 
crown  of  Poland,  which  was  purely  elective,  from  augmenting 
the  greatness  and  real  power  of  their  house,  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  served  to  exhaust  and  enfeeble  Saxony,  by  involving  it 
in  ruinous  wars,  which  ended  in  the  desolation  of  that  fine 
country,  the  alienation  of  the  Electoral  domains,  and  the  increase 
i)f  the  debts  and  burdens  of  the  state. 


22  CHAPTER  VIII. 

If  the  royal  dignity  of  Poland  was  prejudicial  to  the  House 
of  Saxony,  it  was  by  no  means  so  with  that  of  Prussia,  which 
vhe  House  of  Brandenburg  acquired  soon  after.  The  Elector, 
John  Sigismund,  on  succeeding  to  the  dutchy  of  Prussia,  had 
acknowledged  himself  a  vassal  and  tributary  of  the  crown  of 
Poland.  His  grandson,  Frederic  William,  took  advantage  of 
the  turbulent  situation  in  w^hich  Poland  was  placed  at  the  time 
of  the  invasion  of  Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  to  obtain  a  grant  of 
the  sovereignty  of  Prussia,  by  a  treaty  which  he  concluded  with 
that  Republic  at  Welau  (19th  September  1657.)  Poland,  in  re- 
nouncing the  territorial  rights  which  she  exercised  over  Ducal 
Prussia,  stipulated  for  the  reversion  of  these  same  rights,  on  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  Electoral  House  of  Brandenburg. 

Frederic  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Frederic  William,  having 
become  sovereign  of  Ducal  Prussia,  thought  himself  authorized 
to  assume  the  royal  dignity.  The  elevation  of  his  cousin-ger- 
man,  the  Prince  of  Orange,  to  the  throne  of  Britain,  and  of  his 
next  neighbour,  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  the  sovereignty  ol 
Poland,  tempted  his  ambition,  and  induced  him  to  enter  into  a 
negotiation  on  the  subject  w4th  the  Court  of  Vienna.  The  Em- 
peror Leopold  promised  to  acknowledge  him  as  King  of  Prussia, 
on  account  of  a  supply  of  ten  thousand  men  vrhich  Frederic  pro- 
mised to  furnish  him  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
which  was  then  commencing.  To  remove  all  apprehensions  on 
the  part  of  Poland,  who  might  perhaps  offer  some  opposition, 
the  Elector  signed  a  compact,  bearing,  that  the  royal  dignity  of 
Prussia  should  in  no  way  prejudice  the  rights  and  possession  of 
the  King  and  States  of  Poland  over  Polish  Prussia ;  that  neither 
he  nor  his  successors  should  attempt  to  found  claims  on  that  part 
of  Prussia ;  and  that  the  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Welau,  which 
secured  the  reversion  of  the  territorial  right  of  Ducal  Prussia, 
on  the  extinction  of  the  heirs-male  of  Frederic  William,  should 
remain  in  full  force  and  vigour,  never  to  be  infringed  by  the  new 
King  or  any  of  his  successors.  After  these  different  conventions, 
the  Elector  repaired  to  Koningsberg,  where  he  was  proclaimed 
King  of  Prussia  (18th  January  1701.)  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  on  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation,  he  put  the  crown  on  his 
owTi  head. 

All  the  European  powers  acknowledged  the  new  King,  with 
the  exception  of  France  and  Spain,  with  whom  he  soon  engaged 
in  wa:r.  The  Teutonic  Knights,  bearing  in  mind  their  ancient 
claims  over  Prussia,  deemed  it  their  duty  to  support  them  by  a 
protest,  and  their  example  was  followed  by  the  Court  of  Rome. 
The  opinion  which  the  author  of  the  Memoirs  of  Brandenburg 
delivers  on  this  event  is  very  remarkable.     "  Frederic,"  says  he 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  23 

**  was  flattered  with  nothing  so  much,  as  the  externals  of  royalty, 
the  pomp  of  ostentation,  and  a  certain  whimsical  self-conceit, 
which  was  pleased,  with  making  others  feel  their  inferiority. 
What  at  first  was  the  mere  offspring  of  vanity,  turned  out  in  the 
end  to  be  a  masterpiece  of  policy.  The  royal  dignity  liberated 
the  House  of  Brandenburg  from  that  yoke  of  servitude  under 
which  Austria  had,  till  then,  held  all  the  Princes  of  Germany. 
It  was  a  kind  of  bait  which  Frederic  held  out  to  all  his  posterity, 
and  by  which  he  seemed  to  say,  I  have  acquired  for  you  a  title, 
render  yourselves  worthy  of  it;  I  have  laid  the  foundation  of 
your  greatness,  yours  is  the  task  of  completing  the  structure." 
In  fact  Austria,  by  promoting  the  House  of  Brandenburg,  seemed 
to  have  injured  her  own  greatness.  In  the  very  bosom  of  the 
Empire,  she  raised  up  a  new  power,  which  afterwards  became 
her  rival,  and  seized  every  opportunity  of  aggrandizement  at  her 
expense. 

As  for  the  Electoral  House  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  it  suc- 
ceeded, as  we  have  observed,  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  in 
virtue  of  a  fundamental  law  of  that  monarchy,  which  admitted 
females  to  the  succession  of  the  crown.  Ernest  Augustus,  the 
first  Elector  of  the  Hanoverian  line,  had  married  Sophia, 
daughter  of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederic  V.,  by  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  of  England,  daughter  of  James  I.,  King  of  Great 
Britain.  An  act  of  the  British  Parliament  in  1701,  extended 
the  succession  to  that  Princess,  then  Electress-Dowager  of  Han- 
over, and  to  her  descendants,  as  being  nearest  heirs  to  the  throne, 
according  to  the  order  established  by  former  acts  of  Parliament,^ 
limiting  the  succession  to  Princes  and  Princesses  of  the  Protes- 
tant line  only.  The  Electress  Sophia,  by  that  act,  was  called  to 
the  succession,  in  case  William  III.,  and  Anne,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  James  II.,  left  no  issue  ;  an  event  which  took  place 
in  1714,  on  the  death  of  Anne,  who  had  succeeded  William  in 
the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain.  The  Electress  Sophia  was  not 
alive  at  that  time,  having  died  two  months  before  that  princess. 
George,  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  son  of  Sophia  by  Ernest  Au- 
g-ustus,  then  ascended  the  British  throne  (Aug.  12,  1714,)  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  the  other  descendants  of  Elizabeth,  who,  though 
they  had  the  right  of  precedence,  were  excluded  by  being  Catho- 
lics', in  virtue  of  the  Acts  of  Parliament  16S9,  1701,  170-5. 

The  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  had  occasioned  great 
changes  in  Italy.  Spain,  after  having  been  long  the  leading 
power  in  that  country,  gave  place  to  Austria,  to  whojn  the  trea- 
ties of  Utrecht  and  Baden  had  adjudged  the  dutchy  of  Milan, 
the  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sardinia,  and  the  ports  of  Tuscany. 
To  these  she  added  the  dutchy  of  Mantua,  of  which  the  Empe- 


24  CHAPTER  VIII. 

ror  Joseph  I.  had  dispossessed  Duke  Charles  IV.  of  the  House 

of  Gonzaga,  for  having  espoused  the  cause  of  France  in  the 
War  of  the  Succession.  The  Duke  of  Mirandola  met  with  a 
similar  fate,  as  the  ally  of  the  French  in  that  war.  His  dutchy 
Avas  confiscated  by  the  Ipmperor,  and  sold  to  the  Duke  of  Modena. 
This  new  aggrandizement  of  Austria  in  Italy  excited  the  jea- 
lousy of  England,  lest  the  princes  of  that  house  should  take  oc- 
casion to  revive  their  obsolete  claims  to  the  royalty  of  Italy  and 
the  Imperial  dignity;  and  it  was  this  which  induced  the  Court 
of  London  to  favour  the  elevation  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  in 
order  to  counterbalance  the  power  of  Austria  in  Italy. 

The  origin  of  the  House  of  Savoy  is  as  old  as  the  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century,  v/hen  Ave  find  a  person  named  Berthold 
in  possession  of  Savoy,  at  that  time  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  Burgundy  or  Aries.  The  grandson  of  Berthold  married 
Adelaide  de  Suza,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Mainfroi,  Marquis 
of  Italy  and  Lord  of  Suza.  This  marriage  brought  the  House 
of  Savoy  considerable  possessions  in  Italy,  such  as  the  Marcjui- 
Kate  of  Suza,  the  Dutchy  of  Turin,  Piedmont,  and  Val  d'Aoste 
Humbert  II.  Count  of  Savoy,  conquered  the  province  of  Taren- 
tum.  Thomas,  one  of  his  successors,  acquired  by  marriage  the 
barony  of  Faucigny.  Amadeus  V.  was  invested  by  the  Empe- 
ror Henry  VII.  in  the  city  and  county  of  Asti.  Amadeus  \'II. 
received  the  voluntary  submission  of  the  inhabitants  of  Nice, 
which  he  had  dismembered  from  Provence,  together  with  the 
counties  of  Tenda  and  Boglio  ;  having  taken  advantage  of  the 
intestine  dissensions  in  that  country,  and  the  conflict  between 
the  factions  of  Duras  and  Anjou,  v/ho  disputed  the  succession 
of  Naples  and  the  county  of  Provence.  Amadeus  VIII.  pur- 
chased from  Otho  de  Villars  the  county  of  Geneva,  and  was 
created,  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  first  Duke  of  Savoy  (Feb. 
19,  1416.) 

The  rivalry  which  had  subsisted  between  France  and  Austria 
since  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  placed  the  House  of  Savoy 
in  a  situation  extremely  difficult.  Involved  in  the  wars  which 
had  arisen  between  these  two  powers  in  Italy,  it  became  of  ne- 
cessity more  than  once  the  victim  of  political  circumstances. 
Duke  Charles  III.  having  allied  himself  with  Charles  V.,  was 
deprived  of  his  estates  by  France  ;  and  his  son  Philibert,  noted 
for  his  exploits  in  the  campaigns  of  Flanders,  did  not  obtain  re- 
stitution of  them  until  the  peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis.  The 
Dukes  Charles  Emanuel  II.,  and  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  experi- 
enced similar  indignities,  in  the  wars  which  agitated  France 
and  Spain  during  the  seventeeth  century,  and  which  were  ter- 
minated by  the  treaties  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Turin  in  the  years 


Death  of  Charles  AIL  of  Siveden.     Vol.  2,  p.  41 


Encampment  of  a  Brif^ade  of  Imperial  Body 
Guards.     Vol.  2,  p.  52. 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648—1713.  2o 

1659,  1696.  In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  A^ictor 
Amadeus  II.  declared  at  first  for  his  son-in-law,  Philip  King  of 
Spain,  even  taking  upon  himself  the  chief  command  of  the 
French  army  in  Italy  ;  but  afterwards,  perceiving  the  danger  of 
his  situation,  and  seduced  by  the  advantageous  offers  which  the 
Emperor  made  him,  he  thought  proper  to  alter  his  plan,  and 
joined  the  grand  alliance  against  France.  Savoy  and  Piedmont 
again  became  the  theatre  of  the  war  between  France  and  Italy. 
The  French  having  undertaken  the  siege  of  Turin,  the  Duke 
and  Prince  Eugene  forced  their  army  in  its  entrenchments  be- 
fore the  place,  and  obliged  them  to  abandon  Italy.  The  Empe- 
ror granted  the  Duke  the  investiture  of  the  different  estates 
which  he  had  secured  to  him,  on  his  accession  to  the  grand 
alliance  ;  such  as  Montferrat,  the  provinces  of  Alexandria  and 
Valencia,  the  country  between  the  Tanaro  and  the  Po,  the  Lu- 
melhne,  Val  Sessia,  and  the  Vigevanesco ;  to  be  possessed  by 
him  and  his  male  descendants,  as  fiefs  holding  of  the  Emperor 
and  the  Empire. 

The  peace  of  Utrecht  confirmed  these  possessions  to  the  Duke  ; 
and  England,  the  better  to  secure  the  equilibrium  of  Italy  and 
Europe,  granted  him,  by  that  treaty,  the  royal  dignity,  with  the 
island  of  Sicily,  which  she  had  taken  from  Spain.  That  island 
was  ceded  to  him  under  the  express  clause,  that,  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  male  line  of  Savoy,  that  kingdom  should  revert  to 
Spain.  By  the  same  treaty  they  secured  to  the  male  descen- 
dants of  that  house,  the  right  of  succession  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy; and  that  clause  was  confirmed  by  a  solemn  law  passed 
in  the  Cortes  of  Spain,  and  by  subsequent  treaties  concluded  be- 
tween these  powers  and  Europe.  The  duke  was  crowned  King 
of  Sicily  at  Palermo  (Dec.  21,  1713,)  by  the  archbishop  of  that 
city ;  and  the  only  persons  who  refused  to  acknowledge  him  in 
that  new  capacity  were  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope. 

In  proportion  as  France  increased,  Spain  had  declined  m 
power,  in  consequence  of  the  vices  of  her  government,  the  fee- 
bleness of  her  princes,  and  the  want  of  qualifications  in  their 
ministers  and  favourites.  At  length,  under  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  the  weakness  of  that  monarchy  was  such,  that  France  de- 
spoiled her  with  impunity,  as  appears  by  those  cessions  she  was 
obliged  to  make  by  the  treaties  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Nimeguen, 
and  Ryswick.  Charles  II.  was  the  last  prince  of  the  Spanish 
line  of  the  house  of  Austria.  At  his  death  (Nov.  1700,)  a  long 
and  bloody  war  ensued  about  the  succession,  as  we  have  already 
related.  Two  competitors  appeared  for  the  crown.  Philip  of 
Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  had  on  his  side  the  will  of 
Charles  II.,  the  efforts  of  his  grandfather,  and  the  wishes  of  the 

VOL.  II.  3 


26  '  CHAPTER  Vllt. 

Spanish  nation.  Charles  of  Austria,  younger  son  of  the  Empe- 
ror Leopold  I.,  was  supported  by  a  formidable  league,  which 
political  considerations  and  a  jealousy  of  the  other  powers  had 
raised  against  France. 

Philip,  v/ho  had  been  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  Spaniards, 
had  already  resided  at  Madrid  for  several  years,  when  the  Aus- 
trian prince,  his  rival,  assisted  by  the  allied  fleet,  took  possession 
of  Barcelona  (Oct.  9,  1705,)  where  he  established  his  capital. 
The  incessant  defeats  which  France  experienced  at  this  period, 
obliged  Philip  twice  to  abandon  his  capital,  and  seek  his  safety 
in  flight.  He  owed  his  restoration  for  the  first  time  to  Marshal 
Berwick,  and  the  victory  which  that  general  gained  over  the 
allies  near  Almanza,  in  New  Castillo  (April  25,  1707.)  The 
^"chduke  having  afterwards  advanced  as  far  as  Madrid",  the 
Uuke  de  Vendome  undertook  to  repulse  him.  That  General, 
in  conjunction  with  Philip  V.,  defeated  the  allies,  who  were 
commanded  hj  General Stahremberg,  near  Villa  Viciosa  (Dec. 
10,  1710.)  These  two  victories  contributed  to  establish  Philip 
on  his  throne.  The  death  of  Joseph  I.,  which  happened  soon 
after,  and  the  elevation  of  his  brother,  the  Archduke  Charles,  to 
the  Imperial  throne  and  the  crowns  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
accelerated  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  by  v/hich  the 
Spanish  monarchy  was  preserved  to  Philip  V.  and  his  descen- 
dants. They  deprived  him,  how^ever,  in  virtue  of  that  treaty,  of 
the  Netherlands  and  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy,  such  as 
the  Milanois,  the  ports  of  Tuscany,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Naples, 
Sicily,  and  Sardinia. 

The  conditions  which  England  had  exacted  at  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  to  render  effectual  the  renunciation  of  Philip  V.  to  the 
crown  of  France,  as  well  as  that  of  the  French  princes  to  the 
monarchy  of  Spain,  having  made  h  necessary  to  assemble  the 
Cortes  or  States-General,  Philip  took  advantage  of  that  circum- 
stance to  change  the  order  of  succession  which  till  then  had  sub- 
sisted in  Spain,  and  which  was  known  by  the  name  of  the  Cas- 
tilian  Succession.  A  lav.'  was  passed  at  the  Cortes  (1713,)  by 
which  it  was  ordained  that  females  should  never  be  admitted  to 
the  crown,  except  in  default  of  the  male  line  of  Philip  ;  that  the 
male  heirs  should  succeed  according  to  the  order  of  primogeni- 
ture ;  that,  failing  the  male  line  of  that  prince,  the  crown  should 
fall  to  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  last  reigning  king,  and  her  de- 
scendants ;  and,  failing  these,  to  the  sister  or  nearest  relation  of 
the  last  king  ;  always  keeping  in  force  the  right  of  primogeniture, 
and  the  preference  of  the  male  heirs  in  the  order  of  succession. 

France,  by  the  sixtieth  article  of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees, 
having  renounced  the  protection  of  Portugal,  the  war  between 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  Si7 

Spain  and  this  latter  power  was  resumed  with  new  vig-our. 
Alphonso  VI.,  King  of  Portugal,  finding  himself  abandoned  hv 
his  allies,  resolved  to  thro^.v  himself  on  the  favour  of  England. 
The  English  granted  him  supplies,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty  which 
he  concluded  with  them  (June  23d  1661,)  and  by  which  he 
ceded  to  them  the  city  of  Tangiers  in  Africa,  and  the  isle  of 
Bombay  in  India.  France,  who  well  knew  that  it  was  her  inte- 
rest not  to  abandon  Portugal  entirely,  rendered  her  likewise  all 
the  secret  assistance  in  her  power.  The  Count  Schomberg 
passed  over  to  that  kingdom  with  a  good  number  of  officers,  and 
several  companies  of  French  troops.  The  Portuguese,  under 
the  command  of  that  General,  gained  two  victories  over  the 
Spaniards  at  Almexial,  near  Estremos  (1663,)  and  at  Monies 
Claros,  or  Villa  Viciosa  (1665,)  which  re-established  their  afiairs, 
and  contributed  to  secure  the  independence  of  PortugaL  WHien 
the  war  took  place  about  the  Right  of  DcvoIuHgii,  the  Couitof 
Lisbon  formed  a  new  alliance  with  France.  Spain  then  learned 
that  it  would  be  more  for  her  interest  to  abandon  her  projects  of 
conquering  Portugal,  and  accept  the  proposals  of  accommodation 
tendered  to  her  by  the  mediation  of  England. 

It  happened,  in  the  meantime,  that  Alphonso  VI.,  a  prince  of 
vicious  habits,  and  of  a  ferocious  and  brutal  temper,  was  de- 
throned (Nov.  23d  1667,)  and  the  Infant  Don  Pedro,  his  brother, 
was  declared  Regent  of  the  kingdom.  The  Queen  of  Alphonso, 
Mary  of  Savoy,  who  had  managed  the  whole  intrigue,  obtained, 
from  the  Court  of  Rome,  a  dissolution  of  her  marriage  with  Al- 
phonso, and  espoused  the  Regent,  her  brother-in-law  (April  2d 
166S.)  That  prince  would  willingly  have  fulfilled  the  engage- 
ments which  his  predecessor  had  contracted  with  France,  but 
the  English  Ambassador  having  drawn  over  the  Cortes  of  Por- 
tugal to  his  interests,  the  Regent  was  obliged  to  make  peace  with 
Spain,  which  was  signed  at  Lisbon,  February  13th  1668.  The 
Spaniards  there  treated  with  the  Portuguese  as  a  sovereign  and 
independent  nation.  They  agreed  to  make  mutual  restitution 
of  all  they  had  taken  possession  of  during  the  war,  with  the 
exception  of  the  city  of  Ceuta  in  Africa,  which  remained  in  the 
power  of  Spain.  The  subjects  of  both  states  obtained  the  resto- 
ration of  all  property  alienated  or  confiscated  during  the  war. 
That  peace  was  followed  by  another,  which  Portugal  concluded 
at  the  Hague,  with  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands 
(July  3-lst  1669,)  who  were  permitted  to  retain  the  conquests 
they  had  made  from  the  Portuguese  in  the  East  Indies. 

The  Court  of  Lisbon  was  soon  after  involved  in  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  which  divided  all  Europe.  Don  Pedro 
II.  had  at  first  acknowledged  Philip  V.,  and  even  contracted  an 


29  CHAPTER  VIII. 

alliance  with  him  ;  but  yielding  afterwards  to  the  influence  of 
the  British  minister,  as  well  as  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  he  joined 
the  Grand  Alliance  against  France.^  The  Portuguese  made  a 
distinguished  figure  in  that  war,  chiefly  during  the  campaign  of 
1706,  when,  with  the  assistance  of  the  English,  they  penetrated 
as  far  as  Madrid,  and  there  proclaimed  Charles  of  Austria. 

The  Portuguese,  by  one  of  the  articles  of  their  treaty  of 
accession  to  the  grand  alliance,  had  been  given  to  expect,  that 
certain  important  places  in  Spanish  Estremadura  and  Gallicia 
would  be  ceded  to  them  at  the  general  peace.  That  engage- 
ment Avas  never  fulfilled.  The  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  at 
Utrecht  (6th  February  1715,)  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  had 
ordered  the  mutual  restitution  of  all  conquests  made  during  the 
war.  The  treaty  of  Lisbon,  of  1668,  was  then  renewed,  and 
especially  the  articles  which  stipulated  for  the  restitution  of  all 
confiscated  property.  The  only  point  which  they  yielded  to  the 
Portuguese,  was  that  which  referred  to  the  colony  of  St.  Sacra- 
ment, which  the  Portuguese  governor  of  Rio  Janeiro  had  estab- 
lished (1680)  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  La  Plata,  in  South 
America,  which  was  opposed  by  Spain.  By  the- sixth  article  of 
her  treaty  with  Portugal,  she  renounced  all  her  former  claims 
and  pretensions  over  the  above  colony. 

A.  similar  dispute  had  arisen  between  France  and  Portugal, 
relative  to  the  northern  bank  of  the  Amazons  river,  and  the  terri- 
tories about  Cape  North,  in  America,  which  the  French  main- 
tained belonged  to  them,  as  making  part  of  French  Guiana. 
The  Portuguese  naving  constructed  there  the  fort  of  Macapa,  it 
was  taken  by  the  French  gove^nrr  of  Cayenne.  By  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  it  was  agreed  between  France  and  Portugal  that 
both  banks  of  the  river  Amazons  should  belong  entirely  to  Por- 
tugal ;  and  that  France  should  renounce  all  right  and  preten- 
sions whatever  to  the  territories  of  Cape  North,  lying  between 
the  rivers  Amazons  and  Japoc,  or  Vincent  Pinson,  in  South 
America. 

In  England,  an  interregnum  of  eleven  years  followed  the  death 
of  Charles  I.  Oliver  Cromwell,  the  leader  of  the  Independent 
party,  passed  two  Acts  of  Parliament,  one  of  which  abolished 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  other  the  royal  dignity.  The 
kingly  ofRce  was  suppressed,  as  useless  to  the  nation,  oppressive 
and  dangerous  to  the  interests  and  liberties  of  the  people  ;  and  it 
was  decided,  that  whoever  should  speak  of  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuarts,  should  be  regarded  as  a  traitor  to  his  country.  The  king- 
dom being  thus  changed  into  a  republic,  Cromwell  took  on  him 5  elf 
the  chief  direction  of  affairs.  This  ambitious  man  was  not  long 
in  monopolizing  the  sovereign  authority  (1653.)     He  abolished 


PERIOD  vfi.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  29 

the  Parliament  called  the  PMjnp,  which  had  conferred  on  him  his 
power  and  military  commission.  He  next  assembled  a  new 
Parliament  of  the  three  kingdoms,  to  the  number  of  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-four  members ;  and  he  took  care  to  have  it  com- 
posed of  individuals  whom  he  knew  to  be  devoted  to  his  inte- 
rests. Accordingly,  they  resigned  the  whole  authority  into  his 
hands.  An  act,  called  the  Act  of  Government,  conferred  on 
him  the  supreme  authority,  under  the  title  of  Protector  of 
the  three  kingdoms  ;  with  the  privilege  of  making  w^ar  and 
peace,  and  assembling  every  three  years  a  Parliament,  which 
should  exercise  the  legislative  power  conjunctly  with  himself. 

Cromwell  governed  England  with  a  m.ore  uncontrolled  power 
than  that  of  her  kings  had  been.  In  1651,  he  passed  the  fa- 
mous Navigation  Act,  which  contributed  to  increase  the  com- 
merce of  Great  Britain,  and  gave  her  marine  a  preponderance 
over  that  of  all  other  nations.  That  extraordinary  man  raised 
England  in  the  estimation  of  foreigners,  a-nd  made  his  Protec- 
torate respected  by  all  Europe.  After  a  war  which  he  had  car- 
ried on  against  the  Dutch,  he  obliged  them,  by  the  treaty  of 
Westminster  (1654,)  to  lower  their  flag  to  British  vessels,  and 
to  abandon  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts.  Entering  into  alliance 
with  France  against  Spain,  he  took  from  the  latter  the  island 
of  Jamaica  (1655)  and  the  port  of  Dunkirk  (1658.) 

After  his  death,  the  Generals  of  the  army  combined  to  restore 
the  old  Parliament,  called  the  Rump.  Richard  Cromweli,  who 
succeeded  his  father,  soon  resigned  the  Protectorate  (April  22, 
1659.)  Dissensions  having  arisen  between  the  Parliament  and 
the  Generals,  Monk,  who  was  governor  of  Scotland",  marched 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Parliament ;  and  after  having  defeated 
the  Independent  Generals,  he  proceeded  to  assemble  a  new  Par- 
liament composed  of  both  Houses.  No  sooner  w^as  this  Par- 
liament assembled,  than  they  decided  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuarts,  in  the  person  of  Charles  II.  (ISth  May  1660.) 

That  Prince  made  his  public  entry  into  London,  May  29, 
1660.  His  first  care  was  to  take  vengeance  on  those  vvlio  had 
been  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  death  of  his  father.  He  re- 
scinded all  Acts  of  Parliament  passed  since  the  year  1633 ;  and 
re-established  Episcopacy  both  in  England  and  Scotland.  In- 
stigated by  his  propensity  for  absolute  power,  and  following  the 
maxims  which  he  had  imbibed  from  his  predecessors,  he  adopt- 
ed measures  which  were  opposed  by  the  Parliament ;  and  even 
went  so  far  as  more  than  once  to  pronounce  their  dissolution. 
His  reign,  in  consequence,  was  a  scene  of  faction  and  agitation, 
which  proved  the  forerunners  of  a  new  revolution."*  The  api 
pellation  of  Whigs  and   Tories,  so  famous  in  English  history, 

3=^ 


30  CHAPTER  VIII. 

took  its  rise  in  his  reign.  We  could  almost,  however,  pardon 
Charles  for  his  faults  and  irregularities,  in  consideration  of  the 
benevolence  and  amiableness  of  his  character.  But  it  was 
otherwise  with  James  II.,  who  succeeded  his  brother  on  the 
British  throne  (16th  Feb.  1685.)  That  Prince  alienated  the 
minds  of  his  subjects  by  his  haughty  demeanour,  and  his  extra- 
vagant zeal  for  the  church  of  Rome,  and  the  Jesuits  his  confes- 
sors. Scarcely  was  he  raised  to  the  throne,  when  he  undertook 
to  change  the  religion  of  his  country,  and  to  govern  still  more 
despotically  than  his  brother  had  done.  Encouraged  by  Louis 
XIV.,  who  offered  him  money  and  troops,  he  was  the  first  King 
of  England  that  had  kept  on  foot  an  army  in  time  of  peace, 
and  caused  the  legislature  to  decide,  that  the  King  can  dispense 
with  the  laws.  Availing  himself  of  this  decision,  he  dispensed 
with  the  several  statutes  issued  against  the  Catholics  ;  he  per- 
mitted them  the  public  exercise  of  their  religion  within  the 
three  kingdoms,  and  gradually  gave  them  a  preference  in  all 
places  of  trust.  At  length,  he  even  solicited  the  Pope  to  send 
a  nuncio  to  reside  at  his  Court ;  and  on  the  arrival  of  Ferdi- 
nand Dada,  to  whom  Innocent  XI.  had  confided  this  mission, 
he  gave  him  a  public  and  solemn  entry  to  Windsor  (1687.) 
Seven  bishops,  who  had  refused  to  publish  the  declaration  re- 
specting Catholics,  were  treated  as  guilty  of  sedition,  and  im- 
prisoned by  his  order  in  the  Tower. 

During  these  transactions,  the  Queen,  Mary  of  Modena,  hap- 
pened to  be  delivered  of  a  Prince  (20th  June,  1688,)  known  in 
history  by  the  name  of  the  Pretender.  As  her  Majesty  had 
had  no  children  for  more  than  six  years,  it  was  not  difficult  to 
gain  credit  to  a  report,  that  the  young  Prince  was  a  suppositi- 
tious child.  James  II.,  by  his  first  marriage  with  Anne  Hyde, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  had  two  daughters,  both  Pro- 
testants ;  and  regarded,  till  then,  as  heirs  to  the  crown.  Mary, 
the  eldest,  was  married  to  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Anne, 
the  youngest,  to  George,  younger  son  of  Frederic  III.,  King 
of  Denmark.  The  English  Protestants  had  flattered  themselves 
that  all  their  wrongs  and  misfortunes  would  terminate  with  the 
death  of  James  II.  and  the  accession  of  the  Princess  of  Orange 
to  the  throne.  Being  disappointed  in  these  expectations  by  the 
birth  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  their  only  plan  was  to  dethrone 
the  King.  The  Tories  even  joined  with  the  Whigs  in  offering 
the  crown  to  the  Prince  of  Orange.  William  III.,  supported  by 
the  Dutch  fleet,  made  a  descent  on  England,  and  landed  fifteen 
thousand  men  at  Torbay  (5th  November,  1688,)  without  ex- 
periencing the  smallest  resistance  on  the  part  of  James,  who, 
seeing  himself  abandoned  by  the  military,  took  the  resolution 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648—1713.  31 

of  withdrawing  to  France,  where  he  had  already  sent  his  Queen 
and  his  son,  the  young  Prince  of  Wales.  He  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Ireland,  where  he  had  a  strong  party  ;  but  being  con- 
quered by  William  at  the  battle  of  the  Bpyne*'(llth  July  1690,) 
he  was  obliged  to  return  to  France,  where  he  ended  his  days. 

Immediately  after  the  flight  of  James,  the  Parliament  of  Eng- 
land declared,  by  an  act,  that  as  he  had  violated  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  constitution,  and  abandoned  the  kingdom,  the 
throne  was  become  vacant.  They,  therefore,  unanimously  con- 
ferred the  crown  on  William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary 
his  spouse  (Feb.  22,  16S9  ;)  intrusting  the  administration  of  af- 
fairs to  the  Prince  alone.  In  redressing  the  grievances  of  the 
nation,  they  set  new  limits  to  the  royal  authority.  By  an  Act, 
called  the  Declaration  of  Rights,  they  decreed,  that  the  King 
could  neither  suspend,  nor  dispense  with  the  laws ;  that  he 
could  institute  no  new  courts,  nor  levy  money  under  any  pre- 
tence whatever,  nor  maintain  an  army  in  time  of  peace,  without 
the  consent  of  Parliament.  Episcopacy  was  abolished  in  Scot- 
land (1694,)  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  sanctioned.  The  suc- 
cession of  the  crown  was  regulated  by  different  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment, one  of  which  fixed  it  in  the  Protestant  line,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  Catholics.  Next  after  William  and  Mary  and  their 
descendants,  was  the  Princess  Anne  and  her  descendants.  A 
subsequent  Act  conferred  the  sucpession  on  the  House  of 
Hanover  (1701,)  under  the  following  conditions: — That  the 
King  or  Queen  of  that  family,  on  their  accession  to  the  throne, 
should  be  obliged  to  conform  to  the  High  Church,  and  the  laws 
of  16S9 ;  that  v/ithout  the  consent  of  Parliament,  they  should 
never  engage  the  nation  in  any  war  for  the  defence  of  their  he- 
reditary dominions,  nor  go  out  of  the  kingdom ;  and  that  they 
should  never  appoint  foreigners  to  offices  of  trust. 

The  rivalry  between  France  and  England  assumed  a  higher 
tone  under  the  reign  of  William  III. ;  and  was  increased  by  the 
powerful  efforts  which  France  was  making  to  improve  her  ma- 
rine, and  extend  her  navigation  and  her  commerce.  The  colo- 
nies which  she  founded  in  America  and  the  Indies,  by  bringing 
the  two  nations  more  into  contact,  tended  to  foment  their  jea- 
lousies, and  multiply  subjects  of  discord  and  division  between 
them.  From  that  time  England  eagerly  seized  every  occasion 
for  occupying  France  on  the  Continent  of  Europe ;  and  the 
whole  policy  of  William,  as  we  have  seen,  had  no  other  aim 
than  to  thwart  the  ambitious  views  of  Louis  XIV.  If  this 
rivalry  excited  and  prolonged  wars  which  inflicted  many  cala- 
mities on  the  world,  it  became  likewise  a  powerful  stimulus  for 
the  contending  nations  to  develope  their  whole  faculties ;  to 


8Sf  CHAPTER  VIll. 

make  the  highest  attainments  in  the  sciences,  of  which  they  were 
susceptible  ;  and  to  carry  arts  and  civilization  to  the  remotest 
countries  in  the  world. 

William  III.  was  succeeded  by  Anne  (1702.)  It  was  in  ner 
reign  that  the  grand  union  between  England  and  Scotland  was 
accomplished,  which  incorporated  them  into  one  kingdom,  by 
means  of  the  same  order  of  succession,  and  only  one  Parliament. 
That  Princess  had  the  honour  of  maintaining  the  balance  oi 
Europe  against  France,  by  the  clauses  w^hich  she  got  inserted 
into  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  At  her  death  (1st  August  1714,) 
the  throne  of  Great  Britain  passed  to  George  I.,  the  Elector  of 
Hanover,  whose  mother,  Sophia,  derived  her  right  to  the  British 
throne  from  James  I.,  her  maternal  grandfather. 

The  power  and  political  influence  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Netherlands  had  increased  every  day,  since  Spain  acknowl- 
edged their  independence  by  the  treaty  of  Munster  (1648.) 
Their  extensive  commerce  to  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  theii 
flourishing  marine,  attracted  the  admiration  of  all  Europe. 
Sovereigns  courted  their  alliance  ;  and  the  Hague,  the  capital 
of  the  States-General,  became,  in  course  of  time,  the  centre  of 
European  politics.  That  Eepublic  was  the  rival  of  England  in 
all  her  commercial  relations  ;  and  she  ventured  also  to  dispute 
with  her  the  empire  of  the  sea,  by  refusing  to  lower  her  flag  to 
British  vessels.  These  disputes  gave  rise  to  bloody  wars  be- 
tween the  two  States,  in  which  the  famous  Dutch  Admirals, 
Trornp  and  De  Euyter,  distinguished  themselves  b}'-  their  mari- 
time exploits.  De  Ruyter  entered  the  Thames  with  the  Dutch 
fleet  (1667,)  advanced  to  Chatham,  burnt  the  vessels  in  the  roads 
there,  and  threw  the  city  of  London  into  great  consternation. 
Nevertheless,  by  the  treaties  of  Breda  (1667)  and  Westminster 
(1654,)  they  agreed  that  their  vessels  and  fleets  should  lower 
their  flag  when  they  met  either  one  or  more  ships  carrying  the 
British  flag,  and  that  over  all  the  sea,  from  Cape  Finisterre  in 
Gallicia,  to  the  centre  of  Statt  in  Norway ;  but  the  States-Gen- 
eral preserved  Surinam,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the 
war ;  and  at  the  treaty  of  commerce  which  was  signed  at  Breda, 
the  navigation  act  was  modified  in  their  favour,  in  so  far  that 
the  produce  and  merchandise  of  Germany  w^ere  to  be  considered 
as  productions  of  the  soil  of  the  Republic. 

It  was  during  these  wars  that  a  change  took  place  with  regard 
to  the  Stadtholdership  of  the  United  Provinces.  William  II,, 
Prince  of  Orange,  had  alienated  the  hearts  of  his  subjects  by  his 
attempts  against  their  liberties;  and  having,  at  his  death,  left 
his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  pregnant  of  a 
son  (1650,)  the  States-General  took  the  opportunity  of  leaving 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  164S— 17^3.  33 

that  office  vacant,  and  taking-  upon  themselves  the  direction  of 
affairs.  The  suspicions  which  the  House  of  Orange  had  excited 
in  Cromwell  by  their  alliance  with  the  Stuarts,  and  the  resent- 
ment of  John  de  Witt,  Pensionary  of  Holland,  against  the  Stadt- 
holder,  caused  a  secret  article  to  be  added  to  the  treaty  of  West- 
minster, by  which  the  States  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland 
engaged  never  to  elect  William,  the  posthumous  son  of  William 
II.,  to  be  Stadtholder  ;  and  never  to  allow  that  the  office  of 
Captain-General  of  the  Republic  should  be  conferred  on  him. 
John  de  Witt  likewise  framed  a  regulation  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Perpetual  Edict,  which  separated  the  Stadtholdership 
from  the  office  of  Captain  and  Admiral-General,  and  which 
enacted,  that  these  functions  should  never  be  discharged  by  the 
same  individual.  Having  failed,  however,  in  his  efforts  to  make 
the  States-General  adopt  this  regulation,  which  they  considered 
as  contrary  to  the  union,  John  de  Witt  contented  himself  with 
obtaining  the  approbation  of  the  Stales  of  Holland,  who  even 
went  so  far  as  to  sanction  the  entire  suppression  of  the  Stadt- 
holdership. 

Matters  continued  in  this  situation  until  the  time  when  Louis 
XIV.  invaded  Holland.  His  alarming  progress  caused  a  revo- 
lution in  favour  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  The  ruling  faction,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  John  de  Witt,  then  lost  the  good  opinion 
of  the  people.  He  was  accused  of  having  neglected  military 
affairs,  and  left  the  State  without  defence,  and  a  prey  to  the  en- 
emy. The  first  signal  of  ^evolution  was  given  by  the  small 
town  of  Veere  in  Zealand.  William  was  there  proclaimed 
Stadtholder  (June  1672,)  and  the  example  of  Veere  was  soon 
followed  by  all  the  cities  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  Every  where 
the  people  compelled  the  magistrates  to  confer  the  Stadtholder- 
ship on  the  young  Prince.  The  Perpetual  Edict  was  abolished, 
and  the  Stadtholdership  confirmed  to  William  III.  by  the  As- 
sembly of  States.  They  even  rendered  this  dignity,  as  well  as 
the  office  of  Captain-General,  hereditary  to  all  the  male  and 
legitimate  descendants  of  the  Prince.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  two  brothers,  John  and  Cornelius  de  Witt,  were  massa- 
cred by  the  people  assembled  at  the  Hague. 

After  William  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  he 
still  retained  the  Stadtholdership,  with  the  offices  of  Captain 
and  Admiral-General  of  the  Republic.  England  and  Holland, 
united  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  same  prince,  acted  thence- 
forth in  concert  to  ihwart  the  ambitious  designs  of  Louis  XIV. ; 
and  he  felt  the  effects  of  their  power  chiefly  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  when  England  and  the  States-General  made 
extraordinary  efforts  to  maintain  the  balance  of  th?  Continent 


34  CHAPTER  VIII. 

which  they  thougiit  in  danger.  It  was  in  consideration  of  these 
efforts  that  they  guaranteed  to  the  Dutch,  by  the  treaty  of  the 
Grand  Alliance,  as  well  as  by  that  of  Utrecht,  a  barrier  against 
France,  which  was  more  amply  defined  by  the  Bari'ier  Treaty, 
signed  at  Antwerp  (15th  November  1715,)  under  the  mediation, 
and  guaranty  of  Great  Britain.  The  provinces  and  towns  of 
the  Netherlands,  both  those  that  had  been  possessed  by  Charles 
11. ,  and  those  that  France  had  surrendered  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  were  transferred  to  the  Emperor  and  the  House  of 
Austria,  on  condition  that  they  should  never  be  ceded  under  any 
title  Vv^hatever ;  neither  to  France,  nor  to  any  other  prince  except 
the  heirs  and  successors  of  the  House  of  Austria  in  Germany. 
It  was  agreed  that  there  should  always  be  kept  in  the  Low 
Countries  a  body  of  Austrian  troops,  from  thirty  to  thirty-five 
thousand  men,  of  which  the  Emperor  was  to  furnish  three-fifths, 
and  the  States-General  the  remainder.  Finally,  the  Slates- 
General  were  allowed  a  garrison,  entirely  composed  of  their  own 
troops,  in  the  cities  and  castles  of  Namur,  Tournay,  Menin, 
Fumes,  Warneton,  and  the  fortress  of  Kenock  ;  while  the  Em- 
peror engaged  to  contribute  a  certain  sum  annually  for  the  main- 
tenance of  these  troops. 

Switzerland,  since  the  confirmation  of  her  liberty  and  inde- 
pendence  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  had  constantly  adhered 
to  the  system  of  neutrality  which  she  had  adopted  ;  and  taken 
no  part  in  the  broils  of  her  neighbours,  except  by  furnishing 
troops  to  those  powers  with  whom  she  was  in  alliance.  The 
fortunate  inability  which  was  the  natural  consequence  of  her 
union,  pointed  out  this  line  of  conduct,  and  even  induced  the 
European  States  to  respect  the  Helvetic  neutrality. 

This  profound  peace,  which  Switzerland  enjoyed  by  means  of 
that  neutrality,  was  never  interrupted,  except  by  occasional  do- 
mestic quarrels,  which  arose  from  the  difference  of  their  religious 
opinions.  Certain  families,  from  the  canton  of  Schweitz,  had 
fled  to  Zurich  on  account  of  their  religious  tenets,  and  had  been 
protected  by  that  repubhc.  This  stirred  up  a  war  (1656)  be- 
tween the  Catholic  cantons  and  the  Zurichers,  with  their  allies 
the  Bernese  ;  but  it  was  soon  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Baden, 
which  renewed  the  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  1531,  relative  to  these 
verv  subjects  of  dispute.  Some  attempts  having  afterwards  been 
made  against  liberty  of  conscience,  in  the  county  of  Toggenburg, 
by  the  Abbe  of  St.  Gall,  a  new  war  broke  ooit  (1712,)  between 
five  of  the  Catholic  cantons,  and  the  two  Protestant  cantons  of 
Zurich  and  Berne.  These  latter  expelled  the  Abbe  of  St.  Gall 
from,  his  estates,  and  dispossessed  the  Catholics  of  the  county  of 
Baden,  with  a  considerable  part  of  the  free  bailiwicks,  which 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648—1713.  35 

were  granted  to  them  by  the  treaty  concluded  at  Araw.  The 
Abbe  then  saw  himself  abandoned  by  the  Catholic  cantons;  and 
it  was  only  in  virtue  of  a  treaty,  which  he  concluded  with  Zu- 
rich and  Berne  (1718,)  that  his  successor  obtained  his  restor.'ition. 

Sweden,  during  the  greater  part  of  this  period,  supported  the 
first  rank  among  the  powers  of  the  North.  The  vigour  of  her 
government,  added  to  the  weakness  of  her  neighbours,  and  the 
important  advantages  which  the  treaties  of  Stolbova,  Stumsdori, 
Bromsbro,  and  Westphalia  had  procured  her,  secured  this  supe- 
riority ;  and  gave  her  the  same  influence  in  the  North  thaf 
France  held  in  the  South.  Christina,  the  daughter  of  Gustavus 
Adolpnus,  held  the  reins  of  government  in  Sweden  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  but  to  gratify  her  propensity 
for  the  fine  arts,  she  resolved  to  abdicate  the  crown  (1654.) 
Charles  Gustavus,  Count  Palatine  of  Deux-Pon";;s,  her  cousin- 
german,  succeeded  her,  under  the  title  of  Charles  X.  Being 
nurtured  in  the  midst  of  arms,  and  ambitious  only  of  wars  and 
battles,  he  was  anxious  to  distinguish  himself  on  the  throne. 
John  Casimir,  King  of  Poland,  having  provoked  him,  by  protest- 
ing against  his  accession  to  the  crov/n  of  Sweden,  Charles  made 
this  an  occasion  of  breaking  the  treaty  of  Stumsdorf,  which  was 
still  in  force,  and  invaded  Poland.  Assisted  by  Frederic  Wil- 
liam, the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  whom  he  had  attached  to  his 
interests,  he  gained  a  splendid  victory  over  the  Poles  near  War- 
saw (July  1656.)  At  that  crisis,  the  fate  of  Poland  would  have 
been  decided,  if  the  Czar,  Alexis  Michaelovitz,  who  was  also  at 
war  with  the  Poles,  had  chosen  to  make  common  cause  with 
her  new  enemies  ;  but  Alexis  thought  it  more  for  his  advantage 
to  conclude  a  truce  with  the  Poles,  and  attack  the  Swedes  in  Li- 
vonia, Ingria,  and  Carelia.  The  Emperor  Leopold  and  the  King 
of  Denmark  followed  the  example  of  the  Czar;  and  the  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  after  obtaining  the  sovereignty  of  the  dutchy  of 
Prussia,  by  the  treaty  which  he  concluded  with  Poland  at  We- 
lau,  acceded  in  like  manner  to  this  league, — the  object  of  which 
was  to  secure  the  preservation  of  Poland,  and  maintain  the  equi- 
librium of  the  North. 

Attacked  by  so  many  and  such  powerful  enemies,  the  King 
of  Sweden  determined  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  Poland,  and 
direct  his  principal  force  against  Denmark.  Having  made  him- 
self master  of  Holstein,  Sleswick,  and  Jutland,  he  passed  the 
Belts  on  the  ice  (January  1658)  with  his  army  and  artillery,  and 
advanced  towards  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  This  bold  step 
intimidated  the  Danes  so  mucli,  that  they  submitted  to  those  ex- 
ceedingly severe  conditions  which  Charles  made  them  sign  at 
Roschild  (February  3  658.)     Scarcely  was  this  treaty  concluded. 


36 


CHAPTER   Vni. 


when  the  King-  of  Sweden  broke  it  anew ;  and  under  different 
pretexts,  laid  siege  to  Copenhagen.  His  intention  was,  if  he  had 
carried  that  place,  to  raze  it  to  the  ground,  to  annihilate  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  and  fix  his  residence  in  the  province  of 
Schonen,  where  he  could  maintain  his  dominion  over  the  North 
and  the  Baltic.  The  besieged  Danes,  however,  made  a  vigor- 
ous defence,  and  they  were  encouraged  by  the  example  of  Fred- 
eric III.,  who  superintended  in  person  the  whole  operations  of 
the  siege  ;  nevertheless,  they  must  certainh^  have  yielded,  had 
not  the  Dutch,  who  were  alarmed  for  their  commerce  in  the  Bal- 
tic, sent  a  fleet  to  the  assistance  of  Denmark.  These  republi- 
cans fought  an  obstinate  naval  battle  with  the  Swedes  in  the 
Sound  (29th  October  1653.)  The  Swedish  fleet  was  repulsed, 
and  the  Dutch  succeeded  in  relieving  Copenhagen,  by  throwing 
in  a  supply  of  provisions  and  ammunition. 

The  King  of  Sweden  persisted,  nevertheless,  in  his  determi- 
nation to  reduce  that  capital.  He  was  not  even  intimidated  by 
the  treaties  which  France,  England,  and  Holland,  had  conclu- 
ded at  the  Hague,  for  maintaining  the  equilibrium  of  the  North  ; 
but  a  premature  death,  at  the  age  of  thirty-eight,  put  an  end  to 
his  ambitious  projects  (23d  February  1660.)  The  regents  who 
governed  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  of  his  son  Charles 
XL,  immediately  set  on  foot  negotiations  with  all  the  powers 
that  were  in  league  against  Sweden.  By  the  peace  which  they 
concluded  at  Copenhagen  with  Denmark  (July  3,  1660,)  they 
surrendered  to  that  crown  several  of  their  late  conquests  ;  re- 
serving to  themselves  only  the  provinces  of  Schonen,  Bleckin- 
gen,  Halland,  and  Bohus.  The  Duke  of  HolsteiPx-Gottorp,  the 
protege  of  Charles  X.,  was  secured  by  that  treaty  in  the  sove- 
reign t)-  of  that  part  of  Sleswick,  which  had  been  guaranteed  to 
him  by  a  former  treaty  concluded  at  Copenhagen.  The  war 
with  Poland,  and  her  allies  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the 
Emperor,  v/as  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Oliva  (May  3d  1660.) 
The  King  of  Poland  gaA^e  up  his  pretensions  to  the  crown  of 
Sweden;  while  the  former  ceded  to  the  latter  the  provinces  of 
Livonia  and  Esthonia,  and  the  islands  belonging  to  them  ;  to  be 
possessed  on  the  same  terms  that  had  been  agreed  on  at  the 
treaty  of  Stumsdorf  in  1635.  The  Duke  of  Courland  was  re-es- 
tablished in  his  dutchy,  and  the  sovereignty  of  ducal  Prussia 
confirmed  to  the  House  of  Brandenburg.  Peace  between  Swe- 
den and  Russia  was  concluded  at  Kardis  in  Esthonia  ;  while 
the  latter  power  surrendered  to  Sweden  all  the  places  which 
she  had  conquered  in  Livonia. 

Sweden  Vv'as  afterwards  drawn  into  the  war  against  the  Dutch 
by  Louis  XIV.,  when  she  experienced  nothing  but  disasters. 


PERIOD  ni.     A.  D.  1648—1718.  37 

She  was  deprived  of  all  her  provinces  in  the  Empire,  and  only- 
regained  possession  of  them  in  virtue  of  the  treaties  of  Zell, 
Nimeg-uenj  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Fountainbleau,  and  Lunden 
(1679,)  which  she  concluded  successively  with  the  powers  in 
league  against  France.  Immediately  after  that  peace,  a  revolu- 
tion happened  in  the  government  of  Sweden.  The  abuse  which 
the  nobles  made  of  their  privileges,  the  extravagant  authority 
claimed  by  the  senate,  and  the  different  methods  which  the 
grandees  employed  for  gradually  usurping  the  domains  of  the 
crown,,  had  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  other  orders  of  the  state. 
It  is  alleged,  that  John  Baron  Gillenstiern,  had  suggested  to 
Charles  XI.  the  idea  of  taking  advantage  of  this  discontent  to 
augment  the  royal  authority,  and  humble  the  arrogance  of  the 
senate  and  the  nobility.  In  compliance  with  his  advice,  the 
King  assembled  the  Estates  of  the  kingdom  at  Stockholm  (16S0  ;) 
and  having  quartered  some  regiments  of  his  own  guards  in  the 
city,  he  took  care  to  remove  such  of  the  nobles  as  might  give 
the  greatest  cause  of  apprehension.  An  accusation  was  lodged 
at  the  Diet  against  those  ministers  who  had  conducted  the  ad- 
ministration during  the  King's  minority.  To  them  were  attri- 
buted the  calamities  and  losses  of  the  state,  and  for  these  they 
were  made  responsible.  The  Senate  was  also  implicated.  They 
were  charged  with  abusing  their  authority  ;  and  it  was  proposed 
that  the  States  should  make  investigation,  whether  the  powers 
which  the  Senate  had  assumed  were  conformable  to  the  laws  of 
the  kingdom.  The  States  declared  that  the  King  was  not  bound 
by  any  other  form  of  government  than  that  which  the  constitu- 
tion prescribed  ;  that  the  Senate  formed  neither  a  fifth  order,  nor 
an  intermediate  power  between  the  King  and  the  States  ;  and 
that  it  ought  to  be  held  simply  as  a  Council,  with  whom  the 
King  might  consult  and  advise. 

A  College  of  Reunion,  so  called,  was  also  established  at  this 
Diet,  for  the  purpose  of  making  inquiry  as  to  the  lands  granted, 
sold,  mortgaged,  or  exchanged  by  preceding  Kings,  either  in 
Sweden  or  Livonia;  with  an  offer  on  the  part  of  the  crown  to 
reimburse  the  proprietors  for  such  sums  as  they  had  originally 
paid  for  them.  This  proceeding  made  a  considerable  augmen- 
tation to  the  revenues  of  the  crown  ;  but  a  vast  number  of  pro- 
prietors v/ere  completely  ruined  by  it.  A  subsequent  diet  went 
even  further  than  that  of  16S0.  They  declared,  by  statute,  that 
though  the  King  was  enjoined  to  govern  his  dominions  accord- 
JTig  to  the  laws,  this  did  not  take  from  him  the  power  of  altering 
these  laws.  At  length  the  act  of  1693  decreed  that  the  King 
wa.s  absolute  master,  and  sole  depository  of  the  sovereign  power ; 
without  being  responsible  for  his  actions  to  any  power  on  earth ; 

VOL.  TI.  4 


JiS  CHAPTER  Vin. 

and  that  he  was  entitled  to  govern  the  king-dom  according  to  his 
will  and  pleasure. 

It  was  in  virtue  of  these  different  enactments  and  concessions, 
that  the  absolute  power  which  had  been  conferred  on  Charles 
XL,  was  transmitted  to  the  hands  of  his  son  Charles  XIL,  who 
was  only  fifteen  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded  his  father 
(April  1,  1697.)  By  the  abuse  which  this  Prince  made  of  these 
dangerous  prerogatives,  he  plunged  Sweden  into  an  abyss  of 
troubles ;  and  brought  her  down  from  that  high  rank  which  she 
had  occupied  in  the  political  system  of  Europe,  since  the  reign 
o^  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  youth  of  Charles  appeared  to  his 
n  ;ighbours  to  afford  tbeni  a  favourable  opportunity  for  recover- 
ing what  they  had  lost  by  the  conquests  of  his  predecessors. 
Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  being  desirous  to  regain  Livoni:i, 
and  listening  to  the  suggestions  of  a  Livonian  gentleman,  namt'd 
John  Patkul,  who  had  been  proscribed  in  Sweden,  he  set  on  foot 
a  negotiation  with  the  courts  of  Russia  and  Copenhagen  ;  the 
result  of  which  was,  a  secret  and  offensive  alliance  concluded 
between  these  three  powers  against  Sweeden  (1699.)  Peter  the 
Great,  who  had  just  conquered  Azoff  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don, 
and  equipped  his  first  fleet,  was  desirous  also  to  open  up  the  coasts 
of  the  Baltic,  of  which  his  predecessors  had  been  dispossessed  by 
Sweden.  War  accordingly  broke  out  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1700.  The  King  of  Poland  invaded  Livonia  ;  the  Danes  fell 
upon  Sleswick,  where  they  attacked  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Got- 
torp,  the  ally  of  Sweden  ;  while  the  Czar,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  eighty  thousand  men,  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Narva. 

The  King  of  Sweden,  attacked  by  so  many  enemies  at  once, 
directed  his  first  efforts  against  Denmark,  where  the  danger  ap- 
pear ^d  most  pressing.  Assisted  by  the  fleets  of  England  and 
Holland,  who  had  guaranteed  the  last  peace,  he  made  a  descent 
on  the  Isle  of  Zealand,  and  advanced  rapidly  towards  Copenha- 
gen. This  obliged  Frederic  IV.  to  conclude  a  special  peace 
with  him  at  Travendahl  (Aug.  18,  1700,)  by  v.-hich  that  prince 
consented  to  abandon  his  allies,  and  restore  the  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp  to  the  same  state  in  which  he  had  been  before  the  war. 
Nexi  directing  his  march  against  the  Czar  in  Esthonia,  the  young 
King  forced  the  Russians  from  their  entrenchments  before  Narva 
(Nov.  30,)  and  made  prisoners  of  all  the  general  and  principal 
officers  of  the  Russian  army ;  among  others,  Field-Marshal 
General  the  Duke  de  Croi. 

Having  thus  got  clear  of  the  Russians,  the  Swedish  ]\Ionarch 
then  attacked  King  Augustus,  who  had  introduced  a  Saxon  army 
into  Poland,  without  being  authorized  by  that  Republic.  Charles 
vanquished  that  prince  in  the  three  famous  battles  of  Riga  (1701,) 


xiiKioD  vn,     A.  D.  1648—1713.  39 

Clissau  (1702,)  and  Pultusk  (1703;)  and  obliged  the  Poles  to 
depose  him,  and  elect  in  his  place  Stanislaus  Lecksinski,  Pa- 
latine of  Posen,  and  a  protege  of  his  own.  Two  victories  which 
were  gained  over  the  Saxons,  and  their  allies  the  Eussians,  the 
one  at  Punie  (1704,)  and  the  other  at  Fraustadt  (1706,)  caused 
Stanislaus  to  be  acknowledged  by  the  whole  Republic  of  Po- 
land, and  enabled  the  King  of  Sweden  to  transfer  the  seat  of 
war  to  Saxony.  Having  marched  through  Silesia,  without  the 
previous  authority  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  he  took  Leipzic, 
and  compelled  Augustus  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Alt-Ran 
stadt,  by  which  that  Prince  renounced  his  alliance  with  the 
Czar,  and  acknowledged  Stanislaus  legitimate  King  of  Poland. 
John  Patkul  being  delivered  up  to  the  King  of  Sweden,  ac- 
cording to  an  article  in  that  treaty,  was  broken  on  the  wheel, 
for  having  been  the  principal  instigator  of  the  war. 

The  prosperity  of  Charles  XIL,  had  now  come  to  an  end 
From  this  time  he  experienced  only  a  series  of  reverses,  which 
were  occasioned  as  much  by  his  passion  for  war,  as  by  his  in- 
discretions, and  the  unconquerable  obstinacy  of  his  character. 
The  Russians  had  taken  advantage  of  his  long  sojourn  in  Po- 
land and  Saxony,  and  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Ingria  and 
Livonia.  The  Czar  had  now  advanced  into  Poland,  where  he 
had  demanded  of  the  Poles  to  declare  an  interregnum,  and  elect 
a  nevv'  King.  In  this  state  of  matters,  the  King  of  Sweden  left 
Saxony  to  march  against  the  Czar  ;  and  compelled  him  to  eva- 
cuate Poland,  and  retire  on  Smolensko.  Far  from  listenino-, 
however,  to  the  equitable  terms  of  peace  which  Peter  offered 
him,  l;ie  persisted  in  his  resolution  to  march  on  to  Moscow,  in 
the  hope  of  dethroning  the  Czar,  as  he  had  dethroned  Augus- 
tus, The  discontent  which  the  innovations  of  the  Czar  had  ex- 
cited in  Russia,  appeared  to  Charles  a  favo^arable  opportunity 
for  effecting  his  object;  but  on  reaching  the  neighbourhood  ot 
Mohilew,  he  suddenly  changed  his  purpose,  and,  instead  of  di- 
recting his  route  towards  the  capital  of  Russia,  he  turned  to 
the  right,  and  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  the  Ukraine,  in 
order  to  meet  Mazeppa,  Hetman  of  the  Cossacs,  who  had  offered 
to  join  him  with  all  his  troops.  Nothing  could  have  been 
more  imprudent  than  this  determination.  By  thus  marchino 
into  the  Ukraine,  he  separated  himself  from  General  Levren- 
haupt,  who  had  brought  him,  according  to  orders,  a  powerful  ra 
inforcement  fromLivonia ;  and  trusted  himself  among  a  fickle  and 
inconstant  people,  disposed  to  break  faith  on  every  opportunity. 

This  inconsiderate  step  of  Charles  did  not  escape  the  pene- 
tration of  the  Czar,  who  knew  well  how  to  profit  by  it.  Putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  chosen  body,  he  intercepted  General 


40  CHAPTER  VIII. 

Lewenhaupt,  and  joined  him  at  Desna,  two  tniles  from  Pro- 
poisk,  in  the  Palatinate  of  Mscislaw.  The  battle  which  he 
fought  with  that  general  (October  9,  170S,)  was  most  obstinate, 
and,  by  the  confession  of  the  Czar,  the  first  victory  which  the 
Russians  had  gained  over  regular  troops.  The  remains  of 
Lewenhaupt's  army,  having  joined  the  King  in  the  Ukraine, 
Charles  undertook  the  siege  of  Pultowa,  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Vorsklaw,  at  the  extremity  of  that  province.  It  was 
near  this  place,  that  the  famous  battle  was  fought  (8th  July, 
1709,)  which  blasted  all  the  laurels  of  the  King  of  Sweden. 
The  Czar  gained  there  a  complete  victory.  Nine  thousand 
Swedes  were  left  on  the  field  of  battle  ;  and  fourteen  thousand, 
who  had  retired  with  General  Lewenhaupt,  towards  Perevo- 
latschna,  between  the  Vorsklaw  and  the  Nieper,  were  made  pri- 
soners of  war,  three  days  after  the  action.  Charles,  accompanied 
by  his  ally  Mazeppa,  saved  himself  with  difficulty  at  Bender  in 
Turkey. 

This  disastrous  route  revived  the  courage  of  the  enemies  ol 
Sweden.  The  alliance  was  renewed  between  the  Czar,  Au- 
gustus II.,  and  FredericIV.jKing  of  Denmark.  Stanislaus  was 
abandoned.  All  Poland  again  acknowledged  Augustus'  II. 
The  Danes  made  a  descent  on  Schonen  ;  and  the  Czar  achieved 
the  conquest  of  Ingria,  Livonia,  and  Carelia.  The  States  that 
were  leagued  against  France  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, wishing  to  prevent  Germany  from  becoming  the  theatre 
of  hostilities,  concluded  a  treaty  at  the  Hague  (31st  March 
1710,)  by  which  they  undertook,  under  certain  conditions,  to 
guarantee  the  neutrality  of  the  Swedish  provinces  in  Germany, 
as  well  as  that  of  Sleswick  and  Jutland  ;  but  the  King  of  Swe- 
den having  constantly  declined  acceding  to  this  neutrality,  the 
possessions  of  the  Swedes  in  Germany  were  also  seized  and 
conquered  in  succession.  The  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  the 
nephew  of  Charles  XII.,  was  involved  in  his  disgrace,  and 
stripped  of  his  estates  by  the  king  of  Denmark  (1714.) 

In  the  midst  of  these  disasters,  the  inflexible  King  of  Swe- 
den persisted  in  prolonging  his  sojourn  at  Bender,  making  re- 
peated efforts  to  rouse  the  Turks  against  the  Russians.  He  did 
not  return  from  Turkey  till  1714,  when  his  affairs  were  already 
totally  ruined.  The  attempts  which  he  then  made,  either  to 
renev/  the  war  in  Poland,  or  invade  the  provinces  of  the  Em- 
pire, excited  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbouring  powers.  A  for- 
midable league  was  raised  against  him ;  besides  the  Czar,  the 
Kings  of  Poland,  Denmark,  Prussia,  and  England,  joined  it. 
Stralsund  and  Wismar,  the  only  places  which  Sweden  still  re- 
tained in  Germany,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies ;  while  the 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  164S— 1713.  41 

Czar  added  to  these  losses  the  conquest  of  Finland  and  Savolax. 
In  a  situation  so  desperate,  Charles,  by  the  advice  of  his  minis- 
ter, Baron  Gortz,  set  on  foot  a  special  and  secret  negotiation 
with  the  Czar,  which  took  place  in  the  isle  of  Aland,  in  course 
of  the  year  1718.  There  it  was  proposed  to  reinstate  Stanis- 
laus on  the  throne  of  Poland  ;  to  restore  to  Sweden  her  pos- 
sessions in  the  Empire  ;  and  even  to  assist  her  in  conquering 
Norvv'ay  ;  by  way  of  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Ingria,  Ca- 
relia,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia,  which  she  was  to  cede  to  the  Czar. 

That  negotiation  Vv'-as  on  the  point  of  being  finally  closed, 
Vs^hen  it  was  broken  off  by  the  u«nexpected  death  of  Charles 
}iLL  That  unfortunate  prince  was  slain  (December  11th,  171S,) 
at  the  siege  of  Fredericshall  in  Norway,  vv^iile  visiting  the 
irenches  ;  being  only  thirty-seven  years  of  age,  and  leaving  the 
affairs  of  his  kingdom  in  a  most  deplorable  state. 

The  new  regency  of  Sweden,  instead  of  remaining  in  friend- 
ship with  the  Czar,  changed  their  policy  entirely.  Baron  de 
Gortz,  the  friend  of  the  late  King,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  public 
displeasure,  and  a  negotiation  was  opened  with  the  Court  of 
G.Britain.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  was  concluded  at 
Stockholm  (Nov.  20,  1719,)  between  Great  Britain  and  Svv-e- 
den.  George  I.,  on  obtaining  the  cession  of  the  dutchies  of 
Bremen  and  Verden,  as  Elector  of  Hanover,  engaged  to  send  a 
strong  squadron  to  the  Baltic,  to  prevent  any  further  invasion 
from  the  Czar,  and  procure  for  Sweden  more  equitable  terms  of 
peace  on  the  part  of  that  Prince.  The  example  of  Great  Bri- 
tain was  soon  folloAved  by  the  other  allied  powers,  who  were 
anxious  to  accommodate  matters  with  Sweden.  By  the  treaty 
concluded  at  Stockholm  (21st  January,  1729,)  the  King  of 
Prussia  got  the  town  of  Stettin,  and  that  part  of  Pomerania, 
which  lies  between  the  Oder  and  the  Peene.  The  King  of 
Denmark  consented  to  restore  to  Sweden  the  towns  of  Stral- 
sund  and  Wismar,  with  the  isle  of  Rugen,  and  the  part  of  Po- 
merania, which  extends  from  the  sea  to  the  river  Peene.  Swe- 
den, on  ner  side,  renounced  in  favour  of  Denmark,  her  exemp- 
tion from  the  duties  of  the  Sound  and  the  two  Belts,  which  had 
been  guaranteed  to  her  by  former  treaties.  The  Czar  was  the 
only  person  who,  far  from  being-  intimidated  by  the  menaces  of 
England,  persisted  in  his  resolution  of  not  making  peace  with 
Sweden,  except  on  the  conditions  which  he  had  dictated  to  her. 
The  war  was,  therefore,  continued  between  Russia  and  Sweden, 
during  the- two  campaigns  of  1720  and  1721.  Different  parts 
of  the  Swedish  coast  were  laid  desolate  by  the  Czar,  who  put 
all  to  fire  and  sword.  To  stop  the  progress  of  these  devasta- 
tions, the  Swedes  at  length  consented  to  accept  the  peace  which 

A  ^ 


42  CHAPTER   VIII. 

the  Czar  offered  them,  which  was  finally  signed  at  Nystadt 
(13th  September  1721.)  Finland  was  surrendered  to  Sweden 
on  condition  of  her  formally  ceding  to  the  Czar  the  provinces  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  and  Carelia ;  their  limits  to  be  deter- 
'mined  according  to  the  regulations  of  the  treaty. 

The  ascendency  which  Sweden  had  gained  in  the  North  since 
the  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  had  become  so  fatal  to  Den- 
mark, that  she  v/as  on  the  point  of  being  utterly  subverted,  and 
eitaced  from  the  number  of  European  powers.  Nor  did  she 
extricate  herself  from  the  disastrous  w^ars  which  she  had  to  sup- 
port against  Charles  X.,  until  she  had  sacrificed  some  of  her 
best  provinces  ;  such  as  Schonen,  Bleckingen,  Halland,  and  the 
government  of  Bohus,  which  Frederic  III.  ceded  to  Sweden  by 
the  treaties  of  Roschildand  Copenhagen.  It  was  at  the  close  of 
this  war  that  a  revolution  happened  in  the  government  of  Denmark. 
Until  that  time,  it  had  been  completely  under  the  aristocracy  of  the 
nobles ;  the  throne  was  elective  ;  and  all  power  v.'as  con-cenlrated 
in  the  hands  of  the  senate,  and  the  principal  members  of  the 
nobility.  The  royal  prerogative  was  limited  to  the  command  of 
the  army,  and  the  presidency  in  the  Senate.  The  King  was 
even  obliged,  by  a  special  capitulation,  in  all  affairs  which  did 
not  require  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate,  to  take  the  advice  of 
four  great  officers  of  the  crown,  viz.  the  Grand  Master,  the 
Chancellor,  the  Marshal,  and  the  Admiral;  who  were  considered 
as  so  many  channels  or  vehicles  of  the  royal  authority. 

The  state  of  exhaustion  to  which  Denmark  was  reduced  at 
the  time  she  made  peace  with  Sweden,  obliged  Frederic  III.  to 
convoke  an  assembly  of  the  States-General  of  the  kingdom. 
These,  which  were  composed  of  three  orders,  viz.  the  nobility, 
the  clerg}^  and  the  burgesses,  had  never  been  summoned  to- 
gether in  that  form  since  the  year  1536.  At  their  meeting  at 
Copenhagen,  the  two  inferior  orders  reproached  the  nobles  with 
having  been  the  cause  of  all  the  miseries  and  disorders  of  the 
State,  by  the  exorbitant  and  tyrannical  power  which  they  had 
usurped  ;  and  what  tended  still  more  to  increase  their  animosity 
against  them.,  was  the  obstinacy  with  which  they  maintained 
their  privileges  and  exemptions  from  the  public  burdens,  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  lower  orders.  One  subject  of  discussion  was, 
to  find  a  tax,  the  proceeds  of  which  should  be  applied  to  the  most 
pressing  wants  of  the  State.  The  nobles  proposed  a  duty  on 
articles  of  consumption ;  but  under  restrictions  with  regard  to 
themselves,  that  could  not  but  exasperate  the  lower  orders.  The 
latter  proposed,  in  testimony  of  their  discontent,  to  let  out  to  the 
highest  bidder  the  fiefs  of  the  crown,  which  the  nobles  held  at 
^•ents  extremely  moderate.     This  proposal  was  highly  resented 


PERIOD  VII.      A.  D.  1648—1713.  4J> 

by  the  nobility,  who  regarded  it  as  a  blow  aimed  at  tneir  rights 
and  properties  ;  and  they  persisted  in  urging  a  tax  on  articles  of 
consumption,  such  as  they  had  proposed.  Certain  unguarded 
expressions  which  escaped  some  of  the  m.embers  of  the  nobility, 
gave  rise  to  a  tumult  of  indignation,  and  suggested  to  the  two 
leaders  of  the  clergy  and  the  burgesses,  viz.  the  bishop  of  Zea- 
land and  the  burgomaster  of  Copenhagen,  the.  idea  of  framing 
a  declaration  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  crown  hereditary, 
both  in  the  male  and  female  descendants  of  Frederic  III.  It 
was  not  difficult  for  them  to  recommend  this  project  to  their 
respective  orders,  who  flattered  themselves  that,  under  a  heredi- 
tary monarchy,  they  would  enjoy  that  equality  which  was  denied 
them  under  an  aristocracy  of  the  nobles.  The  act  of  this  de- 
claration having  been  approved  and  signed  by  the  two  orders, 
was  presented  in  their  name  to  the  Senate,  who  rejected  it,  on 
the  ground  that  the  States-General  then  assembled,  had  no  right 
to  deliberate  on  that  proposition  ;  but  the  clergy  and  the  burges- 
ses, without  being  disconcerted,  went  in  a  body  to  the  King, 
carrying  with  them,  the  Act  which  offered  to  make  the  crown 
hereditary  in  his  family.  The  nobles  having  made  a  pretence 
of  wishing  to  quit  the  city  in  order  to  break  up  the  Diet,  care  was 
taken  to  shut  the  doors.  The  members  of  the  Senate  and  the 
nobility  had  then  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  agree  to  the 
resolution  of  the  two  inferior  orders ;  and  the  offer  of  the  croAvn 
was  made  to  the  King  by  the  three  orders  conjunctly  (13th  October 
1660.)  ,  They  then  tendered  him  the  capitulation,  which  was 
annulled  ;  and  at  the  same  time  they  liberated  him  from  the  oath 
which  he  had  taken  on  the  day  of  his  coronation.  A  sort  of 
dictatorship  was  then  conferred  on  him,  to  regulate  the  new  con- 
stitutional charter,  according  to  his  good  pleasure.  All  the  orders 
of  the  State  then  took  a  new  oath  of  fealty  and  homage  to  him, 
while  the  King  himself  was  subjected  to  no  oath  whatever. 
Finally,  the  three  orders  separately  remitted  an  Act  to  the  King, 
declaring  the  crown  hereditary  in  all  the  descendants  of  Frederic 
111.,  both  male  and  female ;  conferring  on  him  and  his  succes- 
sors an  unlimited  power;  and  granting  him  the  privilege  of 
regulating  the  order  both  of  the  regency  and  the  succession  to 
the  throne. 

Thus  terminated  that  important  revolution,  without  any  dis- 
order, and  without  shedding  a  single  drop  of  blood.  It  was  in 
virtue  of  those  powers  which  the  States  had  conferr-^d  on  him, 
that  the  King  published  what  is  called  the  Royal  Law,  regarded 
as  the  only  fundamental  law  of  Denmark.  The  King  was  there 
declared  absolute  sovereign,  above  all' human  laws,  acknowledg- 
ing no  superior  but  God,  and  "-"niting  in  his  own  person  all  the 


44 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


rights  and  prerogatives  of  royalty,  without  any  exception  whatever 
He  could  exercise  these  prerogatives  in  virtue  of  his  own  author 
ity ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  respect  the  Royal  Law  ;  and  he  could 
neither  touch  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which  had  been 
adopted  as  the  national  religion,  nor  authorize  any  partition  of 
the  kingdom,  which  was  declared  indivisible  ;  nor  change  the 
order  of  succession  as  established  by  the  Royal  Law.  That  suc- 
cession was  lineal,  according  to  the  right  of  primogeniture  and 
descent.  Females  were  only  admitted,  failing  ail  the  male  issue 
of  Frederic  IIL  ;  and  the  order  in  which  they  were  to  succeed, 
was  defined  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness.  The  term  of 
majority  was  fixed  at  the  age  of  thirteen  ;  and  it  was  in  the 
power  of  the  reigning  monarch  to  regulate,  by  his  will,  the  tutor- 
age and  the  regency  during  such  minority. 

This  constitutional  law  gave  the  Danish  government  a  vigour 
which  it  never  had  before  ;  the  effects  of  which  Avere  manifested 
in  the  war  which  Christian  V.  undertook  against  Sweden 
(1675,)  in  consequence  of  his  alliance  with  Frederic  William, 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  The  Danes  had  the  advantage  of  the 
Swedes  both  by  sea  and  land.  Their  fleet,  under  the  command 
of  Niels  Juel,  gained  two  naval  victories  over  them,  the  one 
near  the  Isle  of  Oeland,  and  the  other  in  the  bay  of  Kioge,  on 
the  coast  of  Zealand  (1677.)  That  war  was  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Lunden  (Oct.  6th  1679,)  which  restored  matters  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  to  the  same  footing  on  which  they  had 
been  before  the  war.  The  severe  check  which  Sweden  re- 
ceived by  the  defeat  of  Charles  XIL,  before  Pultowa,  tended  to 
extricate  Denmark  from  the  painful  situation  in  which  she  had 
been  placed  with  respect  to  that  power.  The  freedom  of  the 
Sound,  which  Sweden  had  maintained  during  her  prosperity, 
was  taken  from  her  by  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  and  by  the  ex- 
planatory articles  of  Fredericsburg,  concluded  between  Sweden 
and  Denmark,  (14th  June  1720.)  That  kingdom  likewise  re- 
tained, in  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  possession  of  the  whole  dutchy 
of  Sleswick,  with  a  claim  to  the  part  belonging  to  the  duke  oi 
Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  Sweden  was  obhged  to  remove  from 
under  her  protection. 

Poland,  at  the  commencement  of  this  period,  presented  an 
afflicting  spectacle,  under  the  unfortunate  reign  of  John  Casimir, 
the  brother  and. successor  of  Uladislaus  VII.  (1648.)  Distracted 
at  once  by  foreign  wars  and  intestine  factions,  she  seemed  every 
moment  on  the  brink  of  destruction ;  and  while  the  neighbour- 
ing states  were  augmenting  their  forces,  and  strengthening  the 
hands  of  their  governments,  Poland  grew  gradually  weaker  and 
weaker,  and  at  length  degeneratf^  into  absolute  anarchy.    The 


PEHIOD  vn.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  45 

origin  of  the  Uiberum  Veto  of  the  Poles,  which  allowed  the  op- 
position of  a  single  member  to  frustrate  the  deliberations  of  the 
whole  Diet,  belongs  to  the  reign  of  John  Casimir.  The  first 
that  suspended  the  Diet,  by  the  interposition  of  his  veto,  was 
Schinski,  member  for  Upita  in  Lithuania ;  his  example,  though 
at  first  disapproved,  found  imitators  ;  and  this  foolish  practice, 
which  allowed  one  to  usurp  the  prerogative  of  a  majority,  soon 
passed  into  a  law,  and  a  maxim  of  state. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Uladislaus  VII.  a  murderous 
war  had  arisen  in  Poland,  that  of  the  Cossacs.  This  warlike 
people,  of  Russian  origin,  as  their  language  and  their  religion 
prove,  inhabited  both  banks  of  the  Borysthenes,  beyond  Kiow ; 
where  ihey  were  subdivided  into  regiments,  under  the  command 
of  a  general,  called  Hetman  ;  and  served  as  a  military  frontier 
for  Poland  against  the  Tartars  and  Turks.  Some  infringements 
that  had  been  made  on  their  privileges,  added  to  the  efforts  vvdiich 
the  Poles  had  made  to  induce  their  clergy  to  separate  from  the 
Greek  Church,  and  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  ex- 
aspej-ated  the  Cossacs,  and  engendered  among  them  a  spirit  of 
revolt  (1647.)  Assisted  by  the  Turks  of  the  Crimea,  they  in- 
vaded Poland,  and  committed  terrible  devastations.  The  Poles 
succeeded  from  time  to  time  in  pacifying  them,  and  even  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  them  ;  but  the  minds  of  both  parties  beino- 
exasperated,  hostilities  always  recommenced  with  every  new 
offence.  At  length,  their  Hetman,  Chmielniski,  being  hardly 
pressed  by  the  Poles,  took  the  resolution  of  soliciting  the  protec- 
tion of  Russia,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Czar  Alexis 
Miehaelovitz  (Jan.  16,  1654,)  in  virtue  of  which,  Kiow  and  the 
other  towns  of  the  Ukraine,  under  the  pov/er  of  the  Cossacs, 
were  planted  with  Russian  garrisons.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  Czar  retook  the  city  of  Smolensko  from  the  Poles,  as 
vv^ell  as  most  of  the  districts  that  had  been  ceded  to  Poland,  by 
the  treaties  of  Dwilina  and  Viasma.  That  prince  made  also 
several  other  conquests  from  the  Poles;  he  took  possession  of 
Wilna,  and  several  places  in  Lithuania,  at  the  very  time  when 
Charles  X.  was  invading  Poland,  and  threatening  that  country 
with  entire  destrjiction.  The  Czar,  however,  instead  of  fohow- 
ing  up  his  conquests,  judged  it  more  for  his  interest  to  conclude 
a  truce  with  the  Poles  \|1656,)  that  he  might  turn  his  arms 
against  Sweden. 

The  peace  of  Oliva  put  an  end  to  the  war  between  Poland  and 
Sweden  ;  but  hostilities  were  renewed  between  the  Russians 
and  the  Poles,  which  did  not  terminate  till  the  treaty  of  Andrus- 
sov  (Jan.  1667.)  The  Czar  restored  to  the  Poles  a  part  of  his 
conquests  ;  but  he  retained  Smolensko,  Novogorod-Sieverskoe, 


46  CHAPTER  vm. 

Tchernigov,  Kiow,  and  all  the  country  of  the  Cossacs,  beyond 
the  Borysthenes  or  Dnieper.  The  Cossacs  on  this  side  the 
river  were  annexed  to  Poland,  and  as  for  those  who  dwelt  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  called  Zaporogs,  it  was  agreed  that 
they  should  remain  under  the  common  jurisdiction  of  the  two 
states  ;  ready  to  serve  against  the  Turks  whenever  circumstances 
might  require  it.  The  wars  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  were 
attended  with  troubles  and  dissensions,  which  reduced  Poland 
to  the  most  deplorable  condition  during  the  reign  of  John  Casi- 
mir.  That  prince  at  length,  disgusted  with  a  crown  which  he 
had  found  to  be  composed  of  thorns,  resoh^ed  to  abdicate  the 
throne  (16th  Sept.  1668;)  and  retiring  to  France,  he  there  ended 
his  days. 

Michael  Wiesnouiski,  who  succeeded  John  Casimir,  after  a 
stormy  interregnum  of  seven  months,  had  no  other  merit  than 
that  of  being  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  Coribut,  the  brother 
of  Jagellon,  King  of  Poland.  His  reign  was  a  scene  of  great 
agitation,  and  of  unbridled  anarchy.  Four  diets  were  interrupted 
in  less  than  four  years  ;  the  war  with  the  Cossacs  was  renewed  ; 
the  Turks  and  the  Tartars,  the  allies  of  the  Cossacs,  seized  the 
city  of  Kaminiec  (1672,)  the  only  bulwark  of  Poland  against  the 
Ottomans.  Michael,  being  thrown  into  a  state  of  alarm,  con- 
cluded a  disgraceful  peace  with  the  Turks ;  he  gave  up  to  them 
Kaminiec  and  Podolia,  with  their  ancient  limits ;  and  even 
agreed  to  pay  them  an  annual  tribute  of  twenty-two  thousand 
ducats.  The  Ukraine,  on  this  side  the  Borysthenes,  was  aban- 
doned to  the  Cossacs,  who  were-to  be  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  Turks.  This  treaty  was  not  ratified  by  the  Republic  of 
Poland,  who  preferred  to  continue  the  war.  John  Sobieski, 
Grand  General  of  the  Crown,  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Turks  near  Choczim  (Nov.  11th,  1673.)  It  took  place  the  next 
day  after  the  death  of  Michael,  and  determined  the  Poles  to  con- 
fer their  crown  on  the  victorious  General. 

Sobieski  did  ample  justice  to  the  choice  of  his  fellow-citizens. 
By  the  peace  which  he  concluded  at  Zarowmo  with  the  Turks 
(26th  Oct.  1676,)  he  relieved  Poland  from  the  tribiite  lately  pro 
mised,  and  recovered  some  parts  of  the  Ukraine  ;  but  the  city  o' 
Kaminiec  was  left  in  the  power  of  the  Ottomans,  Avith  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  Ukraine  and  Podolia.  Poland  then  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  the  House  of  Austria,  against  the  Porte 
Sobieski  became  the  deliverer  of  Vienna  ;  he  signalized  himsell 
in  the  campaigns  of  1683  and  1684  ;  and  if  he  did  not  gain  any 
important  advantages  over  the  Turks,  if  he  had  not  even  the 
satisfaction  of  recovering  Kaminiec  and  Podolia,  it  must  be  as- 
cribed to  the  incompetence  of  his  means,  and  to  the  disunion  and 


PERIOD 


vn.     A.  D.  164S— 1713.  47 


ihdifTerence  of  the  Poles,  who  refused  to  make  a  single  sacrifice 
in  the  cause.  Sobieski  was  even  forced  to  have  recourse  to  the 
])rotection  of  the  Russians  against  the  Turks ;  and  saw  himself 
T  educed  to  the  painful  necessity  of  setting  his  hand  tp  the  defi- 
nitive peace  which  was  concluded  with  Russia  at  Moscow  (May 
(tth,  16S6,)  by  which  Poland,  in  order  to  obtain  the  alliance  of 
ihat  power  against  the  Ottomans,  consented  to  give  up  Smolen- 
sko,  Belaia,  Dorogobuz,  Tchernigov,  Starodub,  and  Novogorod- 
Sieverskoe,  with  their  dependencies ;  as  also  the  whole  territory 
known  by  the  name  of  Little  Russia,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Borysthenes,  between  thaj;  river  and  the  frontier  of  Putivli, 
as  far  as  Perevoloczna.  The  city  of  Kiow,  with  its  territory  as 
determined  by  the  treaty,  was  also  included  in  that  cession. 
Finally,  the  Cossacs,  called  Zaporogs  and  Kudak,  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  treaty  of  Andrussov,  ought  to  have  been  dependencies 
of  these  two  states,  were  reserved  exclusively  to  Russia.  Sobie- 
ski shed  tears  when  he  was  obliged  to  sign  that  treaty  at  Leopold 
(or  Lemberg,)  in  presence  of  the  Russian  ambassadors. 

The  war  with  the  Turks  did  not  terminate  until  the  reign  of 
Augustus  IL  the  successor  of  John  Sobieski.  The  peace  of 
Carlowitz,  which  that  prince  concluded  with  the  Porte  (1699,) 
procured  for  Poland  the  restitution  of  Kaminiec,  as  well  as  that 
part  of  the  Ukraine,  which  the  peace  of  Zarowno  had  ceded  to 
the  Turks. 

Russia  became  every  day  more  prosperous  under  the  princes 
of  the  House  of  Romanow.  She  gained  a  decided  superiority 
over  Poland,  wdio  had  formerly  dictated  the  law  to  her.  Alexis 
Michaelovitz  not  only  recovered  from  the  Poles  what  they  had 
conquered  from  Russia  during  the  disturbances  occasioned  by 
the  two  pretenders  of  the  name  of  Demetrius ;  we  have  already 
observed,  that  he  dispossessed  them  of  Kiow,  and  all  that  part 
of  the  Ukraine,  or  Little  Russia,  which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  B^ysthenes. 

Theodore  Alexievitz,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alexis  Mi- 
chaelovitz, rendered  his  reign  illustrious  by  the  wisdom  of  his 
administration.  Guided  by  the  advice  of  his  enlightened  mi- 
nister. Prince  Galitzin,  he  conceived  the  bold  project  of  abolish- 
ing the  hereditary  orders  of  the  nobility,  and  the  prerogatives 
that  were  attached  to  them.  These  orders  were  destructive  of 
all  subordination  in  civil  as  well  as  in  military  affairs,  and  gave 
rise  to  a  multitude  of  disputes  and  litigations,  of  which  a  court, 
named  Rozrad,  took  cognizance.  The  Czar,  in  a  grand  assem- 
bly which  he  convoked  al;  Moscow  (1682,)  abolished  the  here- 
ditary rank  of  the  nobles.  He  burnt  the  deeds  and  registers 
by  which  they  were  attested,  and  obliged  every  noble  family  to 


48  CHAPTER  Vill. 

produce  the  extracts  of  these  registers,  which  they  had  in  their 
possession,  that  they  might  be  committed  to  the  flames.  That 
prince  having  no  children  of  his  own,  had  destined  his  younger 
brother  Peter  Alexievitz  to  be  his  successor,  to  the  exckision  of 
John,  his  elder  brcther,  on  account  of  his  incapacity.  But,  on 
the  death  of  Theodore,  both  princes  were  proclaimed  at  once  by 
the  military,  and  the  government  was  intrusted  to  the  Princess 
Sophia,  their  elder  sister,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Autocratix 
and  Sovereign  of  all  the  Russias.  Peter,  who  was  the  son  of 
the  second  marriage  of  the  Czar,  was  at  that  time  only  ten 
years  of  age.  It  was  during  the  administration  of  the  Princess 
Sophia  that  the  peace  of  Moscow  was  concluded  (May  6,  1686  ;) 
one  clause  of  w^hich  contained  an  alliance,  offensive  and  defen- 
sive, between  Russia  and  Poland  against  the  Porte. 

Peter  had  no  sooner  attained  the  age  of  seventeen  than  he 
seized  the  reins  of  government,  and  deposed  his  sister  Sophia, 
whom  he  sent  to  a  convent.  Endowed  with  an  extraordinary 
genius,  this  Prince  became  the  reformer  of  his  Empire,  which, 
under  his  reign,  assumed  an  aspect  totally  new.  By  the  advice 
of  Le  Fort,  a  native  of  Geneva,  who  bad  entered  the  Russian 
service,  and  whom  he  had  received  into  his  friendship  and  con- 
fidence, he  turned  his  attention  to  every  branch  of  the  public 
administration.  The  military  system  was  changed,  and  mo- 
delled after  that  of  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  He  found- 
ed-the  maritime  power  of  Russia,  improved  her  finances,  en- 
couraged commerce  and  manufactures,  introduced  letters  and 
arts  into  his  dominions,  and  applied  himself  to  reform  the  lav.'-s, 
to  polish  and  refine  the  manners  of  the  people. 

Peter,  being  in  alliance  with  Poland,  engaged  in  the  war 
against  the  Porte,  and  laid  open  the  Black  Sea  by  his  conquest 
of  the  city  and  port  of  Azoff;  and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that 
he  equipped  his  first  fleet  at  Woronitz.  Azoff  remained  in  his 
possession,  by  an  article  of  the  peace  which  was  concluded  with 
the  Porte  at  Constantinople  (13th  July,  1700.)  About  the  same 
time,  Peter  abolished  the  patriarchal  dignity,  which  ranked  the 
head  of  the  Russian  Church  next  to  the  Czar,  and  gave  him  a 
dangerous  influence  in  the  affairs  of  government.  He  trans- 
ferred the  authority  of  the  patriarch  to  a  college  of  fifteen  per- 
sons, called  the  Most  Holy  Synod,  whose  duty  it  Avas  to  take 
cognizance  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  in  ge^ieral,  of  all  matters 
which  had  fallen  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch.  'i.p,.5 
members  of  this  college  were  obliged  to  take  the  oath  at  '<'z?. 
hands  of  the  Sovereign,  and  to  be  appointed  by  him  on  the  pX'- 
sentation  of  the  Synod. 

Being  desirous  of  seeing  and  examining  in  person  the  ir^.M^ 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  B  1648 — 1713.  49 

Gers  and  customs  of  other  nations,  he  undertook  two  different 
iTcyages  into  foreign  countries,  divested  of  that  pomp  which  is 
the  usual  accompaniment  of  princes.  During  these  travels,  he 
cultivated  the  arts  and  sciences,  especially  those  connected  with 
commerce  and  navigation;  he  engaged  men  of  talents  in  his 
seivices,  such  as  naval  officers,  engineers,  surgeons,  artists,  and 
mechanics  of  all  kinds,  whom  he  dispersed  over  his  vast^  do- 
minions, to  instruct  and  improve  the  Russians.  During  his  first 
voyage  to  Holland  and  England,  the  Strelitzes,  the  only  per- 
manent troops  known  in  Russia  before  his  time,  revolted ;  they 
were  first  instituted  by  the  .Czar,  John  Basilovitz  IV.  They 
fought  after  the  manner  of  the  Janissaries,  and  enjoyed  nearly 
the  same  privileges.  Peter,  with  the  intention  of  disbanding 
these  seditious  and  undisciplined  troops,  had  stationed  them  on  the 
frontiers  of  Lithuania  ;  he  had  also  removed  them  from  being  his 
own  body-guard,  a  service  which  he  entrusted  to  the  regiments 
raised  by  himself.  This  sort  of  degradation  incensed  the  Sti'e- 
luzes,  who  took  the  opportunity  of  the  Czar's  absence  to  revolt. 
They  directed  their  march  to  the  city  of  Moscow,  with  the  design 
of  deposing  the  Czar,  and  replacing  Sophia  on  the  throne  ;  but 
they  were  defeated  by  the  Generals  Schein  and  Gordon,  who  had 
marched  to  oppose  them.  Peter,  on  his  return,  caused  two 
thousand  of  them  to  be  executed,  and  incorporated  the  rest  among 
his  troops.  He  afterwards  employed  foreign  officers,  either  Ger- 
mans or  Swedes,  to  instruct  the  Russians  in  the  military  art. 

It  was  chiefly  during  the  war  with  Sweden  that  the  Russian 
army  was  organized  according  to  the  European  system.  The 
Czar  took  advantage  of  the  check  he  had  sustained  before  Narva 
(Nov.  30,  1700,)  to  accomplish  this  important  change  in  levying, 
equipping,  and  training  all  his  troops  after  the  German  manner. 
He  taught  the  Russians  the  art  of  combating  and  conquering  the 
Swedes  ;  and  while  the  King  of  Sweden  was  bent  on  the  ruin 
of  Augustus  II.,  and  made  but  feeble  efforts  against  the  Czar, 
the  latter  succeeded  in  conquering  Ingria  from  the  Swedes,  and 
laid  open  the  navigation  of  the  Baltic.  He  took  the  fortress  of 
Noteburg  (1702^)  which  he  afterwards  called  Schlisselburg ;  he 
next  made  himself  master  of  Nyenschantz,  Kopori,  and  Jamp 
(now  Jamburg)  in  Ingria.  The  port  of  Nyenchantz  was  entirely 
razed ;  and  the  Czar  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in 
one  of  the  neighbouring  islands  of  the  Neva  (May  27, 1703.)  In 
the  middle  of  winter  he  constructed  the  fort  of  Cronschlot  to 
serve  as  a  defence  for  the  new  city,  wdiich  he  intended  to  make 
the  capital  of  his  Empire,  and  the  principal  depOt  for  the  con> 
merce  and  marine  of  Russia.     The  fortune  of  this  ne^v  ^ap'ia'j 

voL.n.  5 


50  CHAPTER    VIII. 

was  decided  by  the  famous  battle  of  Pultowa  (July  8,  1709,) 
t\^hich  likewise  secured  the  preponderance  of  Russia  in  the  Norrh. 

Charles  XII.,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Turkey,  used  everv 
effort  to  instigate  the  Turks  against  the  Russians ;  and  he  suc- 
ceeded by  dint  of  intrigue.  The  Porte  declared  war  against  the 
Czar  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1710 ;  the  latter  opened  the 
campaign  of  1711  by  an  expedition  which  he  undertook  inro 
Moldavia  ;  but  having  rashly  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  that 
province,  he  was  surrounded  by  the  Grand  Vizier  near  Falczi 
on  the  Pruth.  Besieged  in  his  camp  by  an  army  vastly  supe- 
rior to  his  own,  and  reduced  to  the  last  necessity,  he  found  no 
other  means  of  extricating  himself  from  this  critical  situation, 
than  by  agreeing  to  a  treaty,  which  he  signed  in  the  camp  of 
Falczi  (21st  July  1711  ;)  in  virtue  of  which,  he  consented  to  re- 
store to  the  Turks  the  fortress  of  Azoff,  with  its  territory  and 
its  dependencies.  This  loss  was  am^ply  compensated  by  the  im- 
portant advantages  which  the  peace  with  Sweden,  signed  at  Ny- 
stadt  (Sept.  10,  1721,)  procured  the  Czar.  It  was  on  this  occa- 
sion that  the  Senate  conferred  on  him  the  epithet  of  Great,  the 
Father  of  his  Country,  and  Em2)eror  of  all  the  Riissias.  His 
inauguration  to  the  Imperial  dignity  took  place,  October  22d 
1721,  the  very  day  of  the  rejoicing  that  had  been  appointed  for 
the  celebration  of  the  peace.  Peter  himself  put  the  Imperial 
crown  on  his  own  head. 

That  great  prince  had  the  vexation  to  see  Alexis  Czarowitz 
his  son,  and  presumptive  heir  to  the  Empire,  thwarting  all  his 
improv^ements,  and  caballing  in  secret  with  his  enemies.  Being 
at  length  compelled  to  declare  that  he  had  forfeited  his  right  to 
the  throne,  he  had  him  condemned  to  death  as  a  traitor  (1718.) 
In  consequence  of  this  tragical  event,  he  published  an  Ukase, 
which  vested  in  the  reigning  prince  the  privilege  of  nominating 
his  successor,  and  even  of  changing  the  appointment  whenever 
he  might  judge  it  necessary.  This  arrangement  became  fatal  to 
Russia  ;  the  want  of  a  fixed  and  permanent  order  of  succession 
occasioned  troubles  and  revolutions  which  frequently  distracted 
the  whole  Empire.  This  law,  moreover,  made  no  provision  in 
cases  where  the  reigning  prince  might  neglect  to  settle  the  suc- 
cession during  his  life ;  as  happened  with  Peter  himself,  who 
died  without  making  or  appointing  any  successor  (Feb.  1725.) 
Catherine  I.,  his  spouse,  ascended  the  throne,  which,  after  a 
reign  of  two  years,  she  transmitted  to  Peter,  son  of  the  unfortu- 
nate Alexis. 

In  Hungary,  the  precautions  that  had  been  taken  by  the  States 
of  Presburg  to  establish  civil  and  religious  liberty  on  a  solid  ba- 
sis, did  not  prevent  disturbances  from  springing  up  in  that  king- 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648 — 171J?.  51 

dom.  The  Court  of  Vienna,  perceiving  the  necessity  of  consoli- 
dating its  vast  monarchy,  whose  incoherent  parts  were  suffering 
from  the  want  of  unity,  eagerly  seized  these  occasions  for  ex- 
tending its  power  in  Hungary,  where  it  was  greatly  circumscri- 
bed by  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  country".  Hence  those 
perpetual  infringements  of  which  the  Hungarians  had  to  com- 
plain ;  and  those  ever-recurring  disturbances  in  which  the  Otto- 
man Turks,  who  shared  with  Austria  the  dominion  of  Hungary, 
v.'ere  also  frequently  implicated. 

Transylvania,  as  well  as  a  great  part  of  Hungary,  was  then 
dependent  on  the  Turks.  The  Emperor  Leopold  I.  having 
granted  his  protection  to  John  Kemeny,  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
against  Michael  Abaffi,  a  protege  of  the  Turks,  a  war  between 
the  two  Empires  seemed  to  be  inevitable.  The  Diet  of  Hunga- 
ry, which  the  Emperor  had  assembled  at  Presburg  on  this  sub- 
ject (1662,)  was  most  outrageous.  The  States,  before  they 
would  give  any  opinion  as  to  the  war  against  the  Turks,  de- 
manded that  their  own  grievances  should  be  redressed  ;  and  the 
assembly  separated  without  coming  to  any  conclusion.  The 
Turks  took  advantage  of  this  dissension,  and  seized  the  fortress 
of  Neuheusel,  and  several  other  places.  The  Emperor,  incapa- 
ble of  opposing  them,  and  distrustful  of  the  Hungarian  malecon^ 
tents,  had  recourse  to  foreign  aid.  This  he  obtained  at  the  Diet 
of  the  Empire;  'and  Louis  XIV.  sent  him  a  body  of  six  thou- 
sand men,  under  command  of  the  Count  de  Cohgni.  An  action 
took  place  (1664)  near  St.  Gothard,  in  which  the  French  signal- 
ized their  bravery.  The  Turks  sustained  a  total  defeat ;  but 
Montecuculi,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Imperial  army,  fail- 
ed to  take  advantage  of  his  victory.  A  truce  of  twenty  years 
was  soon  after  concluded  at  Temeswar,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Turks  retained  Neuheusel,  Waradin,  and  Novigrad.  Michael 
Abaffi,  their  tributary  and  protege,  Avas  continued  in  Transyl- 
vania ;  and  both  parties  engaged  to  withdraw  their  troops  from 
that  province. 

This  treaty  highly  displeased  the  Hungarians,  as  it  had  been 
concluded  without  their  concurrence.  Their  complaints  against 
ihe  Court  of  Vienna  became  louder  than  ever.  They  complain- 
ed, especially,  that  the  Emperor  should  entertain  German  troops 
in  the  kingdom  ;  that  he  should  intrust  the  principal  fortresses 
to  foreigners  ;  and  impose  shackles  on  their  religious  liberties. 
The  Court  of  Vienna  having  paid  no  regard  to  these  grievances, 
several  of  the  nobles  entered  into  a  league  for  the  preservation 
of  their  rights ;  but  they  were  accused  of  holding  correspondence 
with  the  Turks,  and  conspiring  against  the  person  of  the  Empe- 
ror.    The  Counts  Zrini,  Nadaschdi,  Frangepan,  and  Tattenbach 


52  CHAPTER  VIII. 

were  condemned  as  guilty  of  high  treason  (1671,)  and  had  their 
heads  cut  off  on  the  scaffold.  A  vast  number  of  the  Protestant 
clergy  were  either  banished  or  condemned  to  the  galleys,  as 
implicated  in  the  conspiracy ;  but  this  severity,  far  from  abating 
these  disturbances,  tended  rather  to  augment  them.  The  sup- 
pression of  the  dignity  of  Palatine  of  Hungary,  which  took  place 
about  the  same  time,  added  to  the  cruelties  and  extortions  of  all 
kinds  practised  by  the  German  troops,  at  length  raised  a  general 
insurrection,  which  ended  in  a  civil  war  (1677.)  The  insur- 
gents at  first  chose  the  Count  Francis  Wesselini  as  their  leader, 
who  was  afterwards  replaced  by  Count  Emeric  Tekeli.  These 
noblemen  were  encourafjed  in  their  enterprise,  and  secretly  abet- 
ted by  France  and  the  Porte. 

The  Emperor  then  found  it  necessary  to  comply ;  and,  in  a 
Diet  which  he  assembled  at  Odenburg,  he  granted  redress  to 
most  of  the  grievances  of  which  the  Ilungarians  had  to  com- 
plain ;  but  Count^Tekeli  having  disapproved  of  the  resolutions 
of  this  Diet,  the  civil  war  was  continued,  and  the  Count  soon 
found  means  to  interest  the  Turks  and  the  prince  of  Transylva- 
nia in  his  quarrel.     The  Grand  Vizier  Kara  Mustapha,  at  the 
head  of  the  Ottoman  forces,  came  and  laid  siege  to  Vienna  (July 
14,  1CS3.)     A  Polish  army  marched  to  the  relief  of  that  place 
under  their  King,  John   Sobieski,  v/ho  was  joined  by  Charles 
IV.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  General  of  the  Imperial  troops;  they 
attacked  the  Turks  in  their  entrenchments  before  Vienna,  and 
com.pelied  them  to  raise  the  siege  (September  12, 1683.)     Every 
thing  then  succeeded  to  the  Emperor's  wish.     Besides  Poland, 
the  Russians  and  the  Republic  of  Venice  took  part  in  this  war 
in  favour  of  Austria.     A  succession  of  splendid  victories,  gained 
by  the  Imperial  generals,  Charles  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Prince 
Louis  of  Baden,  and  Prince  Eugene,  procured  for  Leopold  the 
conquest  of  all  that  part  of  Hungary,  which  had  continued  since 
the  reign  of  Ferdinand  I.  in  the  power  of  the  Ottomans.     The 
fortress  of  Neuheusel  was   taken,  in  consequence  of  the  battle 
which  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  gained  over  the  Turks  at  Strigova 
(1685.)     The  same  General  took  by  assault  the  city  of  Buda, 
the  capital  of  Hungary,  which  had  been  in  possession  of  the 
Turks  since  1541,     The  memorable  victory  of  Mohacz,  gained 
by  the  Imperialists  (1687,)  again  reduced  Transylvania  and 
Sclavonia  under  the  dominion  of  Austria.      These  continued 
reverses  cost  the  Grand  Vizier  his  life ;  he  was  strangled  by 
order  of  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  IV.,  who  was  himself  deposed 
by  his  rebellious  Janissaries. 

Encouraged  by  these  brilliant  victories,  the  Emperor  Leopold 
assembled  the  States  of  Hungary  at  Presburg.     He  there  de- 


PERIOD  VII      A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  63 

mandecl,  that,  in  consideration  of  tne  extraordinary  efforts  he 
had  been  obliged  to  make  against  the  Ottomans,  the  kingdom 
should  be  declared  hereditary  in  his  family.  The  States  at 
first  appeared  inclined  to  maintain  their  own  right  of  election ; 
but  yielding  soon  to  the  influence  of  authority,  they  agreed  to 
make  the  succession  hereditary  in  favour  of  the  males  of  the  two 
Austrian  branches  ;  on  the  extinction  of  which  they  were  to  be 
restored  to  their  ancient  rights.  As  for  the  privileges  of  the 
States,  founded  on  the  decree  of  King  Andrew  II,,  they  were 
renewed  at  that  Diet ;  with  the  exception  of  that  clause  in  the 
thirty-first  article  of  the  decree,  which  authorized  the  States  to 
oppose,  by  open  force,  any  prince  that  should  attempt  to  infringe 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  country.  The  Jesuits,  who  were 
formerly  proscribed,  were  restored,  and  their  authority  estabhsh- 
ed  throughout  all  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  The  Protes- 
tants of  both  confessions  obtained  the  confirmation  of  the  churches 
and  prerogatives  that  had  been  secured  to  them  by  the  articles 
of  the  Diet  of  Odenburg ;  but  it  was  stipulated,  that  only  Catho- 
lics were  entitled  to  possess  property  within  the  kingdoms  of 
Dalmatia,  Croatia  and  Sclavonia.  The  Archduke  Joseph,  son 
of  Leopold  I.,  was  crowned  at  this  Diet  (December  19,  1687,) 
cis  the  first  hereditary  King  of  Hungary. 

The  arm^  of  Austria  were  crowned  with  new  victories  during 
the  continuation  of  the  war  against  the  Turks.  Albe-Eoyale', 
Belgrade,  Semendria,  and  Gradisca,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Emperor.  The  two  splendid  victories  at  Nissa  and  Widdin, 
which  Louis  prince  of  Baden. gained  (1689,)  secured  to  the  Aus 
trians  the  conquest  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Bulgaria.  The  de- 
jected courage  of  the  Ottomans  was  for  a  time  revived  by  their 
new  Grand  Vizier  Mustapha  Kiupruli,  a  man  of  considerable 
genius.  After  gaining  several  advantages  over  the  Imperialists, 
he  took  from  them  Nissa,  Widdin,  Semendria,  and  Belgrade  ; 
and  likewise  reconquered  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Bosnia.  The 
extraordinary  efforts  that  the  Porte  made  for  the  campaign  of 
the  following  year,  inspired  them  with  hopes  of  better  success ; 
but  their  expectations  were  quite  disappointed  by  the  unfortu- 
nate issue  of  the  famous  battle  of  Salankemen,  which  the  Prince 
of  Baden  gained  over  the  Turks,  (Aug.  19,  1691.)  The  brave 
Kiupruli  was  slain,  and  his  death  decided  the  victory  in  favour 
of  the  Imperialists.  The  war  with  France,  however,  which  then 
occupied  the  principal  forces  of  Austria,  did  not  permit  the  Em- 
peror to  reap  any  advantage  from  this  victory  ;  he  was  even 
obliged,  in  the  following  campaigns,  to  act  on  the  defensive  m 
Hungary ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  conclusion  of  peace  wuh 
France,  that  he  was  able  to  resume  the  war  against  the  Turk!^ 


64  CHAFTER  Vlll. 

n^ith  fresh  vigour.  Prince  Eugene,  who  was  then  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Imperial  army,  attacked  the  Suhan  Mustapha 
.'I.  in  person,  near  Zenta  on  the  river  Teiss  (Sept.  11,  16970 
.vhere  he  gained  a  decisive  victory.  The  grand  Vizier,  seven- 
ujen  Pachas,  and  two  thirds  of  the  Ottoman  army,  were  left 
«Jead  on  txhe  field  of  hattle ;  and  the  grand  Seignior  was  com- 
p'^lled  to  fall  back  in  disorder  on  Belgrade. 

This  terrible  blow  made  the  Porte  exceedingly  anxious  for 
peace  ;  and  he  had  recourse  to  the  mediation  of  England  and 
Holland.  A  negotiation,  which  proved  as  tedious  as  it  was  in- 
tricate, was  set  on  foot  at  Constantinople,  and  thence  transfer- 
red to  Carlo  witz,  a  town  of  Sclavonia  lying  between  the  two 
camps,  one  of  which  was  at  Peterwaradin,  and  the  other  at 
Belfjrade.  Peace  was  there  concluded  with  the  Emperor 
and  his  allies  (Jan.  26,  1699.)  The  Emperor,  by  that  treaty, 
retained  Hungary,  Transylvania  and  Sclavonia,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Banat  of  Temeswar,  which  was  reserved  to  the 
Porle.  The  rivers  Marosch,  Teiss,  Save,  and  Unna,  were 
fixed  as  the  limits  between  the  two  Empires.  The  Count  Te- 
keli^  who  during  the  whole  of  this  war  had  constantly  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Porte,  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  Ottoman 
territory  ;  with  such  of  the  Hungarians  and  Transylvanians  as 
adhered  to  him. 

The  peace  of  Carlowitz  had  secured  to  the  Emperor  nearly 
the  whole  of  Hungary  ;  but,  glorious  though  it  was,  it  did  not 
restore  the  internal  tranquillity  of  the  kingdom,  which  very 
soon  experienced  fresh  troubles.  The  same  complaints  that 
had  arisen  after  the  peace  of  Temeswar,  Avere  renewed  after 
that  of  Carlowitz  ;  to  these  were  even  added  several  others,  oc- 
.•,asioned  by  the  introduction  of  the  hereditary  succession,  at 
he  Diet  of  1687,  by  the  suppression  of  the  clause  in  the  thirty- 
first  article  of  the  decree  of  Andrew  II.,  by  the  restoration  of 
ihe  Jesuits  and  the  banishment  of  Tekeli  and  his  adherents. 
Nothing  Avas  wanted  but  a  ringleader  for  the  malecontents  to 
fekindle  the  flames  of  civil  war,  and  this  leader  was  soon  found 
in  the  person  of  the  fam.ous  Prince  Ragoczi,  who  appeared  on 
the  scene  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
v/hen  the  greater  part  of  Europe  were  involved  in  the  war  oi 
the  Spanish  Succession. 

Francis  Ragoczi  was  the  grandson  of  George  Ragoczi  II., 
who  had  been  prince  of  Transylvania  ;  and  held  a  distinguish- 
ed rank  in  the  States  of  Hungary,  not  more  by  his  illustrious 
birth  than  by  the  great  possessions  which  belonged  to  his  fa- 
mily. The  Court  of  Vienna,  which  entertained  suspicions  of 
liiin  on  account  of  his  near  relationship  with  Tekeli,  had  kept 


PERIOD  VII.     A.  D.  1648 — 1713.  55 

him  in  a  sort  of  captivity  from  his  earliest  infancy  ;  and  he 
was  not  set  at  large,  nor  restored  to  the  possession  of  his  estates, 
until  1694,  when  he  married  a  princess  of  Hesse-Rheinfels. 
From  that  time  he  resided  quietly  on  his  estates,  holding  bis 
Court  at  Sarosch,  in  the  district  of  the  same  name.  Being  sus- 
pected of  having  concerted  a  conspiracy  with  the  malecontents, 
he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  Court  of  Vienna  (1701.)  and 
carried  to  Neustadt  in  Austria,  whence  he  escaped  and  retired 
to  Poland.  Being  condemned  as  guilty  of  high  treason,  and 
his  estates  declared  forfeited,  he  took  the  resolution  of  placing 
hnnself  at  the  head  of  the  rebels,  and  instigating  Hungary 
against  the  Emperor.  France,  who  had  just  joined  in  the  war 
with  Austria,  encouraged  him  in  that  enterprise,  Vv^hich  she 
regarded  as  a  favourable  event  for  creating  a  diversion  on  the 
part  of  her  enemy.  Having  arrived  in  Hungary,  Ragoczi  pub- 
lished a  manifesto  (1703,)  in  which  he  detailed  the  motives  of 
his  conduct,  and  exhorted  the  Hungarians  to  join  him,  for  vin- 
dicating their  ancient  liberties  which  had  been  oppressed  by  the 
House  of  Austria.  He  soon  attracted  a  crowd  of  partisans,  and 
made  himself  master  of  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom.  The 
Transylvanians  chose  him  for  their  prince  (1704  ;)  r  nd  the  States 
of  Hungary,  who  had  united  for. the  re-establishment  of  their 
laws  and  immunities,  declared  him  their  chief,  with  the  title  of 
Duke,  and  a  senate  of  twenty-five  persons.  Louis  XIV.  sent 
his  envoy,  the  Marquis  Dessalleurs,  to  congratulate  him  on 
his  elevation ;  and  the  Czar,  Peter  the  Great,  offered  him  the 
throne  of  Poland  (1707,)  in  opposition  to  Stanislaus,  who  was 
protected  by  Charles  XII. 

The  House  of  Austria  being  engaged  in  the  Spanish  war, 
was  unable  for  a  long  time  to  re.duce  the  Hungarian  malecon- 
tents. The  repeated  attempts  which  she  had  made  to  come  to  an 
accommodation  with  them  having  failed,  the  war  was  continued 
till  1711,  when  the  Austrians,  who  had  been  victorious,  com- 
pelled Ragoczi  to  evacuate  Hungary,  and  retire  to  the  frontiers 
of  Poland.  A  treaty  of  pacification  was  then  drawn  up.  The 
Emperor  promised  to  grant  an  amnesty,  and  a  general  restitu- 
tion of  goods  in  favour  of  all  those  who  had  been  implicated  in 
the  insurrection.  He  came  under  an  engagement  to  preserve 
inviolable  the  rights,  liberties,  and  immunities  of  Hungary,  and 
the  principality  of  Transylvania  ;  to  reserve  all  civil  and  mili- 
tary offices  to  the  Hungarians  ;  to  maintain  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom  respecting  religion  ;  and  as  for  their  other  grievances, 
whether  political  or  ecclesiastical,  he  consen  ed  to  have  them 
discussed  in  the  approaching  Diet.  These  articles  were  ap- 
proved and  signed  by  the  greater  part  of  the  malecontents,  who 


5(5  CHAPTER  VIII. 

tlien  took  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Emperor.  Ragoczi 
and  his  principal  adherents  were  the  only  persons  that  remain- 
ed proscribed  and  attainted,  having  refused  to  accede  to  these 
articles. 

The  Turkish  Empire,  once  so  formidable,  had  gradually  fallen 
from  the  summit  of  its  grandeur  ;  its  resources  were  exhausted, 
and  its  history  marked  by  nothing  but  misfortunes.  The  effe- 
minacy and  incapacity  of  the  Sultans,  their  contempt  for  the 
arts  cultivated  by  the  Europeans,  and  the  evils  of  a  gov^ern- 
ment  purely  military  and  despotic,  by  degrees  undermined  its 
strength,  and  eclipsed  its  glory  as  a  conquering  and  presiding 
power.  We  find  the  Janissaries,  a  lawless  and  undisciplined 
militia,  usurping  over  the  sovereign  and  the  throne  the  same 
rights  which  the  Prsetorian  guards  had  arrogated  over  the  an- 
cient Roman  Emperors. 

The  last  conquest  of  any  importance  which  the  Turks  made 
was  that  of  Candia,  which  they  took  from  the  Republic  of  Venice. 
The  war  which  obtained  them  the  possession  of  that  island, 
lasted  for  twenty  years.  It  began  under  the  Sultan  Ibrahim 
(1645,)  and  was  continued  under  his  successor,  Mahomet  IV. 
The  Venetians  defended  the  island  with  exemplary  courage  and 
intrepidity.  They  destroyed  several  of  the  Turkish  fleets; 
and,  on  different  occasions,  they  kept  the  passage  of  the  Darda- 
nelles shut  against  the  Ottomans.  At  length  the  famous  Vizier 
Achmet  Kiupruli  undertook  the  siege  of  the  city  of  Candia 
(1687,)  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army.  This  siege  was  one 
of  the  most  sanguinary  recorded  in  history.  The  Turks  lost 
above  a  hundred  thousand  men  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  a  siege 
of  two  years  and  four  months  that  the  place  surrendered  to 
them  by  a  capitulation  (Sept.  5,  1669,)  which  at  the  same  time 
regulated  the  conditions  of  peace  between  the  Turks  and  the 
Venetians.  These  latter,  on  surrendering  Candia,  reserved,  in 
the  islands  and  islets  adjoining,  three  places,  viz.  Suda,  Spina- 
longa,  and  Garabusa.  They  also  retained  Clissa,  and  some 
other  places  in  Dalmatia  and  Albania,  which  they  had  seizea 
during  the  war.  The  reign  of  Mahom'et  from  that  time,  pre- 
sented nothing  but  a  succession  of  wars,  of  which  that  against 
Hungary  was  the  most  fatal  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The 
Turks  were  overwhelmed  by  the  powerful  league  formed 
between  Austria,  Poland,  Russia,  and  the  Republic  of  Venice. 
They  experienced,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  a  series  of  fatal 
disasters  during  that  war  ;  and  imputing  these  misfortunes  to 
the  effeminacy  of  their  Sultan,  they  resolved  to  depose  him. 
Mustapha  II.,  the  third  in  succession  from  Mahomet  IV.,  ter- 
ininatcd  this  destructive  war  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  when 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  57 

the  Turks  lost  all  their  possessions  in  Hungary,  except  Teiiieswar 
and  Belgrade.  They  gave  up  to  Poland  the  fortress  of  Kanii- 
niec,  with  Podolia,  and  the  part  of  the  Ukraine  on  this  ride  the 
Nieper,  which  had  been  ceded  to  them  by  former  trea.ties.  The 
Venetians,  by  their  treaty  with  the  Porte,  obtained  possession 
of  the  Morea,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the  war  ;  in- 
cluding the  islands  of  St.  Maura  and  Leucadia,  as  also  the  for- 
tresses of  Dalmatia,  Knin,  Sing,  Ciclut,  Gabella,  Castlenuovo, 
and  Risano.  Finally,  the  Porte  renounced  the  tribute  which 
Venice  had  formerly  paid  for  the  isle- of  Zante ;  and  the  Repub- 
lic of  Ragusa  was  guaranteed  in  its  independence,  with  respect 
to  the  Venetians. 


CHAPTEH    IX. 

PERIOD  VIII. 

From  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  French  Revolution,     a.  d. 
1713—1789. 

[During  the  wars  of  the  preceding  period,  arts  and  letters 
had  made  extraordinary  progress  ;  especially  in  France,  where 
they  seemed  to  have  reached  the  highest  degree  of  perfection 
to  which  the  limited  genius  of  man  can  carry  them.  The  age 
of  Louis  XIV.  revived,  and  almost  equalled  those  master-pieces 
which  Greece  had  produced  under  Pericles,  Rome  under  Au- 
gustus, and  Italy  under  the  patronage  of  the  Medici.  This 
was  the  classical  era  of  French  literature.  The  grandeur 
which  reigned  at  the  court  of  that  monarch,  and  the  glory  which 
his  vast  exploits  had  reflected  on  the  nation,  inspired  authors 
with  a  noble  enthusiasm  ;  the  public  taste  was  refined  by  imi- 
tating the  models  of  antiquity  ;  and  this  preserved  the  French 
writers  from  those  extravagancies  which  some  other  nations 
have  mistaken  for  the  standard  of  genius.  Their  language, 
polished  by  the  Academy  according  to  fixed  rules,  the  first  and 
most  fundamental  of  which  condemns  every  thing  that  does 
not  tend  to  unite  elegance  with  perspicuity,  became  the  general 
medium  of  communication  among  the  different  nations  in  the 
civilized  world ;  and  this  literary  conquest  which  France  made 
over  the  minds  of  other  nations,  is  more  glorious,  and  has 
proved  more  advantageous  to  her,  than  that  universal  dominion 
to  which  Louis  XIV.  is  said  to  have  aspired. 

In  the  period^on  which  we  are  now  enteriiig,  men  of  genius 
and  talents,  though  they  did  not  neglect  tlie  Belles-Lettres, 
devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  those  sciences,  and  that  kind  of 


iS  CHAPTER  IX. 

learning,  the  study  of  which  has  heen  diffused  over  all  classes 
of  society.  Several  branches  of  mathematics  and  natural  philo- 
sophy, assumed  a  form  entirely  new;  the  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  classics,  which,  till  then,  had  been  studied  chiefly  for  the 
formation  of  taste,  became  a  branch  of  common  education,  and 
gave  birth  to  a  variety  of  profound  and  useful  researches.  Geo- 
metry, astronomy,  mechanics,  and  navigation,  were  brought  to 
great  perfection,  by  the  rivalry  among  the  diflferent  scientific 
academies  in  Europe.  Natural  Philosophy  discovered  many  of 
the  laws  and  phenomena  of  nature.  Chemistry  rose  from  the 
rank  of  an  obscure  art,  and  put  on  the  garb  of  an  attractive 
science.  Natural  History,  enriched  by  the  discoveries  of  learned 
travellers,  was  divested  of  those  fables  and  chimeras  which 
ignorance  had  attributed  to  her.  History,  supported  by  the 
auxiliary  sciences  of  Geography  and  Chronology,  became  a 
branch  of  general  philosophy. 

The  equilibrium  among  the  different  States,  disturbed  by  the  am- 
bition of  Louis  XI  v., had  been  confirmed  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
which  lasted  during  twenty-four  years  without  any  great  altera- 
tion. Nevertheless,  in  the  political  transactions  which  took  place 
at  this  time,  England  enjoyed  a  preponderance  which  had  been 
growing  gradually  since  she  had  ceased  to  be  the  theatre  of  civil 
discord.  The  glory  which  she  had  acquired  by  the  success  of 
her  arms  in  the  Spanish  wars,  and  the  important  advantages 
which  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  had  procured  her,  both  in  Europe 
and  America,  augmented  her  political  power,  and  gave  her  an 
influence  in  general  affairs  which  she  never  had  enjoyed  before. 
That  nation  carried  their  commerce  and  their  marine  to  an  extent 
which  could  not  fail  to  alarm  the  other  commercial  and  maritime 
states,  and  make  them  perceive  that,  if  the  care  of  their  own  trade 
and  independence  made  it  necessary  to  maintain  a  system  of 
equilibrium  on  the  Continent,  it  was  equally  important  for  their 
prosperity  that  bounds  should  be  set  to  the  monopolizing  power 
of  England.  This  gave  rise  at  first  to  a  new  kind  of  rivalry  be- 
tween France  and  England — a  rivalry  whose  effects  were  more 
particularly  manifested  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  which  occasioned  an  intimate  alliance  among  the 
branches  of  the  House  of  Bourbon.  At  a  later  date,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the  principles  which  the  English  professed  as  to  the 
com.merce  of  neutral  states,  the  powers  of  the  North  leagued 
them.selves  against  that  universal  dominion  which  they  were 
accused  of  wishing  to  usurp  over  the  sea.  In  the  Ninth  Period, 
we  shall  even  see  the  whole  Continent  for  a  short  time  turned 
against  that  nation — the  only  one  that  has  been  able  to  preserve 
her  commerce  and  her  independence. 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  5^ 

This  preponderance  of  England  is  the  first  change  which  the 
poiincal  system  of  Europe  experienced  in  the  eighteenth  ceuniry. 
The  second  took  place  in  the  North.  Till  that  time,  the  nonhem  . 
countries  of  Europe  had  never,  except  transiently,  had  any  poli- 
tical, connexions  with  the  South.  Russia,  separated  by  the 
pospessions  of  Sweden  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  had  belonged 
rather  to  Asia  than  to  our  quarter  of  the  world.  Poland;  fallen 
from  her  ancient  greatness,  had  sunk  into  a  state  of  anarchy  and 
exhaustion.  Denmark  and  Sweden  were  disputing  the  command 
of  the  Baltic,  and  had  no  other  influence  on  the  politics  of  the 
South  than  that  which  Sweden  had  acquired  by  the  personal 
qualities  of  some  of  her  kings.  The  great  war  of  the  North, 
which  broke  out  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great,  which  extended  the  limits 
of  his  Empire  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  reduced  Sweden 
to  a  state  of  debility  from  which  she  has  not  yet  recovered, 
enabled  Russia  not  only  to  take  a  distinguished  lead  in  the 
North,  but  to  become  an  important  member  in  the  system  of 
Europe. 

Meantime,  the  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monarchy  gave  rise 
to  a  new  and  intermediate  power  between  the  North  and  the 
South;  but  that  state  remained  within  the  bounds  of  mediocrity 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  At  that  time  the 
genius  of  Frederic  II.  alone  raised  it  to  a  pitch  of  greatness  which 
enabled  it  to  struggle  against  the  superior  force  of  its  neighbours, 
but  without  menacing  the  independence  of  other  states.  This 
growing  power  of  Prussia,  however,  occasioned  a  rivalry  between 
it  and  Austria,  which  for  seventy  years  had  an  influence  on  the 
politics  of  Europe.  It  produced  the  extraordinary  spectacle  of 
an  intimate  alliance  between  two  ancient  rivals,  the  Houses  of 
Austria  and  Bourbon ;  and,  by  dividing  Germany  between  two 
opposite  systems,  it  paved  the  way  for  the  dissolution  of  that 
Empire.  Such  was  the  third  change  which  the  polity  of  Europe 
experienced  in  course  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  fourth  change  was  less  felt  than  the  three  others  ;  its 
fatal  consequences  did  not  develope  themselves  until  the  Ninth 
Period.  For  the  first  time  within  the  last  three  centuries,  the 
sovereigns  of  Europe  ventured  to  break  treaties  and  to  violate 
engagements,  to  declare  war  and  undertake  conquests,  without 
alleging  any  other  motives  than  reasons  of  convenience,  and  the 
ambition  of  aggrandizement.  Thus  the  basis  of  the  equilibrium 
system,  the  inviolability  of  possessions  honourably  acquired,  was 
sapped,  and  the  downfall  of  the  whole  system  prepared.  The 
events  of  the  wars  for  the  succession  of  Austria,  furnished  the 
first  examples  of  this  contempt  for  treaties ;  they  were  renewed 


60 


CHAPTER  IX. 


.11  a.rt  alarming  manner  on  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  by  the 
aivrimpts  which  the  Emperor  Joseph  made  to  seize  Bavaria.  The 
act  of  iniquity  committed  against  Poland  was  often  cited,  durmg 
ihe  period  of  the  French  Revohition,  to  justify  all  sorts  of  vio- 
It-ncc  and  usurpation ;  and  it  was  followed  Ly  a  long  train  of 
calamities. 

Commerce  continued,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  to  be  one  of 
ihe  principal  objects  that  occupied  the  Cabinets  of  Europe.  The 
mercantile  system  was  brought  to  great  perfection,  and  became, 
with  most  nations,  the  basis  of  their  administration.  The  mari- 
time povv'ers  turned  all  their  attention,  and  bestowed  the  greatest 
care,  on  their  colonies,  the  number  and  wealth  of  which  were 
augmented  by  new  establishments  and  better  regulations.  In 
iiTxitation  of  Louis  XIV.,  most  of  the  states  kept  up  numerous 
standing  armies ;  a  practice  which  they  even  carried  to  excess. 
The  influence  of  England  in  Continental  affairs  was  increased  ; 
as  she  had  no  occasion  to  augment  her  own  army  in  proportion 
to  that  of  other  kingdoms,  she  was  able  to  furnish  them  wdth 
those  supplies  which  were  necessary  to  carry  on  their  wars. 
Besides,  since  the  time  of  Frederic  II.,  or  about  the  year  1740, 
tactics,  and  the  military  art  in  general,  had  reached  a  degree  of 
-perfection  which  seem.ed  scarcely  to  admit  of  further  improve- 
ment. Finally,  the  financial  system  of  several  states  experienced 
a  revolution,  by  the  invention  of  public  funds  for  the  payment  of 
n5.tional  debts ;  especially  that  instituted  by  Mr.  Pitt,  called  the 
Sinking  Fund.] 

The  extraordinary  efforts  which  the  powers  of  Europe  had 
made  during  the  last  century,  for  maintaining  the  equilibrium 
of  the  Continent  against  the  ambitious  designs  of  France  and 
Sweden,  brought  on  a  long  period  of  tranquillity,  which  gave 
these  nations  an  opportunity  of  encouraging  arts,  industry  and 
commerce,  and  thereby  repairing  the  evils  which  the  long  and 
disastrous  Avars  had  occasioned.  Cabinets  were  attentive  to 
maintain  the  stipulations  of  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Stock- 
holm ;  and,  by  means  of  negotiations,  to  guard  against  every 
hing  that  might  rekindle  a  new  general  war.  The  good  under- 
standing that  subsisted  between  France  and  Great  Britain  during 
lie  reign  of  George  I.  and  the  beginning  of  that  of  George  II. — 
or,  in  other  words,  under  the  administration  of  Walpole,  was  the 
•3 fleet  of  those  temporary  interests  that  engrossed  the  attention 
of  the  two  Courts — the  one  being  under  terror  of  the  Pretender, 
and  the  other  alarmed  at  the  ambitious  projects  of  Spain. 

The  Duke  of  Orleans,  Regent  of  France  during  the  minority 
of  Louis  XV.,  was  anxious  to  maintain  that  peace  and  political 
order  which  the  late  treaties  had  introduced  :  having  it  in  view 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  61 

to  remedy  those  disorders  in  the  finance,  which  Louis  XIV.  had 
left  in  so  deplorable  a  state. ^  The  King  of  Spain,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  was  desirous  of  reviving  his  rights  to  the  crown  of 
France,  went  into  the  rash  schemes  of  Cardinal  Alberoni,-  his 
prime  minister,  purporting  to  renew  the  war ;  to  reconquer  those 
territories  which  the  peace  of  Utrecht  had  dismembered  from 
the  Spanish  monarchy  ;  to  deprive  the  Duke  of  Orleans  of  the 
regency,  and  vest  it  in  the  King  of  Spain  ;  and  to  place  the  Pre- 
tender, son  of  James  II.,  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 

The  treaty  of  Utrecht,  although  it  had  tranquillized  a  great 
part  of  Europe,  was  nevertheless  defective,  in  as  far  as  it  had 
not  reconciled  the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain,  the  two  prin- 
cipal claimants  to  the  Spanish  succession.  The  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  did  not  recognise  Philip  V.  in  his  quality  of  King 
of  Spain;  and  Philip,  in  his  turn,  refused  to  acquiesce  in  those 
partitions  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  \vhich  the  treat}'-  of  Utrecht 
had  stipulated  in  favour  of  the  Emperor.  To  defeat  the  projects 
and  secret  intrigues  of  the  Spanish  minister,  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans thought  of  courting  an  alliance  with  England,  as  being 
the  power  most  particularly  interested  in  maintaining  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  the  fundamental  articles  of  which  had  been  dictated 
by  herself.  That  alliance,  into  which  the  United  Provinces  also 
entered,  was  concluded  at  the  Hague  (Jan.  4,  1717.)  The  arti- 
cles of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  those  especially  which  related  to 
the  succession  of  the  two  crowns,  were  there  renewed  ;  and  the 
Regent,  in  complaisance  to  the  King  of  England,  agreed  to 
banish  the  Pretender  from  France,  and  to  admit  British  com- 
missaries into  Dunkirk  to  superintend  that  port. 

Cardinal  Alberoni,  without  being  in  the  least  disconcerted  by 
the  Triple  Alliance,  persisted  in  his  design  of  recommencing  the 
war.  No  sooner  had  he  recruited  the  Spanish  forces,  and 
equipped  an  expedition,  than  he  attacked  Sardinia,  which  he 
took  from  the  Emperor.  This  conquest  was  followed  by  that 
of  Sicily,  which  the  Spaniards  took  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
(171S.) 

France  and  England,  indignant  at  the  infraction  of  a  treaty 
which  they  regarded  as  their  o\vn  work,  immediately  concluded 
with  the  Emperor,  at  London  (Aug.  2,  1718,)  the  famous  Quad- 
ruple Alliance,  which  contained  the  plan  of  a  treaty  of  peace,  to 
be  made  between  the  Emperor,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Duke 
of  Savo)^  The  allied  powers  engaged  to  obtain  the  consent  of 
the  parties  interested  in  this  proposal,  and  in  case  of  refusal,  to 
compel  them  by  force  of  arms.  The  Emperor  was  to  renounce 
his  right  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  to  acknoAvledge  Philip  V. 
as  the  legitimate  King  of  Spain,  in  consideration  of  his  renoun- 

VOL.  II.  6 


62  CHAPTBR  IX. 

cing  the  pro\inces  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  which  the  treaty 
cf  Utrecht  and  the  quadruple  alliance  adjudged  to  the  Emperor. 
The  Duke  of  Savoy  was  to  cede  Sicily  to  Austria,  receivjno 
Sardinia  in  exchange,  which  the  King  of  Spain  was  to  give  up. 
The  right  of  reversion  to  the  crown  of  Spain  was  transferred 
from  Sicily  to  Sardinia.  That  treaty  likewise  granted  to  Don 
Carlos,  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.,  by  his  second  marriage,  the  even- 
tual reversion  and  investiture  of  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
centia,  as  well  as  the  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany,  on  condition  ot 
holding  them  as  fiefs-male  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Empire,  after 
the  decease  of  the  last  male  issue  of  the  families  of  Farnese  and 
Medici,  who  were  then  in  possession ;  and  the  better  to  secure 
this  double  succession  to  the  Infante,  they  agreed  to  introduce  a 
body  of  six  thousand  Swiss  into  the  two  dutchies,  to  be  quartered 
in  Leghorn,  Porto-Ferrajo,  Parma,  and  Placentia.  The  con- 
tracting powers  ur^dertook  to  guarantee  the  payment  of  these 
troops. 

The  Duke  of  Savoy  did  not  hesitate  to  subscribe  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  quadruple  alliance ;  but  it  was  otherwise  with  the 
King  of  Spain,  who  persisted  in  his  refusal ;  when  France  and 
England  declared  war  against  him.  The  French  invaded  the 
provinces  of  Guipuscoa  and  Catalonia,  while  the  English  seized 
Gallicia  and  the  port  of  Vigo.  These  vigorous  proceedings 
shook  the  resolutions  of  the  King  of  Spain.  He  signed  the 
quadruple  alliance,  and  banished  the  Cardinal  Alberoni  from  his 
court,  the  adviser  of  those  measures  of  which  the  allies  com- 
plained. The  Spanish  troops  then  evacuated  Sicily  and  Sardi- 
nia, when  the  Emperor  took  possession  of  the  former,  and  Victor 
Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy,  of  the  latter. 

The  war  to  all  appearance  was  at  an  end  ;  peace,  however, 
was  far  from  being  concluded,  and  there  still  remained  many 
difficulties  to  settle  between  the  Emperor,  the  King  of  Spain, 
and  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  To  accomplish  this,  and  conclude  a 
definitive  treaty  between  these  three  powers,  a  Congress  was 
summoned  at  Cambray,  which  was  to  open  in  1721,  under  the 
mediation  of  France  and  England;  but  some  disputes  which 
arose  regarding  certain  preliminary  articles,  retarded  their  meet- 
ing for  several  years.  Their  first  and  principal  object  was  to 
ellect  an  exchange  of  the  acts  of  mutual  renunciation  between 
the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain,  as  stipulated  by  the  treaty 
of  the  quadruple  alliance.  The  Emperor,  who  was  reluctant  to 
abandon  his  claims  to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  started  difficulties 
as  to  the  form  of  these  renunciations.  He  demanded  that  Phi- 
lip's renunciation  of  the  provinces  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands, 
should  be  confirmed  by  the  Spanish  Cortes.     Philip  demanded, 


PERIOD  VIII.     A  D.  1713 — 1789.  63 

in  his  turn,  that  the  renunciation  of  the  Emperor  with  regard  to 
Spain,  should  be  ratified  by  the  States  of  the  Empire.  To  get 
clear  of  this  difficulty,  France  and  England  agreed,  by  a  special 
compact,  signed  at  Paris  (Sept.  27, 1721,)  that  the  renunciations 
of  both  princes,  however  defective  they  might  be,  should  be  held 
valid  under  the  guaranty  of  the  two  mediating  powers. 

Scarcely  was  this  difficulty  settled,  when  another  presented 
itself,  much  more  embarrassing.  This  related  to  the  Company 
of  Ostend,  which  the  Emperor  had  instituted,  and  to  which,  by 
charter  signed  at  Vienna  (Dec.  19,  1722,)  he  had  granted,  for 
thirty  years,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  to  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  the  coasts  of  Africa.  That  establishment  set 
the  maritime  powers  at  variance  with  the  Emperor ;  especially 
the  Dutch,  who  regarded  it  as  prejudicial  to  their  Indian  com- 
merce. They  maintained,  that  according  to  the  treaty  of  Mun- 
ster,  confirmed  by  the  tv/enty-sixtli  article  of  the  Barrier  Treaty 
(1715,)  the  trade  of  the  Spaniards  with  the  East  Indies  was  to 
remain  as  it  was  at  that  time. 

Nothing  in  these  preliminary  discussions  met  with  so  much 
opposition  as  the  grant  of  the  eventual  reversion  and  investiture 
of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Placentia,  which  the  Emperor  had  en- 
gaged, by  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  to  give  to  Don  Carlos,  the 
Infante  of  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Parma,  the  Pope,  and  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  joined  in  opposition  to  it.  Anthony,  the  last 
Duke  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  of  the  House  of  Farnese,  de- 
manded that  the  Emperor  should  never,  during  his  life,  exercise 
over  the  dutch}'  of  Parma,  the  territorial  rights  established  by 
the  treaty  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance.  The  Pope  also  protested 
loudly  against  that  clause  of  the  treaty  which  deprived  him  of 
the  rights  of  superiority  over  Parma  and  Placentia,  which  his 
predecessors  had  enjoyed  for  several  centuries.  As  for  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  John  Gaston,  the  last  of  the  Medici,  he 
maintained,  that  as  his  dutchy  neld  of  God  only,  he  could  never 
permit  that  it  should  be  declared  a  fief  of  the  Empire  .  nor  recog- 
nise the  Infante  of  Spain  as  heir  of  his  estates,  to  the  prejudice 
of  his  sister's  rights,  the  widow  of  the  Elector  Palatine. 

Charles  VI.  without  stopping  at  these  objections,  laid  the 
business  of  these  investitures  before  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon ;  and, 
after  having  obtained  their  consent,  he  caused  copies  to  be  made 
of  the  letters  of  reversion  and  investiture  in  favour  of  Don  Carlos 
and  his  heirs-male.  These  havin?  been  presented  to  the  Con- 
gress, the  King  of  Spain  refused  to  receive  ihcm  ;  alleging  the 
protests  of  the  Pope,  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany;  nor 
would  he  agree  to  them,  except  on  condition  of  an  act  of  guaranty 
on  the  part  of  the  mediating  powers.     All  these  difficulties  being 


64  CHAPTER   IX. 

settled,  and  the  preliminaries  closed,  they  at  length  proceeded 
■with  the  conferences  at  Cambray  (April  1724,)  for  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  definitive  peace  between  the  Emperor,  the  King  of 
Spain,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  Every  thing  seemed  arrived 
at  an  amicable  termination,  when  some  differences  arose  between 
the  commissioners  of  the  Emperor  and  those  of  the  mediating 
powers,  which  occasioned  new  interruptions. 

?,Ieantime,  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  w^ho  had  succeeded  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  in  the  ministry,  sent  back  to  Spain  the  Infanta  Maria, 
daughter  of  Philip  V.,  who  had  been  educated  at  the  court  of 
France,  as  the  intended  spouse  of  Louis  XV.  This  event  broke 
up  the  Congress.  Philip  V.,  greatly  offended,  recalled  his 
ministers  from  Cambray.  Baron  Ripperda,  ^  whom  he  had  sent 
as  envoy  to  the  Imperial  Court  put  an  end  to  the  differences  be- 
tween these  two  powers,  in  despite  of  the  mediation  of  France. 
In  consequence,  a  special  treaty  was  concluded  at  Vienna  be- 
tween the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain  (April  30,  1725.) 
This  treaty  renev/ed  the  renunciation  of  Philip  V.  to  the  pro- 
vinces of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Em- 
peror to  Spain  and  the  Indies.  The  eventual  investiture  of  the 
dutchies  of  Parma  and  Placentia,  and  that  of  the  grand  dutchy 
of  Tuscany,  were  also  confirmed.  The  only  new  clause  con- 
tained in  the  treaty,  was  that  by  which  the  King  of  Spain  under- 
took to  guarantee  the  famous  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  VI., 
which  secured  to  the  daughter  of  that  prince  the  succession  of 
all  his  estates.  It  was  chiefly  on  this  account  that  Philip  V. 
became  reconciled  to  the  Court  of  Vienna. 

The  peace  of  Vienna  was  accompanied  by  a  defensive  alliance 
between  the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  Spain.  Among  other 
clauses,  one  was  that  the  Emperor  should  interpose  to  obtain 
for  the  King  of  Spain  the  restitution  of  Gibraltar  and  the  island 
of  Minorca;  while  Philip,  on  his  side,  granted  to  the  shipping 
of  the  Emperor  and  his  subjects  free  entrance  into  his  ports,  and 
all  immunities  and  prerogatives  which  were  enjoyed  by  the 
nations  in  the  strictest  commercial  connexions  with  Spain. 
These  clauses  alarmed  England  and  Holland;  and  the  intimacy 
which  had  been  established  between  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and 
Madrid  attracted  more  particularly  the  attention  of  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  who  dreaded  the  resentment  of  the  King  of  Spain,  as 
he  had  advised  the  return  of  the  Infanta.  To  prevent  any  such 
consequences,  he  set  on  foot  a  league  with  England  and  Prus- 
sia, capable  of  counteracting  that  of  Vienna,  which  was  concluded 
at  Herrenhausen,  near  Hanover  (Sept.  3,  1725,)  and  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Alliance  of  Hanover, 

All  Europe  was  divided  betv/een  these  two  alliances.     Hoi- 


PERIOD  vui.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  65 

land,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  acceded  to  the  alliance  of  Hanover. 
Catherine  I.  of  Russia,  and  the  principal  Catholic  States  of  the 
Empire  joined  that  of  Vienna.  The  Emperor  even  succeeded 
in  detaching  the  King  of  Prussia  from  the  alliance  of  Hanover 
to  join  his  own.  Europe  seemed  then  on  the  eve  of  a  general 
war;  the  ambassadors  to  the  different  courts  were  recalled.  The 
English  sent  a  numerous  and  pov/erful  fleet  to  America,  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  Baltic  ;  while  the  Spaniards  commenced 
hostilities,  by  laying  siege  to  Gibraltar.  The  death  of  the  Em- 
press of  Russia  (May  17,  1727,)  however,  caused  a  change  in 
the  disposition  of  the  Northern  powers.  The  Emperor,  seeing 
he  could  no  longer  reckon  on  the  assistance  of  Russia,  showed 
no  anxiety  to  second  the  efforts  of  the  Spaniards ;  but  what 
chiefly  contributed  to  the  maintenance  of  peace  was,  that  neither 
France  nor  England  was  desirous  of  war. 

In  this  situation  of  affairs,  the  Pope  interposed  his  mediation  ; 
and  a  new  preliminary  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  which  or- 
dained that  there  should  be  an  armistice  for  seven  years ;  that 
the  Company  of  Ostend  should  be  suspended  for  the  same  time  ; 
and  that  a  new  General  Congress  should  be  held  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

This  congress  was  first  transferred  to  Cambray,  and  thence  to 
Soissons,  where  it  was  opened  in  1728.  Ambassadors  from 
almost  all  the  Courts  of  Europe  appeared  there;  and  they  ex- 
pected, with  some  reason,  a  happy  conclusion  of  the  business  ; 
as  most  of  the  difficulties  which  had  embarrassed  the  Congress 
of  Cambray  were  settled  by  the  peace  of  Vienna,  and  as  the  only 
subject  for  deliberation  was  to  settle  the  succession  of  Parma  and 
Tuscany.  But  the  Emperor  having  dem.anded  that  the  Austrian 
Pragmatic  Sanction  should  be  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  arrange- 
ments for  establishing  the  peace  of  Soissons,  that  incident  be- 
came the  subject  of  new  disputes.  Cardinal  Fleury,  then  prime 
minister  of  France,  having  strongly  opposed  this  claim  of  the 
Court  of  Vienna,  the  Emperor,  in  his  turn,  threw  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  the  negotiation  at  Soissons.  This  inclined  the  Car- 
dinal to  make  overtures  to  the  Court  of  Madrid,  with  whom  he 
concerted  a  secret  negotiation,  in  which  he  also  found  means  to 
associate  England. 

This  gave  rise  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  union,  and  offensive  al- 
liance, which  was  signed  at  Seville  between  France,  Spain,  and 
England  (November  9,  1729.)  These  powers  engaged  to  gua- 
rantee the  succession  of  Parma  and  Tuscany  in  favour  of  the 
Infante  Don  Carlos ;  and  to  effect  this,  they  resolved  to  substitute 
six  thousand  Spanish  troops  in  the  Swiss  garrisons,  named  by 
the  Quadruple  Alliance.     The  Dutch  acceded  to  that  treaty,  in 

6# 


66  CHAPTER  IX. 

consideration  of  the  engagement  which  the  contracting  powers 
came  under  to  give  them  entire  satisfaction  with  respect  to  the 
Company  of  Ostend. 

The  Emperor,  finding  the  treaty  of  Seville  concluded  »vith- 
out  his  co-operation,  w^as  apprehensive  of  having  failed  m  his 
prmcipal  aim,  viz.  the  adoption  of  the  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion. He  was  indignant  that  the  aUies  at  Seville  should  pre- 
tend to  lay  down  the  law  to  him  touching  the  abolition  of  the 
Ostend  Company,  and  the  introduction  of  Spanish  troops  into 
Italy.  Accordingly,  being  determined  not  to  comply,  he  imme- 
diately broke  off  all  relationship  with  the  Court  of  Spain  ;  he 
recalled  his  ambassador,  and  took  measures  to  prevent  the  Spa- 
nish troops  from  taking  possession  of  Italy.  The  last  Duke  of 
Parma,  Anthony  Farnese,  being  dead  (1731,)  he  took  posses- 
sion of  his  dutchy  by  force  of  arms. 

At  length,  to  terminate  all  these  differences,  the  King  of  Eng- 
land, in  concert  with  the  States-General,  opened  a  negotiation 
with  the  Emperor  ;  the  result  of  which  was  a  treaty  of  alliance, 
signed  at  Vienna,  between  him,  England  and  Holland  (March 
16,  1731.)  In  virtue  of  that  treaty,  the  three  contracting  pow- 
ers mutually  guaranteed  their  estates,  rights  and  possessions  ; 
England  and  "Holland,  more  especially,  engaged  to  guarantee 
the  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanction  ;  and  the  Emperor,  on  his 
side,  consented  to  the  introduction  of  Spanish  troops  into  Italy, 
and  to  the  suppression  of  the  Company  of  Ostend  ;  he  even 
agreed  that  the  Netherlands  should  never  carry  on  trade  with 
the  Indies,  either  by  the  Ostend  Company,  or  any  other. 

In  consequence  of  this  treaty,  Avhich  was  approved  by  the 
States-General,  Don  Carlos  took  possession  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
centia  ;  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  also  recognised  him 
as  his  successor.  Thus  terminated  these  long  disputes  about 
the  Spanish  Succession,  after  having  agitated  the  greater  part 
of  Europe  for  upwards  of  thirty  years. 

In  the  midst  of  these  contentions,  a  war  had  arisen  between 
the  Porte  and  the  Eepublic  of  Venice  ;  in  which  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  was  also  implicated.  The  Turks  were  desirous  of 
recovering  the  IMorea,  which  they  had  been  obliged  to  abandon 
to  the  Venetians  at  the  peace  of  Carlowitz ;  but  instead  of  at- 
tacking that  Republic,  while  the  Emperor  was  engaged  with  the 
French  war,  and  unable  to  render  it  assistance,  they  Avaited  till 
the  conclusion  of  the  treaties  of  Utrecht,  Rastadt,  and  Baden, 
before  they  declared  hostilities.  The  pretexts  which  the  Turks 
made  to  justify  this  rupture  were  extremely  frivolous  ;  but  they 
knew  well  that  the  Venetians,  who  had  lived  in  the  most  com- 
plete security  since  the  pence  of  Carlowitz,  had  nf>glected  to  re- 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  67 

pair  the  fortifications  which  had  been  destroyed  in  the  war;  and 
that  it  Avould  be  easy  for  them  to  reconquer  them. 

In  fact,  during  the  campaign  of  1715,  the  Grand  Vizier  noi 
only  recovered  the  Morea,  he  even  dispossessed  the  Venetian^-. 
of  the  places  which  they  still  retained  in  the  Isle  of  Candia  . 
and,  at  the  commencement  of  the  following  campaign,  they  laid 
fciege  to  the  town  of  Corfu.  Charles  VI.  thought  he  was  bound, 
us  the  guarantee  of  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  to  espouse  the 
cause  of  the  Venetians  ;  he  declared  war  against  the  Porte,  and 
his  example  was  followed  by  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  Spain, 
who  united  their  fleets  to  those  of  the  Eepublic.  The  Turks 
were  defeated  in  several  engagements,  and  obliged  to  raise  the- 
siege  of  Corfu,  after  sacrificing  a  great  many  lives. 

The  campaigns  of  1716  and  1717  in  Hungary,  Avere  trium- 
phant for  the  armies  of  the  Emperor  ;  Prince  Eugene  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Grand  Vizier,  near  Peterwaradin  (Au- 
gust 5th,)  which  enabled  him  to  invest  Temeswar,  which  he 
carried  after  a  siege  of  six  m^onths,  and  thus  completed  the 
conquest  of  Hungary.  To  crown  his  glory,  that  great  captain 
next  undertook  the  siege  of  Belgrade,  regarded  by  the  Turks 
as  the  principal  bulwark  of  their  Empire.  The  Grand  Vizier 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  place,  at  the  head  of  a  formidable 
army.  He  encamped  before  Belgrade,  and  enclosed  the  Impe- 
rial army  within  a  semicircle,  reaching  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Save.  Prince  Eugene  had  then  no  other  alternative  than  to 
leave  his  camp,  and  attack  the  Turks  in  their  intrenchments. 
He  took  his  measures  Avhich  such  address,  that,  in  spite  of  the 
great  superiority  of  the  Turks,  he  forced  them  back  to  their 
camp,  and  put  them  completely  to  rout  (Aug.  10,  1717.) 

This  victory  was  followed  by  the  reduction  of  Belgrade,  and 
several  other  places  on  the  Save  and  the  Danube.  The  Porte 
began  to  wish  for  peace  ;  and  as  the  Emperor,  who  had  just  been 
attacked  in  Italy  by  the  Spaniards,  was  equally  desirous  to  put 
an  end  to  the  war,  both  parties  agreed  to  accept  the  mediation 
of  England  and  Holland.  A  congress  was  opened  at  Passaro- 
witz,  a  small  town  in  Servia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Morau.  A 
peace  was  there  concluded  between  the  three  belligerent  powers 
(July  21,  1718,)  on  the  basis  of  the  Uti  possidetis.  The  Empe- 
ror retained  Temeswar,  Orsova,  Belgrade,  and  the  part  of  Wal- 
lachia  lying  on  this  side  of  the  river  Aluta ;  as  also  Servia,  ac- 
cording to  the  limits  determined  by  the  treaty,  and  both  -banks 
of  the  Save,  from  the  Drino  to  the  Unna.  The  Venetians  lost 
the  Morea,  but  they  retained  several  places  in  Herzegovina, 
Dalmatia,  and  Albania,  which  they  had  conquered  during  the 
war.  The  Porte  restored  to  them  the  Island  of  Cerigo  in  the 
Archipelago, 


DO  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  success  of  Charles  VI.  in  this  war  procured  some  new 
advantages  to  his  house,  on  the  part  of  the  States  of  Hungary. 
The  Diet  of  1687,  in  vesting  the  hereditary  right  of  that  king- 
acm  in  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  had  restricted  that  right,  solely 
to  the  male  descendants  of  the  House  of  Austria ;  and  Charles 
VI.,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  had  acknowledged  the  elec- 
tive right  of  the  States,  in  case  he  should  happen  to  die  without 
leaving  any  male  offspring.  This  prince,  finding  afterwards 
that  he  had  no  other  children  left  than  the  two  daughters  by  his 
marriage  with  Elizabeth  princess  of  Brunswick,  and  being  desi- 
rous of  securing  to  them  the  succession  of  Hungary  as  well  as 
his  other  estates,  assembled  a  Diet  at  Presburg  (1722,)  and  there 
engaged  the  States  of  the  kingdom  to  extend  the  right  of  suc- 
cession to  females,  according  to  the  order  which  he  had  estab- 
lished in  the  Austrian  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  published  some 
years  before. 

A  revolution  happened  in  the  government  of  Sweden  imme- 
diatel}^  after  the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  and  before  the. great  war 
of  the  North  was  quite  ended.  Reduced  to  a  state  of  great  dis- 
tress by  the  folly,  ambition,  and  inflexible  obstinacy  of  that  prince, 
Sweden  saw  her  finest  provinces  occupied  by  the  enemy,  her 
commerce  annihilated,  her  armies  and  her  fleets  destroyed. 
They  attributed  these  disasters  chiefly  to  the  absolute  power  of 
Charles  XII.,  and  the  abuse  he  had  made  of  it.  The  only  reme- 
dy for  so  many  evils,  they  conceived,  was  to  abolish  a  power 
which  had  become  so  pernicious  to  the  State.  As  Charles  had 
never  been  married,  the  throne,  according  to  the  hereditary  law 
established  in  Sweden,  passed  to  the  son  of  the  dutchess  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp,  eldest  sister  of  Charles  ;  but  the  Senate  of  Sweden 
preferred  to  him  the  princess  Ulrica  Eleonora,  younger  sister  of 
the  late  king;  because  of  the  declaration  she  had  made,  renoun- 
cing all  absolute  power,  and  consenting  to  hold  the  crown  only 
by  the  free  election  of  the  States  of  the  kingdom.  The  States, 
in  an  assembly  held  at  Stockholm,  in  the  beginning  of  1719,  de- 
clared the  throne  vacant,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  election  of 
the  princess.  With  their  act  of  election,  they  presented  her  with 
a  new  form  of  government,  and  an  act  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Royal  Assurance,  which  imposed  new  limitations  on  the 
Toyal  authority.  The  princess  signed  these  acts  (February  21,) 
and  the  States  declared  that  whoever  should  attempt  to  restore 
absolute  power,  should  be  considered  as  a  traitor  to  his  country. 

The  government  was  intrusted  to  the  queen  conjunctly  with 
the  Senate ;  while  the  legislative  poAver  was  reserved  to  the 
Slates,  to  meet  regularly  every  three  years.  The  queen  had 
the  right  of  proposing  bills  or  ordinances ;    but  before  these 


PERIOD  viu.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  69 

could  have  the  force  of  law,  they  were  to  be  submitted  to  the 
examination  of  the  States,  without  whose  consent  war  was  never 
to  be  proclaimed.  As  for  the  deliberations  of  the  Senate,  it  was 
resolved,  that  they  should  be  decided  by  a  plurality  of  suffrages, 
that  the  queen  should  have  two  votes,  and  a  casting  vote  be- 
sides. Thus,  the  chief  power  was  vested  in  the  hands  of  the 
Senate,  the  members  of  which  resumed  their  ancient  title  of 
Senators  of  the  kingdom,  instead  of  that  of  Counsellors  to  the 
King,  which  had  been  bestowed  on  them  at  the  revolution  of 
16S0.  Ulrica  Eleonora  afterwards  resigned  the  crown  to  her 
husband  prince  Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel.  The  States,  in  their 
election  of  that  prince  (May  22,  1720,)  ordained  that  the  Queen, 
in  case  she  should  survive  her  husband,  should  be  reinstated  in 
her  rights,  and  resume  the  crown,  without  the  necessity  of  a  new 
deliberation  of  the  States.  Frederic,  by  the  Royal  Assurance, 
and  the  form  of  government  which  he  signed,  agreed  to  certain 
new  modifications  of  the  yojq\  power,  especially  concerning  ap- 
pointments to  places  of  trust.  By  these  different  stipulations, 
and  the  changes  which  took  place  in  consequence,  the  power  of 
the  Swedish  kings  was  gradually  reduced  to  very  narrow  limits. 
It  was  so  much  the  more  easy  to  make  encroachments  on  the 
royal  power,  as  the  King,  by  a  radical  defect  in  the  new  form 
of  government,  had  no  constitutional  means  of  preserving  the 
little  authority  that  was  left  him. 

The  death  of  Augustus  II.  of  Poland,  occasioned  new  dis- 
turbances, which  passed  from  the  North  to  the  South  of  Europe 
and  brought  about  great  changes  in  Italy.  Louis  XV.  took  the 
opportunity  of  that  event  to  replace  Stanislaus  on  the  throne  of 
Poland,  who  was  his  father-in-law,  and  the  former  protege  of 
Charles  XII.  The  Primate,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Polish 
nobility  being  in  the  interest  of  that  prince,  he  was  consequently 
elected  (Sept.  12,  1733.) 

Anne  Iwanowna,  dutchess-dowager  of  Courland,  and  niece  of 
Peter  the  Great,  had  just  ascended  the  throne  of  Russia  ;  having 
succeeded  Peter  II.  (June  20,  1730,)  who  was  cut  off  in  the 
flower  of  his  age  without  leaving  any  progeny.  The  grandees, 
in  conferring  the  croA\Ti  on  Anne,  had  limited  her  power  by  a 
capitulation  which  they  made  her  sign  at  Mittau,  but  which  she 
cancelled  immediately  on  her  arrival  at  Moscow.  That  princess, 
dreading  the  influence  of  France  in  Poland,  in  case  of  a  war 
between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  espoused  the  interests  of  Augus- 
tus III.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  son  of  the  late  King,  whom  she 
wished  to  place  on  the  Polish  throne.  Part  of  the  Polish  nobility, 
withdrawing  from  the  field  of  election,  and  supported  by  a  Rus- 
sian army,  proclaimed  that  prince,  in  opposition  to  Stanislaus, 
the  protege  of  France. 


70  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Russians,  reinforced  by  the  Saxon  troops,  seized  Warsaw 
and  compelled  Stanislaus  to  retire  to  Dantzic,  where  he  was  be- 
sieged by  a  Russian  army,  under  command  of  Field-Marshal 
Munich,  and  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight.  Louis  XV.  wish- 
ing to  avenge  this  injury  offered  to  his  father-in-law,  and  not 
being  in  a  condition  to  attack  Russia,  resolved  to  declare  war 
against  the  Emperor;  on  the  ground  that  he  had  marched  an 
army  to  the  frontiers  of  Poland,  for  supporting  the  election  of 
the  Saxon  prince. 

Spain  and  Sardinia  espoused  the  cause  of  Stanislaus,  which 
seemed  to  them  to  be  the  cause  of  Kings  in  general ;  while  the 
Emperor  saw  himself  abandoned  by  England  and  Holland, 
whose  assistance  he  thought  he  might  claim,  in  virtue  of  the 
guarantee  which  the  treaty  of  Vienna  had  stipulated  in  his  fa- 
vour. But  these  powers  judged  it  more  for  their  interests  to 
preserve  strict  neutralit}^  in  this  war,  on  the  assurance  which 
France  had  given  the  States-General,  not  to  make  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  the  theatre  of  hostilities.  The  French  commenced 
operations  by  directing  the  Count  de  Belleisle  to  seize  Lorraine, 
the  sovereign  of  which,  Francis  Stephen,  son  of  Duke  Leopold, 
was  to  have  married  Maria  Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Em- 
peror Charles  VL  About  the  same  time,  Marshal  Berwick 
passed  the  Rhine  at  the  head  of  the  French  army,  and  reduced 
the  fortress  of  Kehl.  By  thus  attacking  a  fortress  of  the  Em- 
pire, France  gave  the  Emperor  a  pretext  for  engaging  the  Ger- 
manic Body  in  his  quarrel.  In  fact,  he  declared  war  against 
France  and  her  allies  ;  which  induced  the  French  to  seize  seve- 
ral places  on  the  Moselle,  and  to  reduce  the  fortress  of  Philips- 
burg,  at  the  siege  of  which,  Marshal  Berwick  was  slain  (June 
I2,l734.) 

The  principal  scene  of  the  war  then  lay  in  Italy  ;  where  the 
campaigns  of  1734  and  173-5  were  most  glorious  for  the  allies. 
After  the  two  victories  which  they  had  gained  over  the  Impe- 
rialists near  Parma  (June  29,)  and  Guastalla  (Sept.  17,)  they 
made  themselves  master  of  all  Austrian  Lombardy,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Mantua,  which  they  laid  under  blockade. 
A  Spanish  army,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Montemar,  ac- 
companied by  the  Infante  Don  Carlos,  directed  their  march  on 
Naples,  which  threw  open  its  gates  to  the  Spaniards.  The 
victory  which  they  gained  over  the  Imperialists  at  Bitonto 
(May  25,)  decided  the  fate  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  After 
this  conquest,  the  Infante  passed  to  Sicily.  He  soon  reduced 
that  island,  and  was  crowned  King  of  the  Two  Sicihes  at  Pa- 
lermo (July  3,  1735.) 

The  Emperor,  overwhelmed  by  so  many  reverses,  and  unablo 


PERIOD  VIU.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  7) 

^0  wnhstand  the  powers  leagued  against  him,  eagerly  solicited 
assistance  from  Eussia.  The  Empress  Anne,  who  saw  the  war 
leiminated  in  Poland,  and  Augustus  in  quiet  possession  of  the 
tn^one,  despatched  a  body  of  ten  thousand  auxiliaries,  under 
:he  command  of  General  Count  de  Lacy,  into  Germany,  m  the 
spring  of  the  year  1735.  These  troops,  the  first  Eussians  who 
had  appeared  in  that  country,  joined  the  Imperial  army  on  the 
Ehine,  which  was  commanded  by  Prince  Eugene.  That  Gene- 
ral, however,  did  not  succeed  in  his  design  of  transferring  the 
seat  of  war  to  Lorraine. 

Matters  were  in  this  situation,  when  the  maritime  powers  in- 
terposed their  good  offices  for  restoring  peace  between  the  Em- 
peror and  the  States  leagued  against  him.  Cardinal  Fleury, 
perceiving  that  their  mediation  was  not  agreeable  to  the  Impe- 
rial Court,  took  the  resolution  of  concerting  a  secret  negotia- 
tion with  the  Emperor,  the  result  of  which  was  a  treaty  of  pre- 
liminaries; although  much  deliberation  was  necessary  before 
coming  to  the  conclusion  of  a  definitive  peace.  This  was  at 
length  signed  at  Vienna,  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  the 
Empire,  on  the  8th  of  November  1738.  The  former  treaties  of 
Westphalia,  Nimeguen,  Eyswick,  Utrecht,  and  the  Quadruple 
Alliance,  were  admitted  as  the  basis  of  this  treaty.  Stanislaus 
renounced  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  retained  the  title  only 
during  his  life.  They  gave  him,  by  way  of  compensation,  the 
dutchies  of  Lorraine  and  Bar,  on  condition  that,  at  his  death, 
the}'-  should  revert  with  full  right  to  France.  The  single  coun- 
ty of  Falkenstein,  with  its  appurtenances  and  dependencies, 
was  reserved  for  Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine.  In  exchange  for 
the  dutchy  which  he  abdicated,  that  prince  received  the  grand 
dutchy  of  Tuscany,  whose  last  possessor,  John  Gaston,  of  the 
House  of  Medici,  had  just  died  without  leaving  any  posterity 
(1737.)  The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  with  the  ports  of 
Tuscany,  were  secured  to  Don  Carlos  and  his  descendants, 
male  and  female  ;  and,  in  failure  of  them,  to  the  younger  bro- 
thers of  that  prince,  and  their  descendants.  On  his  part,  Don 
Carlos  ceded  to  the  Emperor  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and  Pla- 
centia,  and  even  renounced  the  rights  which  former  treaties  had 
given  him  over  the  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany.  They  restored 
to  the  Emperor  all  that  had  been  taken  from  him  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Milan  and  Mantua;  with  the  reservation  of  the  dis- 
tricts of  Novara  and  Tortona,  which  he  was  obliged  to  cede  to 
Charles  Emanuel  III.,  King  of  Sardinia,  together  with  San- 
Fidele,  Torre  di  Forti,  Gravedo,  and  Campo-Maggiore  ;  as  also 
the  territorial  superiority  of  the  fiefs  commonly  called  Langhes, 
to  be  held  entirely  as  Imperial  fiefs.     Finally,  France  under- 


'?  CHAPTER  IX. 

1.00k,  in  the  most  authentic  form,  to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic 
Sanct.'on  of  the  Emperor. 

,  The  Kings  of  Spain  and  Sardinia  were  not  satisfied  with  die 
conditions  of  this  treat3^  The  former  wished  to  preserve  the 
j;'VMiid  dutchy  of  Tuscany,  with  the  dutcliies  of  Parma  and 
Placentia  ;  and  the  other  had  expected  to  obtain  a  larger  portion 
of  Lombardy.  Thus,  these  princes  long  hesitated  to  admit  the 
articles  agreed  to  between  the  courts  of  France  and  Vienna  ; 
nor  did  they  give  their  consent  until  the  year  1739. 

While  these  disputes  about  the  succession  of  Poland  occupied 
a  great  part  of  Europe,  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Turks  and 
the  Russians,  in  vvhich  Austria  was  also  implicated.  The  Em- 
press Anne  of  Russia,  wishing  to  recover  AzofT,  and  repair  the 
loss  which  Peter  the  Great  had  sustained  in  his  unfortunate 
campaign  on  the  Pruth,  took  advantage  of  the  war  between  the 
Turks  and  the  Persians,  to  form  an  alliance  with  Khouli  Khan, 
the  famous  conqueror  of  the  East,  who  had  just  subverted 
the  ancient  dynasty  of  the  Sophis  of  Persia.  The  incursions 
which  the  Tartars  had  made  at  difierent  times  into  the  Russian 
provinces,  without  the  Porte  thinking  proper  to  check  them, 
served  as  a  motive  for  the  Empress  to  order  an  expedition 
against  the  Turks  (1735,)  and  to  declare  war  against  the  Porte 
soon  after.  It  was  during  the  campaign  of  1736  that  Count 
Lacy  made  himself  master  of  AzofT,  and  that  Marshal  Munich, 
after  having  forced  the  lines  at  Perekop,  penetrated  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  Crimea ;  but  having  in  that  expedition  lost  many 
of  his  men  by  famine  and  disease,  he  found  it  impossible  to 
maintain  himself  in  that  peninsula. 

The  Em.peror  offered  himself  at  first  as  a  mediator  between 
the  belligerent  powers.  A  conference  was  opened  at  Niemerow 
in  Poland,  which  proved  fruitless.  The  Russians  who  had  jus<- 
taken  Oczakoff,  emboldened  by  their  success,  were  desirous  tc 
continue  the  war ;  while  the  Emperor,  without  reflecting  on  the 
bad  condition  of  his  military  strength,  and  the  loss  which  he 
had  sustained  b}^  the  death  of  the  celebrated  prince  Eugene 
(April  21,  1736,)  thought  only  of  sharing  the  conquest  with  the 
Russians.  He  then  laid  aside  the  character  of  mediator,  to 
act  on  the  defensive -against  the  Turks  ;  but  he  had  soon  rea- 
son to  repent  of  this  measure.  The  Turks,  encouraged  by  the 
famous  Count  de  Bonneval,  gained  considerable  advantages 
over  the  Austrians  ;  and  in  course  of  the  campaigns  of  1737 
and  1738,  they  dislodged  them  from  Wallachia  and  Servia,  re- 
took Orsova,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Belgrade  in  1739. 

The  Court  of  Vienna,  in  a  state  of  great  consternation,  had 
recourse  to  the  mediation  of  M.  de  Villeneuve,  the  French  am- 


PERIOD  viu.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  73 

hassador  at  Constantinople,  to  sue  for  peace  with  the  Porte ; 
Count  Neipperg,  who  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  to  the  Turkish 
camp  before  Belgrade,  signed  there,  Avith  too  much  precipita- 
tion, a  treaty,  under  very  disadvantageous  terms  for  Austria : 
and  the  Empress  Anne,  who  had  intrusted  the  French  ambas- 
sador with  her  full  powers,  consented  also  to  a  peace  very  ur- 
favourable  for  Russia,  notwithstanding  the  brilliant  victory 
vvhich  Marshal  Munich  had  gained  over  the  Turks  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Choczim  (Oct.  28,  1739,)  which  was  followed  by 
the  capture  of  that  place,  and  the  conquest  of  Moldavia  by  the 
Russians. 

The  Emperor,  by  that  peace,  ceded  to  the  Porte,  Belgrade, 
Sabatz,  and  Orsova,  with  Austrian  Servia  and  Wallachia.  The 
Danube,  the  Save,  and  the  Unna,  were  again  settled  as  the 
boundary  between  the  two  Empires  ;  and  Austria  preserved 
nothing  but  the  Banat  of  Temeswar,  of  all  that  had  been  ceded 
to  her  by  the  peace  of  Passarowitz.  The  Austrian  merchants, 
however,  were  granted  free  passage  into  and  out  of  the  king- 
doms and  provinces  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  in  their  own  vessels,  with  the  flag  and  letters-patent  of  the 
Emperor,  on  condition  of  their  paying  the  accustomed  dues. 

Russia  surrendered  all  her  conquests,  and  among  others 
Choczim  and  Moldavia.  The  boundaries  between  the  two  Em- 
pires were  regulated  by  different  special  agreements.  The  for- 
tress of  AzolT  w'as  demolished  ;  and  it  was  stipulated  that  Russia 
should  not  construct  any  new  fortress  within  thirty  versts  of  that 
place,  on  the  one  side  ;  nor  the  Porte  within  thirty  versts,  on  the 
side  of  the  Cuban.  Russia  was  even  interdicted  from  having 
and  constructing  fleets  or  other  naval  stores,  either  on  the  Sea 
of  Azoff  or  the  Black  Sea.  The  Zaporog  Cossacs  continued 
under  the  dominion  of  Russia,  which  obtained  also  from  the 
Porte  the  acknowledgment  of  the  Imperial  title.  The  peace  be- 
tween Russia  and  the  Porte  was  declared  perpetual ;  but  they 
limited  that  between  Austria  and  the  Porte  to  twenty-seven 
years.  The  latter  was  renewed  under  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa  ;  and  rendered  also  perpetual,  by  an  agreement  which 
that  princess  concluded  with  the  Porte,  May  25,  1747. 

The  succession  to  Charles  VI.,  the  last  male  descendant  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburg,  who  died  October  20th  1740,  kindled  a  new 
general  war  in  Europe.  That  prince,  in  the  year  1713,  had 
published  an  order  of  succession,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  Vv'hich  decreed,  that  failing  his  lineal  heirs- 
male,  his  own  daughters  should  succeed  in  preference  to  those 
of  his  brother  the  Emperor  Joseph  I. ;  and  that  the  succession 
of  his  daughters  should  be  regulated  according  to  the  order  of 

vo^.  u.  7 


74  CHAPTER  IX. 

primogeniture,  so  that  the  elder  should  he  preferred  to  the 
younger,  and  that  she  alone  should  inherit  his  whole  estates. 
He  took  great  pains  to  get  this  order  approved  hy  the  different 
hereditary  States  of  Austria,  as  well  as  by  the  daughters  of  his 
brother  Joseph  L,  and  by  the  husbands  of  these  princesses,  the 
Electors  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria.  He  even  obtained,  by  degrees, 
the  sanction  of  all  the  principal  powers  of  Europe.  But  though 
his  external  policy  had  been  very  active  in  securing  the  rights 
of  his  eldest  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  he  neglected  those  mea- 
sures to  which  he  ought  rather  to  have  directed  his  attention. 
The  wretched  state  in  which  he  left  his  finances  and  his  army, 
encouraged  a  number  of  pretenders,  who  disputed  the  succession 
with  that  princess. 

Of  these  claimants,  the  principal  was  the  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
who,  as  being  descended  from  Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Fer- 
dinand I.,  advanced  the  claims  of  the  females  of  the  elder  line, 
against  those  of  the  younger  ;  grounded  on  the  contract  of  mar- 
riage betw^een  that  princess  and  Albert  V.  Duke  of  Bavaria,  as 
well  as  on  the  will  of  Ferdinand  I.  '  The  Elector  of  Saxony, 
then  King  of  Poland,  although  he  had  approved  of  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  claimed  the  succession,  as  being  husband  of  the 
elder  of  the  daughters  of  Joseph  I.,  and  in  virtue  of  a  compact  be- 
tween the  two  brothers,  Joseph  I.  and  Charles  VI.,  which  provided, 
that  the  daughters  of  Joseph  should,  under  all  circumstances,  be 
preferred  to  those  of  Charles. 

Philip  v.,  King  of  Spain,  laid  claim  to  the  kingdoms  of  Bo- 
hemia and  Hungary.  He  grounded  his  rights  on  an  agreement 
(1617)  between  Philip  III.  of  Spain  and  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
afterwards  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II. ;  according  to  which 
these  kingdoms  were  to  pass  to  the  descendants  of  Philip  III., 
failing  the  male  line  of  Ferdinand.  A  war  had  arisen  between 
Spain  and  England  on  account  of  the  clandestine  traffic  which 
the  English  carried  on  in  Spanish  America,  under  favour  of  the 
contract  called  the  Assiento.  Philip  V.  thought  of  turning  these 
differences  relative  to  the  Austrian  succession  to  his  own  advan- 
tage, either  for  drawing  France  into  an  alliance  with  him  against 
England,  or  to  procure  for  his  son  Don  Philip  a  settlement  in 
Italy,  at  the  expense  of  the  daughter  of  Charles  VI. 

Frederic  II.,  King  of  Prussia,  wdio  had  just  succeeded  his 
father  Frederic  William  I.,  judged  this  a  favourable  time  for 
turning  his  attention  to  the  affairs  of  his  own  kingdom,  and  pro- 
fitting  by  the  troops  and  treasures  which  his  father  had  left. 
With -this  view,  he  revived  certain  claims  of  his  family  to 
several  dutchies  and  principalities  in  Silesia,  of  which  his  an- 
cestors, he  maintained,  had  been  unjustly  deprived  by  Austria, 


PERIOD  vni.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  75 

Finally,  the  King  of  Sardinia^  laid  claim  to  the  whole  dutchy  of 
Milan ;  orrounded  on  the  contract  of  marriage  between  his  an- 
cestor, Charles  Emanuel  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  daughter  of 
Philip  IT.  of  Spain.  The  Court  of  France,  wishing  to  avail 
herself  of  these  circumstances  for  humbling  Austria,  her  ancient 
rival,  set  on  foot  a  negotiation  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and 
engaged  to  procure  him  the  Imperial  crown,  with  a  part  of  the 
territories,  of  which  he  had  deprived  Austria. 

An  alJiance  Avas  concluded  between  France,  Spain,  and  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  which  was  joined  also  by  the  Kings  of  Prus- 
sia, Poland,  Sardinia,  and  the  two  Sicilies ;  ajid  to  prevent 
Russia  from  affording  assistance  to  Maria  Thei-esa,  they  pre- 
vailed on  Sweden  to  declare  war  against  that  power.  The 
Court  of  Vienna  having  complained  of  these  resolutions  of  the 
French  Cabinet,  which  were  directly  opposed  to  the  conditions 
of  the  last  treaty  of  Vienna,  Cardinal  Fleury,  who  had  been 
drawn  into  that  war  by  the  intrigues  of  M.  De  Belleisle,  alleged 
in  his  own  justification,  that  the  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  which  France  had  undertaken  by  that  treaty,  pre- 
supposed the  clause  Sine  prejiidicio  tertii ;  that  is  to  say,  that 
France  never  intended,  by  that  guarantee,  to  prejudice  the  just 
claims  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 

The  most  active  of  the  enemies  of  Maria  Theresa  was  the 
King  of  Prussia,  who  entered  Silesia  in  the  month  of  December 
174Q.  While  he  was  occupied  in  making  that  conquest,  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  reinforced  by  an  army  of  French  auxiliaries, 
took  possession  of  Upper  Austria ;  but,  instead  of  marching  di- 
rectly upon  Vienna,  he  turned  towards  Bohemia,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  conquering  it.  Meantime,  the  Electoral  Diet,  which  was 
assembled  at  Frankfort,  conferred  the  Imperial  dignity  on  that 
prince,  (Jan.  24,  1742,)  who  took  the  name  of  Charles  VII. 
Nothing  appeared  then  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  allied  powers. 
The  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  to  have  Bohemia,  the  Tyrol,  and 
the  provinces  of  Upper  Austria ;  the  Elector  of  Saxony  was  to 
have  Moravia  and  Upper  Silesia ;  and  the  King  of  Prussia  the 
remainder  of  Silesia.  As  for  Austrian  Lombardy,  it  was  des- 
tined for  Don  Philip,  the  Infante  of  Spain.  Nothing  was  left  to 
the  Queen,  except  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  with  Lower  Aus- 
tria, the  Dutchies  of  Carinthia,  Stiria  and  Carniola,  and  the 
Belgic  Provinces.  In  the  midst  of  these  imminent  dangers, 
Maria  Theresa  displayed  a  courage  beyond  her  age  and  sex. 
Aided  by  the  supplies  of  money  which  England  and  Holland 
furnished  her,  and  by  the  generous  efforts  which  the  Hungarian 
nation  made  in  her  favour,  she  succeeded  in  calming  the  storm, 


76  CHAPTER  IX. 

repulsing-  the  enemy  with  vigour,  and  dissolving  the  grand 
league  which  had  been  formed  against  her. 

The  King  of  Prussia,  in  consequence  of  the  two  victories 
which  he  gained  at  Molwitz  (April  10,  1741,)  and  Czaslau  (May 
17,  1742,)  had  succeeded  in  conquering  Silesia,  Moravia,  and 
part  of  Bohemia.  It  was  of  importance  for  the  Queen  to  get  rid 
of  so  formidable  an  enemy.  The  King  of  Great  Britain  having 
interposed,  certain  preliminaries  were  signed  at  Breslau,  which 
were  followed  by  a  definitive  peace,  concluded  at  Berlin  (July 
2S,  1742.)  The  Queen,  by  this  treaty,  gave  up  to  the  King  of 
Prussia  Silesia  and  the  Comte  of  Glatz,  excepting  the  princi- 
pality of  Teschen,  and  part  of  the  principalities  of  Trappau, 
Jagerndorf,  and  Neisse.  The  example  of  Prussia  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  King  of  Poland.  This  Prince,  alarmed  at  the  sud- 
den increase  of  the  Prussian  power,  not  only  acceded  to  the 
treaty  of  Berlin,  but  even  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Queen 
against  Prussia. 

The  King  of  Sardinia,  who  dreaded  the  preponderance  of  the 
Bourbons  in  Italy,  likewise  abandoned  the  grand  alliance,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  Queen's  interests,  by  a  compact  which 
was  signed  at  Turin.  The  French  and  Spaniards  then  turned 
their  arms  against  that  Prince  ;  and  while  the  King  of  the  two 
Sicilies  joined  his  forces  with  the  Spaniards,  an  English  squad- 
ron appeared  before  Naples,  threatened  to  bombard  the  city,  and 
compelled  the  King  to  recall  his  troops  from  Lombardy,  and  re- 
main neutral.  This  was  not  the  only  piece  of  service  which 
George  II.  rende^'ed  the  young  Queen.  Being  one  of  the 
powers  that  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  he  sent  to  her 
aid  an  army  composed  of  English,  Hanoverians,  and  Hessians. 
This,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Pragmatic  Army,  fought  and 
defeated  tlie  French  at  Dettingen  (June  27,  1743.)  They  were 
afterwards  reinforced  by  a  body  of  troops  which  the  States- 
General  sent,  in  fulfilment  of  the  engagement  which  they  had 
contracted  with  the  Court  of  Vienna.  Lastly,  that  prince,  in  order 
to  attach  the  King  of  Sardinia  more  closely  to  the  interests  of 
Austria,  set  on  foot  a  treaty  at  Worms,  by  which  the  Queen 
ceded  to  the  King  of  Sardinia  the  territory  of  Pavia,  between 
the  Po  and  the  Tesino,  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Placentia,  and  the 
district  of  Anghiera,  with  the  rights  which  they  claimed  to  the 
marquisate  of  Finale.  The  King,  on  his  part,  abandoned  all 
claims  to  the  Milanois  ;  and  engaged  to  support  an  army  of 
40,000  men  for  the  service  of  the  Queen,  in  consideration  of  the 
supplies  which  England  promised  to  pay  him. 

This  soon  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  The  Queen  recon- 
quered Austria  and  Bohemia.     She  expelled  the  French  from 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  77 

Bavaria,  and  drove  them  even  beyond  the  Rhine.  The  Emperor 
Charles  VII.  vas  obliged  to  transfer  his  residence  from  Munich 
to  Frankfort  on  the  Maine.  France,  Avho  had  never  acted  til] 
then  but  as  the  ally  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  resolved,  rn  con- 
sequence of  these  events,  formally  to  declare  war  against  the 
Queen  and  the  King  of  Great  Britain  (March  15,  1744.)  The 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  broke  his  neutrality,  and  again  joined 
his  troops  with  the  Spanish  army,  who  were  acting  against  the 
Queen  and  her  ally  the  King  of  Sardinia.  The  war  was  now 
carried  on  with  fresh  vigour.  Louis  XV.  attacked  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  in  person,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  Union,  at 
Frankfort,  between  the  Emperor,  and  several  principal  States 
of  the  Empire.  By  this  treaty  it  was  stipulated,  that  the  allied 
princes  should  unite  their  forces,  and  constrain  the  Queen  to 
acknowledge  the  Emperor  Charles  VII.,  and  reinstate  him  in 
his  hereditary  dominions. 

It  was  in  consequence  of  this  treat}^,  that  the  King  of  Prussia 
again  commenced  the  war,  and  made  an  attack  on  Bohemia. 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  who  had  invaded  Alsace,  at  the 
head  of  an  Austrian  army,  was  obliged  to  repass  the  Rhine,  and 
march  to  the  relief  of  that  kingdom.  The  French  penetrated 
into  Germany,  and  w^hile  Louis  XV.  laid  siege  to  Friburg  in 
Brisgaw,  General  Seckendorf,  who  commanded  the  Imperial 
army,  reconquered  Bavaria.  Charles  VII.,  who  was  then  re- 
stored to  his  estates,  returned  to  Munich. 

During  these  transactions,  an  unforeseen  event  happened, 
which  changed  the  state  of  affairs.  The  Emperor  died  at  the 
early  age  of  forty-seven  (Jan.  20,  1745,)  and  his  son  Maximilian 
Joseph  11. ,  used  all  expedition  to  make  up  matters  with  the 
Queen.  By  the  special  treaty,  which  he  concluded  with  her  at 
Fuessen  (April  22,  1745,)  he  renounced  the  claims  which  his 
father  had  made  to  the  succession  of  Charles  VI.  He  again 
signed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  satisfied  with  being  maintained 
in  the  possession  of  his  patrimonial  estates.  The  French  had 
in  vain  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  election  of  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany  to  the  Imperial  throne,  who  had  been  associated 
with  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa,  in  the  government  of  her  heredi- 
tar}^  dominions.  That  prince,  however,  was  elected  at  Frank- 
fort, under  the  protection  of  the  Austrian  and  Pragmatic  armies. 
An  alliance  had  been  concluded  at  Warsaw  between  Maria 
Theresa,  Poland,  England,  and  Holland  (Jan.  8,  1745.)  Au- 
gustus III.  had  engaged,  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  despatch  an 
army  of  thirty  thousand  men  to  the  Queen's  assistance,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  subsidies  which  England  and  Holland  had  pro- 
mised to  pay  him.     That  army  being  joined  by  the  Austrians, 

7  # 


78  CHAPTER   IX. 

had  advanced  into  Silesia,  where  they  sustained  a  total  defeat 
near  Hohenfriedberg  (June  4.)  The  victorious  King  of  Prussia 
returned  to  Bohemia,  and  there  defeated  the  allies  a  second 
time,  near  Sorr,  in  the  Circle  of  Konigratz  (Sept.  30.)  He  then 
attacked  Saxony,  in  order  to  compel  the  Queen  to  make  peace, 
by  harassing  the  Elector  her  ally.  The  victory,  which  he  gain- 
ed  over  the  Saxons  at  Kesselsdorf  (Dec.  15,)  made  him  master 
of  Dresden,  and  the  whole  Electorate,  which  he  laid  under  con- 
tribution. These  victories  accelerated  the  peace  between  the 
King  of  Prussia,  the  Queen,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  which 
was  signed  at  Dresden,  under  the  mediation  of  Great  Britain. 
The  Kmg  of  Prussia  restored  to  the  Elector  all  his  estates,  the 
Ktter  promising  to  pay  him  a  million  of  Imperial  crowns.  The 
Queen  gave  up  Silesia  and  the  Comte  of  Glatz ;  while  the  King, 
as  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  acquiesced  in  the  election  of 
Francis  I.  to  the  Imperi?!  throne.  The  King  of  England,  the 
Dutch,  and  the  States  of  the  Empire,  undertook  to  guarantee 
these  stipulations. 

The  treaties  of  Fuessen  and  Dresden  restored  tranquillity  to 
the  Empire ;  but  the  war  was  continued  in  the  Netherlands, 
Italy,  and  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  The  French,  under 
the  conduct  of  Marshal  Saxe,  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
Netherlands.  The  victories  which  they  gained  over  the  allies 
at  Fontenoy  (May  11,  1745,)  andatRocoux  (Oct.  11, 1746,)  pro- 
cured them  the  conquest  of  all  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  except 
the  towns  and  fortresses  of  Luxemburg,  Limburg,  and  Gueldres. 

Charles  Edward,  son  of  the  Pretender,  encouraged  and  assist- 
ed by  the  Court  of  France,  landed  in  Scotland  in  August  1745. 
Beirig  joined  by  a  number  of  partisans,  v/hom  he  found  in  that 
kingdom,  he  caused  his  father  to  be  proclaimed  at  Perth  and 
Edinburgh,  assuming  to  himself  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  Regent  of  the  three  kingdoms.  The  victory  which  he  gain- 
ed near  Prestonpans  over  the  English  troops,  rendered  him  mas- 
ter of  all  Scotland.  He  next  invaded  England,  took  Carlisle, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Derby,  spreading  terror  and  consternation 
in  London.  George  II.  was  obliged  to  recall  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, with  his  troops,  from  the  Netherlands.  That  Prince 
drove  back  the  Pretender,  retook  Carlisle,  and  restored  tranquil- 
lity in  Scotland,  by  defeating  the  Rebels  near  Culloden  in  the 
Hio-hlunds.  Charles  Edward  was  then  reduced  to  the  necessity 
of  concealing  himself  among  the  mountains,  until  the  month  of 
October  following,  when  he  found  means  to  transport  himself  to 
France. 

The  campaign  of  1745  in  Italy  was  glorious  for  the  French, 
and  their  allies  the  Spaniards.     Tne  Republic  of  Genoa,  being 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  79 

offenaed  at  the  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Worms,  which  took  from 
them  the  marquisate  of  Finale,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  two 
crowns,  and  facilitated  the  junction  of  the  French  army  of  the 
Alps  with  that  of  Lombardy.  One  effect  of  this  junction  was 
ttie  conquest  of  Piedmont,  as  also  of  Austrian  Lombardy,  except- 
ing the  cities  of  Turin  and  Mantua,  which  the  allies  had  laid 
under  blockade. 

The  fate  of  the  war,  however,  experienced  a  new  change  in 
Italy,  at  the  opening  of  the  following  campaign.  Maria  The- 
resa, disengaged  from  the  war  Avith  Prussia,  sent  considerable 
reinforcements  into  Lombardy,  which  gave  her  arms  a  superi- 
ority over  those  of  the  allies.  The  French  and  Spaniards  were 
stripped  of  all  their  conquests,  and  sustained  a  grand  defeat  at 
Placentia  (June  16,  1746,)  which  obliged  them  to  beat  a  retreat. 
To  add  to  their  misfortunes,  the  new  King  of  Spain,  Ferdinand 
VI.,  v/ho  had  just  succeeded  his  father,  Philip  V.,  being  dis- 
pleased with  the  Court  of  France,  and  unfavourably  inclined 
towards  his  brother  Don  Philip,  recalled  all  his  troops  from  Ita- 
ly. The  French  had  then  no  other  alternative  left  than  to  fol- 
low the  Spaniards  in  their  retreat.  Italy  was  abandoned  to  the 
Austrians,  and  the  French  troops  again  returned  to  Provence. 
The  whole  Republic  of  Genoa,  with  its  capital,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Austrians.  The  King  of  Sardinia  took  possession  of 
Finale,  Savona,  and  the  western  part  of  the  Republican  terri- 
ritory.  The  Austrians,  joined  by  the  Piedmontese,  made  a 
descent  on  Provence,  and  undertook  the  siege  of  Antibes. 

An  extraordinary  event  produced  a  diversion  favourable  for 
France,  and  obliged  the  Austrians  and  Piedmontese  to  repass 
the  Alps.  The  Genoese  being  maltreated  by  the  Austrians, 
who  had  burdened  them  with  contributions  and  discretionary 
exactions,  suddenly  rose  against  their  new  masters.  The  in- 
surgents, with  Prince  Doria  at  their  head,  succeeded  in  expel- 
ling them  from  Genoa  (Dec.  1746.)  General  Botta,  who  com- 
manded at  Genoa,  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  stores  and  equip- 
age, that  he  might  the  more  quickly  escape  from  the  territory 
of  the  Republic.  The  siege  of  Antibes  was  raised  ;  the  allies 
repassed  the  Alps,  and  blockaded  Genoa.  But  the  French  hav- 
ing sent  powerful  supplies  by  sea  to  that  city,  and  at  the  same 
time  made  a  vigorous  attack  on  the  side  of  Piedmont,  relieved 
the  Genoese,  and  obliged  the  enemy  to  retreat. 

In  1747,  the  French,  who  were  already  masters  of  the  Aus- 
trian Netherlands,  attacked  and  conquered  Dutch  Flanders. 
They  blamed  the  Dutch  for  having  sent  constant  supplies  ,.0 
Maria  Theresa,  for  having  invaded  the  French  territory,- arKi 
granted  a  retreat  through  their  own  to  ihe  enemy's  iroopb,  .tiei 


80  CHAPTER   IX. 

the  battle  of  Fontenoy.  This  invasion  spread  terror  in  the 
pro\nnce  of  Zealand,  who  thus  saw  themselves  deprived  of  their 
barrier,  and  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  the  French.  The  parti- 
sans of  the  Prince  of  Orange  took  advantage  of  that  circum- 
stance to  restore  the  Stadtholdership.  This  dignity,  as  well  as 
that  of  Captain  and  Admiral-Genera]  of  the  Republic,  had  re- 
mained vacant  since  the  death  of  William  III. 

William  IV.,  Prince  of  Nassau-Dietz,  though  he  was  testa- 
mentary heir  to  that  prince,  had  only  obtained  the  Stadtholder- 
ship of  Friesland,  to  which  was  afterwards  added  that  of  Gro- 
nino-en  and  Gueldres ;  but  the  efforts  which  he  made  to  obtain 
the  other  offices  and  dignities  of  the  ancient  Princes  of  Orange, 
proved  inefTectual.  The  four  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  and  Overyssel,  persisted  in  their  free  government,  and 
even  refused  the  Prince  the  office  of  General  of  Infantry,  which  he 
had  requested.  France,  by  attacking  Dutch  Flanders,  contribu- 
ted to  the  elevation  of  William.  There  was  a  general  feeling  in 
his  favour  in  those  provinces  which  had  no  Stadtholder  ;  the  peo- 
ple of  the  different  towns  and  districts  rose  in  succession,  and 
oblio-ed  the  magistrates  to  proclaim  William  IV.  as  Stadtholder 
and  Captain-General.  This  revolution  was  achieved  without 
disturbance  ;  and  without  any  obstacle  on  the  part  of  those  who 
had  an  interest  in  opposing  it,  but  who  were  obliged  to  yield  to 
the  wishes  of  the  people.  They  even  went  so  far  as  to  declare 
the  Stadtholdership,  as  well  as  the  offices  of  Captain  and  Admi- 
ral-General, hereditary  in  all  the  Prince's  descendants,  male 
and  female — a  circumstance  unprecedented  since  the  foundation 
of  the  Republic. 

This  change  which  happened  in  the  Stadtholdership  did  not, 
however,  prevent  the  French  from  making  new  conquests. 
They  had  no  sooner  got  possession  of  Dutch  Flanders,  than 
they  attacked  the  town  of  Maestricht.  The  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land having  advanced  with  the  allied  army  to  cover  the  town,  a 
bloody  battle  took  place  near  Laveld  (July  2,  1747,)  which  was 
gained  by  the  French,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Saxe. 
The  fortress  of  Bergen-op-Zoom,  which  was  deemed  impregna- 
ble by  its  situation  and  the  marshes  which  surrounded  it,  was 
carried  by  assault  by  Count  Lewendal,  two  months  after  he  had 
opened  his  trenches. 

However  briUiant  the  success  of  the  French  arms  was  on  the 
Continent,  they  failed  in  almost  all  their  maritime  expeditions. 
The  English  took  from  them  Louisburg  and  Cape  Breton  in 
America;  and  completely  destroyed  the  French  marine,  which 
had  been  much  neglected,  under  the  ministry  of  Cardinal  Fleu- 
Ty.     All  the  belligerent  powers  at  length  felt  the  necessity  of 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  81 

peace  ;  and  there  were  two  events  which  tended  to  accelerate 
it.  The  Empress  of  Russia,  conformable  to  the  engagements 
into  which  she  had  entered  with  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and 
London,  by  the  treaties  of  1746  and  1747,  had  despatched 
Prince  Repnin  to  the  Rhine,  at  the  head  of  30,000  men.  Mar- 
shal Saxe,  at  the  same  time,  had  laid  siege  to  Maestricht,  in 
presence  of  the  enemy,  who  were  80,000  strong.  The  taking 
of  that  city  would  have  laid  open  all  Holland  to  the  French,  and 
threatened  the  Republic  vv^ith  the  most  disastrous  consequences. 

A  preliminary  treaty  was  then  signed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
which  was  followed  by  a  definitive  peace  (Oct.  18,  1748.)  There 
all  former  treaties  since  that  of  Westphalia  were  renewed  ;  a 
mutual  restitution  w^as  made  on  both  sides,  of  all  conquests 
made  during  the  war,  both  in  Europe,  and  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies  ;  and  in  consideration  of  the  important  restitutions  which 
France  had  made  on  the  Continent,  they  ceded  to  Don  Philip, 
the  son-in-law  of  Louis  XV.,  and  brother  of  Don  Carlos,  the 
dutchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guastalla  ;  to  be  possessed 
by  him  and  his  lawful  heirs  male.  The  treaty  of  preliminaries 
contained  two  conditions  upon  which  the  dutchies  of  Parma  and 
Guastalla  should  revert  to  the  Queen,  and  that  of  Placentia  to 
the  King  of  Sardinia  ;  viz.  (1.)  Failing  the  male  descendants  of 
Don  Philip.  (2.)  If  Don  Carlos,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  should 
be  called  to  the  throne  of  Spain.  In  this  latter  case,  it  was  pre- 
sumed that  the  kingdom  of  the  Tw^o  Sicilies  should  pass  to  Don 
Philip,  the  younger  brother  of  that  prince ;  but  they  did  not 
seem  to  recollect  that  the  peace  of  Vienna  (1738)  had  secured 
this  latter  kingdom  to  Don  Carlos,  and  all  his  descendants  male 
and  female  ;  and  consequently,  nothing  prevented  that  prince, 
should  the  case  so  happen,  from  transferring  the  Two  Sicilies  to 
one  of  his  own  younger  sons  ;  supposing  even  that  he  were  not  per- 
mitted to  unite  that  kingdom  with  the  Spanish  monarchy.  The 
plenipotentiaries  having  perceived  this  oversight  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  preliminaries,  took  care  to  rectify  it  in  the  defini- 
tive treaty,  by  thus  wording  the  second  clause  of  the  reversion, 
"  Should  Do7i  Philij).,  or  any  of  his  descendants^  be  either  called 
to  the  throne  of  Spai7i,  or  to  that  of  the  Two  Sicilies.'''' 

The  Empress  agreed  to  this  change,  but  the  King  of  Sardinia 
was  not  so  complaisant.  In  respect  to  him,  it  was  necessary  to 
make  the  definitive  treaty  entirely  conformable  to  the  prelimi- 
naries. It  was  this  circumstance  which  prevented  the  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  from  acceding  to  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
By  that  treaty  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  confirmed  in  those  dif- 
ferent possessions  in  the  Milanois  Avhich  the  treaty  of  Worms 
had  adjudged  him.    These,  however,  did  not  include  that  part  of 


82  CHAPTER  IX. 

Placentia  which  had  just  been  ceded  to  Don  Philip ;  nor  the 
marquisate  of  Finale,  which  the  Genoese  retained.  That  Re- 
public, and  the  Duke  of  Modena,  who  had  always  been  the  ally 
of  France,  were  restored  to  the-  same  state  in  which  they  were 
before  the  war.  Silesia  was  guaranteed  to  the  King  of  Prussia 
by  the  whole  of  the  contracting  po-wers.  As  for  England,  be- 
sides the  guarantee  of  the  British  succession  in  favour  of  the 
House  of  Hanover,  she  obtained  a  renewal  of  the  expulsion  of 
the  Pretender  from  the  soil  of  France ;  while  this  latter  power, 
victorious  on  the  continent,  consented  to  revive  the  humiliating 
clause  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  which  ordered  the  demolition  of 
the  Port  of  Dunkirk.  The  only  modification  which  was  made 
to  this  clause  was,  that  the  fortifications  of  the  place  on  the 
land  side  should  be  preserved.  Lastly,  by  the  sixteenth  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  contract  of  the  Assieiito  re- 
specting the  slave  trade  granted  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  was  renewed  in  favour  of  the  English  Company  of  the 
Assiento,  for  the  four  years  in  which  that  trade  had  been  inter- 
rupted during  the  war.  * 

This  peace  produced  no  considerable  change  on  the  political 
state  of  Europe  ;  but  by  maintaining  the  King  of  Prussia  in  his 
conquest  of  Silesia,  it  raised  a  rival  to  Austria  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  Empire.  The  unity  of  the  Germanic  body-v/as  thus 
broken,  and  that  body  divided  between  the  two  leading  powers, 
Austria  and  Prussia.  The  system  of  aggrandizement  and  con- 
venience which  Frederic  the  Great  had  put  in  practice  for  de- 
priving Austria  of  Silesia  came  afterwards  into  vogue  ;  and  by 
gradually  undermining  the  system  of  equilibrium,  which  former 
treaties  had  introduced,  it  occasioned  new  revolutions  in  Europe. 

The  dispute  about  the  Austrian  succession,  extended  its  in- 
fluence to  the  North,  where  it  kindled  a  war  between  Russia  and 
Sweden.  The  Empress  Anne,  a  little  before  her  death  (Oct.  17, 
1740,)  had  destined  as  her  successor  on  the  throne  of  Russia,  the 
young  prince  Iwan  or  John,  the  son  of  her  niece  Anne  of  Meck- 
lenburg, by  Prince  Anthony  Ulric  of  Brunswick.  The  Regency 
during  the  minority  of  Iwan,  was  conferred  on  her  favourite 
Biron,  whom  she  had  raised  to  the  first  offices  of  the  state,  and 
created  Duke  of  Courland.  The  mother  of  the  young  Emperor, 
indignant  at  seeing  the  management  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  a 
favourite,  gained  over  to  her  interests  Field-Marshal  Munich, 
by  whose  assistance  the  Duke  of  Courland  ^vas  arrested  and 
banished  to  Siberia,  whilst  she  herself  was  proclaimed  Grand 
Dutchess  and  Regent  of  the  Empire. 

The  ministry  of  this  princess  were  divided  in  their  opinions, 
on  the  subject  of  the  war  about  the  Austrian  succession.    Some 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  83 

supported  the  cause  of  Prussia,  with  which  Russia  had  just  re- 
newed her  treaties  of  alliance ;  while  others  were  inclined  for 
Austria,  the  ancient  ally  of  Russia.  This  latter  party  havinjj 
prevailed,  France,  in  order  to  prevent  Russia  from  assisting 
Maria  Theresa,  thought  proper  to  give  her  some  occupation  m 
the  North.  It  was  by  no  means  difficult  to  raise  Sweden 
against  her  ;  where  the  faction  of  the  Hats,  then  the  ruling 
party,  was  entirely  devoted  to  the  French  interest.  This  fac- 
tion, which  was  opposed  by  that  of  the  Bo?inets,  or  Caps,  re- 
newed the  treaty  of^ subsidy  with  France,  and  also  concluded  a 
treaty  of  perpetual  alliance  against  Russia  (Dec.  22,  1739.) 
Encouraged  by  the  3^oung  nobles,  they  flattered  themselves  that 
the  time  was  come,  when  Sweden  would  repair  the  losses  which 
she  had  sustained  by  the  foolish  expeditions  of  Charles  XIL 

A  Diet  extraordinary  was  assembled  at  Stockholm  (Aug. 
1741,)  which  declared  war  jigainst  Russia.  They  alleged, 
among  other  motives,  the  exckision  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp, 
from  the  throne  of  Russia  ;  the  assassination  of  Major  Sinclair, 
who  had  been  murdered,  as  the  Swedes  affirmed,  by  the  emis- 
saries of  Russia,  while  bearing  despatches  from  Constantinople 
for  the  Sv/edish  Court,  and  when  he  was  passing  through  Silesia 
on  his  way  to  Stockholm.  This  declaration  of  war  had  been 
made,  before  the  Swedes  could  take  those  measures  which  pru- 
dence should  have  dictated.  They  had  neither  an  army  fit  for 
action,  nor  stores  prepared  in  Finland  ;  and  their  General,  Count 
Lewenhaupt,  had  nothing  to  recommend  him  but  his  devotion 
to  the  ruling  party.  Sweden  had  flattered  herself  that  the  Turks 
would  recommence  the  war  with  Russia,  and  that  she  Avould 
thus  find  resources  in  the  alliance  and  subsidies  of  France.  The 
first  action,  which  took  place  near  Wilmanstrand  (Sept.  3,  1741) 
was  quite  in  favour  of  the  Russians  ;  a  great  number  of  Swedes 
were  there  either  killed  or  made  prisoners,  and  the  town  of  Wil- 
m^anstrand  was  carried  sword  in  hand. 

Meantime  a  revolution  happened  at  St.  Petersburg,  which 
seemed  to  have  brought  about  a  favourable  change  for  the  Swe- 
dish government.  The  Princess  Elizabeth,  supported  by  the 
Marquis  de  la  Chetardie,  minister  of  France,  and  by  a  company 
of  the  guards  whom  she  had  drawn  over  to  her  interest,  seized 
the  Regent  Anne,  her  husband  the  Prince  of  Brunswick,  and  the 
young  Emperor ;  all  of  whom  she  sent  into  exile,  and  caused 
herself  to  be  proclaimed  Empress.  The  Swedes,  who  had  flat- 
tered themselves  with  having  aided  in  placing  that  princess  on 
the  throne,  immediately  entered  into  negotiations  with  her  ;  but 
as  they  carried  their  pretensions  too  high,  the  conference  was 
broken  off,  and  the  war  continued- 


84  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  campaign  of  1742,  proved  also  unfortunate  for  Sweden. 
I'heir  arniy  in  Finland,  though  equal  in  point  of  strength  to  thai 
of  Eussia,  durst  not  keep  the  field.  They  abandoned  all  then- 
best  posts  one  after  another,  and  retired  towards  Helsingfors. 
beyond  the  ri.er  Kymen.  Shut  up  in  this  position,  and  besieg- 
ed b}?-  sea  and  land,  they  were  obliged  to  capitulate.  The  Swe- 
dish troops  returned  home,  the  Finnish  regiments  laid  down 
tneir  arms,  and  the  whole  of  Finland  surrendered  to  the  Russians. 

The  States  of  Sweden  having  assembled  under  these  circum- 
stances, and  bemg  desirous  of  an  accommodation  w^th  Russia, 
offered  the  throne  of  Sweden  to  Charles  Ulric,  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  and  nephew  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth.  That  prince, 
however,  declined  the  offer  of  the  Diet.  He  had  just  been  de- 
clared Grand  Duke,  and  presumptive  heir  to  the  Russian  Em- 
pire, and  had  embraced  the  Greek  religion.  This  intelligence 
astounded  the  Diet,  who  then  placed  on  the  list  of  candidates  for 
th«^  throne,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Denmark,  the  Duke  of  Deux- 
Ponts,  and  the  Bishop  of  Lubec,  uncle  to  the  new  Grand  Duke 
of  Russia.  A  considerable  party  were  inclined  for  the  Prince  of 
Denmark ;  and  they  were  on  the  point  of  renewing  the  ancient 
union  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  the  North  in  his  favour.  To 
prevent  an  election  so  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  Prussia,  the 
Empress  abated  from  the  rigour  of  her  first  propositions,  and 
offered  to  restore  to  the  Swedes  a  great  part  of  their  conquests, 
on  condition  of  bestowing  their  throne  on  Prince  Adolphus  Fre- 
deric, Bishop  of  Lubec.  This  condition  having  been  acceded 
to,  Prince  Frederic  was  elected  (July  3,  1743  ;)  the  succession  to 
descend  to  his  male  heirs.  A  definitive  peace  was  then  conclu- 
ded between  Russia  and  Sweden,  at  Abo  in  Finland. 

Sweden,  by  thus  renouncing  her  alliance  with  the  Porte,  rati- 
fied anew  all  that  she  had  surrendered  to  Russia  by  the  peace  of 
Nystadt.  Moreover,  she  ceded  to  that  Crown  the  province  of 
Kymenegard  in  Finland,  with  the  towns  and  fortresses  of  Frie- 
dricsham  and  Wilmanstrand ;  as  also  the  parish  of  Pyttis,  lying 
to  the  east  of  the  Kymen,  and  the  ports,  places,  and  districts, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  that  river.  The  islands  lying  on  the 
south  and  west  of  the  Kymen  were  likewise  included  in  this 
cession  ;  as  were  also  the  town  and  fortress  of  Nyslott,  with  its 
territory.  All  the  rest  of  Finland  was  restored  to  Sweden,  to- 
gether with  the  other  conquests  which  Russia  had  made  during 
the  war.  The  Swedes  were  permitted  to  purchase  annually  in 
the  Russian  Ports  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  grain 
to  the  value  of  50,000  rubles,  v/ithout  paying  any  export  duty. 

Portugal,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  became 
the  scene  of  various  memorable  events,  which  attracted  ireneral 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  So 

attention.  John  V.,  who  had  governed  that  kingdom  from  1706 
till  1750,  had  fallen  into  a  state  of  weakness  and  dotage,  and 
abandoned  the  reins  of  government  to  Don  Gaspard,  his  confes- 
sor, under  whose  administration  numerous  abuses  had  crept  into 
tbe  state.  Joseph  I.,  the  son  and  successor  of  John  V.,  on 
ascending  the  throne  (July  31,  1750,)  undertook  to  reform  these 
abuses.  By  the  advice  of  his  minister,  Sebastian  De  Carvalho, 
afterwards  created  Count  D'Oeyras,  and  Marquis  De  Pombal, 
he  turned  his  attention  to  every  branch  of  the  administration. 
He  patronized  the  arts  and  sciences,  encouraged  agriculture, 
nanufactures,  and  commerce  ;  regulated  the  finances  ;  and  used 
every  effort  to  raise  the  army  and  navy  of  Portugal  from  that 
state  of  languor  into  which  they  had  fallen.  These  innovations 
could  not  be  accomplished  without  exciting  discontent  in  the 
different  orders  of  the  state.  The  minister  increased  this  by  his 
inflexible  severity,  and  the  despotism  which  he  displayed  in  the 
exercise  of  his  ministerial  functions  ;  as  well  as  by  the  antipathy 
which  he  showed  against  the  nobility  and  the  ministers  of  reli- 
gion. The  Companies  which  he  instituted  for  exclusive  com- 
merce to  the  Indies,  Africa,  and  China,  raised  against  him  the 
whole  body  of  merchants  in  the  kingdom.  He  irritated  the  no- 
bility by  the  contempt  which  he  testified  towards  them,  and  by 
annexing  to  the  Crown  those  immense  domains  in  Africa  and 
America,  which  the  nobles  enjoyed  by  the  munificence  of  former 
kings.  The  most  powerful  and  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of 
this  minister  were  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  had  ventured  to  attack 
openly,  and  ha'd  even  ordered  to  be  expelled  from  Portugal. 
This  event,  which  was  attended  with  remarkable  consequences, 
must  be  described  more  fully. 

During  the  life  of  John  V.,a  treaty  had  been  signed  between 
the  Courts  of  Madrid  and  Lisbon  (1750,)  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Portuguese  colony  of  St.  Sacrament  and  the  northern  bank  of 
the  river  La  Plata  in  America,  were  ceded  to  Spain,  in  exchange 
for  a  part  of  Paraguay,  lying  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Uru- 
guay. This  treaty  was  on  the  point  of  being  carried  into  exe- 
cution ;  the  commissioners  appointed  for  this  purpose  had  com- 
menced their  labours  ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territories 
opposed  the  exchange,  as  did  several  individuals  in  both  Courts. 
The  Jesuits  were  suspected  of  being  the  authors  and  instigators 
of  that  opposition.  In  the  territories  which  Vv'ere  to  be  ceded  to 
Portugal,  they  had  instituted  a  republic  of  the  natives,  which 
they  governed  as  absolute  masters ;  and  which  they  were  afraid 
would  be  subverted,  if  the  exchange  in  question  should  take 
place.  They  used  every  means,  therefore,  to  thwart  the  arrange- 
aients  of  the  two  courts ;  and  it  is  alleged  they  even  went  so  far 

vor.   IT  8 


86  CHAPTER  IX.        " 

as  to  excite  a  rebellion  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  to 
be  exchanged.  The  consequence  was,  a  long  and  expensive 
war  between  the  two  crowns,  which  occasioned  much  bloodshed, 
and  cost  Portugal  alone  nearly  twenty  millions  of  cruzados. 

In  the  midst  of  these  events,  there  occurred  a  terrible  earth- 
quake, which,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  demolished  the  greater 
part  of  Lisbon,  and  destroyed  between  twenty  and  thirty  thou- 
sand of  its  inhabitants  (Nov.  1,  1755.)  Fire  consumed  what- 
ever had  escaped  from  the  earthquake  ;  while  the  overflowing 
of  the  sea,  cold  and  famine,  added  to  the  horrors  of  these  ca- 
lamities, which  extended  even  over  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  Jesuits  were  reproached  for  having,  at  the  time  of  this  distres- 
sing event,  announced  new  disasters,  which  were  to  overwhelm 
Portugal,  as  a  punishment  for  the  sins  of  which  the  inhabitants 
had  been  guilty.  These  predictions,  added  to  the  commotions 
which  still  continued  in  Brazil,  served  as  a  pretext  for  depriving 
the  Jesuits  of  their  office  of  Court-confessors,  shutting  them  out 
from,  the  palace,  and  even  interdicting  them  from  hearing  con 
fessions  over  the  whole  kingdom. 

The  outrage  which  was  committed  against  the  King's  person 
immediately  after,  furnished  the  minister  with  another  pretext 
against  that  religious  order.  The  King,  when  going  by  night 
to  Belem,  (Sept.  3,  175S,)  was  attacked  by  assassins,  who  mis- 
took him  for  another,  and  flred  several  shots  at  him,  by  which 
he  was  severely  wounded.  Several  of  the  first  nobles  in  the 
kingdom  were  accused,  among  others  the  Duke  d'Aveiro,  the 
Marquis  and  Marchioness  de  Tavora,  the  Count  d'Atougia,  &c. 
as  being  the  ringleaders  in  this  plot  against  the  King's  life,  who 
were  sentenced  to  execution  accordingly,  [but  their  innocence 
was  afterwards  fully  established.] 

The  Jesuits  were  also  implicated  in  this  affair,  and  publicly 
declared  accomplices  in  the  King's  assassination.  They  were 
proscribed  as  traitors  and  disturbers  of  the  public  peace  ;  theii 
goods  were  confiscated;  and  every  individual  belonging  to  the 
order  was  embarked  at  once  at  the  several  ports  of  the  king 
dom,  without  any  regard  to  age  or  infirmities,  and  transported 
to  Civita  \^ecchia  within  the  Pope's  dominions.  The  Portu 
guese  minister,  apprehensive  that  this  religious  order,-  if  pre- 
served in  the  other  states  of  Europe,  ,would  find  means,  sooner 
or  later,  to  return  to  Portugal,  used  every  endeavour  to  have 
their  Society  entirely  suppressed.  He  succeeded  in  this  at- 
tempt by  means  of  the  negotiations  which  he  set  on.  foot  with 
several  of  the  Catholic  courts.  In  France  the  Society  was 
dissolved,  in  virtue  of  the  decrees  issued  by  the  parliament 
(1762.)  Paris  set  the  first  example  of  this.   Louis  XV.  declared, 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  87 

Jiat  the  Society  should  no  longer  exist  within  tha  kingdom. 
The  Court  of  Madrid,  where  they  had  two  powerful  enemies 
in  the  ministry,  Counts  d'Aranda  and  de  Campomanes,  com- 
manded all  the  Jesuits  to  depart  from  the  territory  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  Spain  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  declared  their  goods  con- 
fiscated. They  were  likewise  expelled  from  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  ;  and  the  order  was  at  length  entirely  suppressed,  by  a 
brief  of  Pope  Clement  XIV.  (July  21,  1773.)5 

The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  by  no  means  restored  a 
good  understanding  between  France  and  England.  A  jealous 
rivalry  divided  the  two  nations,  which  served  to  nourish  and 
muUiply  subjects  of  discord  between  them.  Besides,  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  French  in  repairing  their  marine,  which  had  been 
destroyed  in  the  last  war,  w^as  view^ed  with  jealousy  by  Great 
Britain,  then  aspiring  to  the  absolute  command  of  the  sea,  and 
conscious  that  France  alone  v/as  able  to  counteract  her  ambi- 
tious projects.  Several  matters  of  dispute,  which  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  had  left  undecided,  still  subsisted  betweeen  the 
tvro  nations,  relative  to  their  possessions  in  America.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these,  regarded  the  boundaries  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Cana- 
da, and  the  claims  to  the  neutral  islands.  Nova  Scotia  had  been 
ceded  to  England,  by  the  twelfth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
according  to  its  ancient  limits.  These  limits  the  French  had 
circumscribed  within  the  bounds  of  the  peninsula  w^hich  forms 
that  province  ;  while  the  English  insisted  on  extending  them  to 
the  southern  bank  of  the  .river  St.  Lawrence,  of  which  the  ex- 
clusive navigation  belonged  to  the  French. 

The  limits  of  Canada  were  not  better  defined  than  those  of 
Nova  Scotia.  The  French,  with  the  view  of  opening  a  com- 
munication betweeen  Canada  and  Louisiana,  had  constructed  se- 
veral forts  along  the  river  Ohio,  on  the  confines  of  the  English 
colonies  in  America.  This  w^as  opposed  by  England,  who  was 
afraid  that  these  establishments  w^ould  endanger  the  safety  of 
her  colonies,  especially  that  of  Virginia.  The  neutral  islands, 
namely  the  Caribees,  which  comprehended  St.  Lucia,  Domini- 
ca, St.  Vincent,  and  Tobago,  still  remained  in  a  contested  state, 
according  to  the  ninth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  French,  however,  alleged  certain  acts  of  possession,  by 
Avhich  they  claimed  the  property  of  these  islands,  as  well  as  of 
the  Caicos  and  Turkish  islands.  Commissioners  were  appoint- 
ed on  both  sides  to  bring  these  disputes  to  an  amicable  termi- 
nation. A  conference  was  opened  at  Paris,  wdiich  began  about 
the  end  of  September  1750,  and  continued  for  several  years  ; 
but  as  neither  party  w^as  disposed  to  act  wdth  sincerity,  these 
conferences  ended  in  nothing.     The  English,  who  saw  that  the 


8S  CHAPTER  IX. 

Frcncli  only  sought  to  gain  time  for  augmenting  their  marine 
hastened  the  rupture  by  committing  a-cts  of  hostility  in  America. 

The  first  breach  of  the  peace  was  committed  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ohio,  where  the  French,  to  avenge  the  murder  of  one  of  their 
officers,  seized  on  Fort  Necessity,  belonging  to  the  English 
(July  17'54,)  The  English,  on  their  side,  captured  two  French 
vessels  off  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  which  had  refused  to 
salute  the  English  flag.  They  even  attacked  all  the  French 
merchantmen  which  they  met,  and  captured  about  three  hun- 
dred of  them.  Thus,  a  long  and  bloody  war  was  waged  for  the 
deserts  and  uncultivated  wilds  of  America,  which  extended  its 
ravages  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  involving  more  especially 
the  countries  of  Europe. 

England,  according  to  a  well  known  political  stratagem, 
sought  to  occupy  the  French  arms  on  the  Continent ;  in  order 
to  prevent  the  increase  of  her  maritime  strength.  France,  in- 
stead of  avoiding  that  snare,  and  confining  herself  solely  to 
naval  operations,  committed  the  mistake  of  falling  in  with  the 
views  of  the  British  minister.  While  repelling  the  hostilities 
of  England  by  sea,  she  adopted  at  the  same  time  measures  for 
invading  the  Electorate  of  Hanover.  The  Court  of  London, 
wishing  to  guard  against  this  danger,  began  by  forming  a 
closer  alliance  with  Russia  (Sept.  30,  1755  ;)  they  demanded  of 
the  Empress  those  supplies  which  they  thought  they  might 
claim  in  virtue  of  former  treaties  ;  and  on  the  refusal  of  that 
princess,  who  was  afraid  to  disoblige  France,  and  to  find  her- 
self attacked  by  Prussia,  they  applied  to  this  latter  power,  with 
which  they  concluded  a  treaty  at  Westminster  (Jan.  16,  1756;) 
the  chief  object  of  which  w^as  to  prevent  foreign  troops  from 
entering  into  the  Empire  during  the  war  between  France  and 
England.  To  this  treaty  France  opposed  the  alliance  which 
she  had  concluded  with  Austria  at  Versailles,  by  which  the  two 
powers  guaranteed  their  respective  possessions  in  Europe,  and 
promised  each  other  a  mutual  supply  of  twenty-four  thousand 
men  in  case  of  attack.  The  differences  then  subsisting  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  were  not  reckoned  among  the  Casus 
Federis. 

[The  alliance  of  1756  has  given  rise  to  different  opinions 
among  statesmen  ;  the  greater  part  have  condemned  it.  Its  ob- 
ject was,  on  the  part  of  France,  to  guard  herself  against  all  at- 
•tacks  on  the  Continent,  that  she  might  direct  her  whole  force 
against  her  maritime  rival;  but  experience  proved,  that  without 
attaining  this  object,  she  was  henceforth  obliged  to  take  part  in 
all  the  disputes  of  the  Continent,  however  foreign  they  might 
be  to  her  own  policy.     It  was  even  contrary  to  her  interests  to 


TERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  89 

have  Austria  extricated  from  the  embarrassments  wliich  the  op- 
position of  Prussia  had  occasioned  her.  If  that  project  had  suc- 
ceeded, Austria  would  have  become  the  preponderating  power 
in  Germany,  to  a  degree  which  w^ould  have  compelled  the  French 
to  turn  their  arms  against  her.] 

While  the  French  were  still  hesitating  as  to  the  part  which 
they  ought  to  take  relative  to  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  the 
King  of  Prussia  invaded  Saxony  (Aug.  1756.)  On  taking  this 
step,  he  published  a  manifesto,  the  object  of  which  was  to  prove 
by  the  despatches  of  the  three  Courts  of  Vienna,  Dresden,  and 
Petersburg,  that  they  had  concerted  a  plan  am.ong  them  for  at- 
tacking him  ;  and  that  common  prudence  required  him  to  pre- 
vent it.  He  declared  at  the  same  time,  that  his  entrance  into 
Saxony  had  no  other  aim  than  that  of  opening  a  communication 
with  Bohemia  ;  and  that  he  would  only  retain  that  countr^r  as  a 
depot  until  the  conclusion  of  the  peace.  This  invasion,  however, 
stirred  up  a  powerful  league  against  Prussia  (1757.)  Besides 
France  and  the  Empress,  it  was  joined  by  the  Germanic  body, 
Russia  and  Sweden.  France,  which  had  at  first  restricted  her- 
self to  furnishing  the  Empress  with  the  supplies  stipulated  b}'' 
the  alliance,  agreed,  by  a  subsequent  treaty,  to  despatch  an  army 
of  more  than  100,000  men  into  Germany,  against  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  his  ally  the  King  of  England ;  and,  moreover,  to 
pay  to  that  Princess  an  annual  subsidy  of  twelve  millions  of 
florins. 

In  this  war  the  French  arms  were  attended  at  first  with  the 
most  brilliant  success.  They  conquered  the  island  of  Minorca, 
and  seized  the  Electorate  of  Hesse,  and  the  whole  States  of 
Brunswick  and  Hanover ;  but  fortune  soon  turned  her  back  on 
them,  when  they  experienced  nothing  but  defeats  and  disasters.  ^ 
The  extraordinary  efforts  which  they  were  making  on  the  Con- 
tinent naturally  tended  to  relax  their  maritime  operations,  and 
thus  afforded  England  the  means  of  invading  their  possessions 
in  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  years  1757  and  1761,  Chan- 
dernagore,  Pondicherry,  and  Mahe,  in  the  East  Indies,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English;  and  in  1758,  they  seized  on  all  the 
French  settlements  on  the  river  Senegal  and  the  coasts  of  Africa. 
The  Islands  of  Cape  Breton  and  St.  John  in  America ;  the  forts 
and  settlements  on  the  Ohio  ;  Quebec  (v/here  General  Wolfe 
fell,)  and  the  whole  of  Canada,  were  all  conquered  in  like  man- 
ner, between  the  years  1756  and  1760.  Finally,  the  Islands  of 
Guadaloupe,  Mariagalante,  Dominica,  Martinique,  Grenada,  St. 
Vincent,  St.  Lucia,  and  Tobago,  were  also  taken  from  France. 

The  King  of  Prussia,  though  overwhelmed  by  the  number  of 
his  enemies,  and  finding  no  great  assistance  from  his  alliance 


90 


CHAPTER  IX. 


with  England,  nevertheless  did  not  lose  courage.  He  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  number  of  victories  which  he  gained 
over  the  powers  leagued  against  him,  during  the  campaigns  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War.'''  This  war  was  already  far  advanced, 
when  the  Duke  de  Choiseul,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of  the 
French  ministry,  observing  the  great  superiority  of  the  English 
by  sea,  conceived  the  plan  of  the  famous  Family  Compact,  which 
he  negotiated  with  the  Court  of  Madrid,  and  w^hich  was  conclu- 
ded at  Paris  (August  15,  1761.)  The  object  of  this  treaty  was 
to  cement  an  alliance  and  a  perpetual  union  among  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  for  the  purpose  of  coun- 
terbalancing the  maritime  power  of  England. 

The  King  of  Spain  had  come  under  no  engagment  to  join  in 
the  war  which  subsisted  between  France  and  England  ;  but  the 
haughty  manner  in  which  the  Court  of  London  demanded  of 
him  an  account  of  the  principles  of  the  Family  Compact,  gave 
rise  to  a  declaration  of  war  between  these  two  courts.  Spain 
and  France  required  the  King  of  Portugal  to  accede  to  their 
alliance  against  England.  That  prince  in  vain  alleged  the 
treaties  which  connected  him  with  the  English  nation,  and  which 
would  not  permit  him  to  take  part  against  them.  A  declaration, 
published  by  the  two  allied  courts,  set  forth,  that  the  Spanish 
troops  should  enter  Portugal  to  secure  the  ports  of  that  kingdom , 
and  that  it  should  be  left  at  the  King's  option  to  receive  them  as 
friends  or  as  enemies  ;  and  it  was  this  which  laid  him  under  the 
necessity  of  declaring  himself  in  favour  of  England  (May  18, 
1762.)  An  English  fleet,  with  a  supply  of  troops,  was  then,  sent 
to  the  relief  of  Portugal;  while  a  body  of  French  troops  joined 
the  Spanish  army  which  Avas  destined  to  act  against  that  king- 
dom. The  city  of  Almeida  was  the  only  conquest  which  the 
Spaniards  made  in  Portugal.  The  English,  on  the  contrary, 
took  from  the  Spaniards  the  Havana,  and  a  great  part  of  the 
Island  of  Cuba  in  America ;  as  also  Manilla  and  the  Philip 
pines  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  war  thus  became  more  general, 
and  seemed  about  to  assume  a  new  vigour,  when  an  unforeseen 
event  changed  entirely  the  face  of  affairs,  and  disposed  the  bel- 
ligerents for  peace. 

Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Russia,  died  about  this  time ;  and 
Peter  III.,  nephew  to  that  princess,  ascended  the  throne.  Peter, 
who  was  a  great  admirer  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  took  an  early 
opportunity  of  making  j  eace  with  that  prince.  A  suspension  of 
arms  was  signed  between  the  two  crowns,  which  was  followrd 
by  a  treat}^  of  peace  concluded  at  St.  Petersburg  (May  5,  1762.) 
By  that  treaty,  Russia  surrendered  all  the  conquests  which  she 
liad  made  in  Prussia  and  Pomerania  during  the  war.     Peter 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  D.  1713— 17S9.  91 

renounced  the  alliances  which  he  had  formerly  contracted 
aiJ:anist  the  King  of  Prussia  ;  while  he,  in  his  turn,  refused  to 
form  alliances  or  engagements  contrary  to  the  interests  of  Rus- 
sia, or  to  the  hereditary  possessions  of  Peter  in  Germany.  But 
the  new  Emperor  was  not  content  with  testifying  this  mark  of 
affection  for  the  King  of  Prussia.  Jie  agreed  to  send  a  body  of 
troops  into  Silesia  to  his  assistance.  A  revolution,  however, 
happened  in  Russia,  which  occasioned  new  changes.  Peter  III. 
v/as  dethroned  (July  9,)  after  a  reign  of  six  months.  The  Em- 
])ress  Catherine  II.,  his  widow,  on  ascending  the  throne,  pre- 
served the  treaty  of  peace  with  the  King  of  Prussia ;  but  she 
recalled  her  troops  from  Silesia,  and  declared  that  she  would 
maintain  neutrality  between  the  King  and  the  Empress. 

Sweden,  who  had  experienced  nothiHg  but  defeats  in  course 
of  that  war,  followed  the  example  of  Russia.  She  agreed  to  a 
suspension  of  arms  with  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  soon  after  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  peace  with  him  at  Hamburg  (May  22,  1762.) 
These  two  treaties  paved  the  way  for  a  general  peace,  the  pre- 
liminaries of  which  were  signed  at  Fountainbleau,  between 
France,  England,  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  definitive  peace 
was  concluded  at  Paris  (Feb.  10,  1763.)  This  treaty  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Hubertsburg,  Vvdiich  reconciled  Prussia  with 
the  Empress  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony. 

By  this  latter  treaty,  the  Empress  surrendered  to  the  King  of 
Prussia  the  province  of  Glatz,  as  also  the  fortresses  of  Wesel 
and  Gueldres.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  again  took  possession 
of  those  States  which  the  King  of  Prussia  had  taken  from  him  ; 
and  the  treaties  of  Breslau,  Berlin  and  Dresden,  were  renewed. 
Thus,  after  seven  campaigns,  as  sanguinary  as  they  were  ex- 
pensive, the  peace  of  Hubertsburg  restored  the  affairs  of  Ger- 
mian}^  to  the  same  state  in  which  they  had  been  before  the  war. 

France,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  ceded  to  England  Canada  and 
the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  with  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Gulf 
and  River  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  boundaries  between  the  two 
nations  in  North  America  were  fixed  by  a  line  drawn  along  the 
middle  of  the  Mississippi,  from  its  source  to  its  mouth.  Ail  on 
the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  that  riv^^r  was  given  up  to  England, 
except  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  wliich  was  reserved  to  France ; 
as  was  also  the  liberty  of  the  fisheries  on  a  part  of  the  coasts  of 
Newfoundland,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  islands  of 
St.  Peter  and  Miquelon  were  given  them  as  a  shelter  for  their 
fishermen,  but  without  permission  to  raise  fortifications.  The 
islands  of  Martinico,  Gaudaloupe,  Mariagalante,  Desirada,  and 
St.  Lucia,  were  surrendered  to  France  ;  while  Grenada,  the 
Grenadines,  St.  Vincent,  Dominica,  and  Tobago,  were  ceded  4o 


91^  CHAPTER  IX. 

England.  The  latter  power  retained  her  conquests  on  the  Sen- 
egal, and  restored  to  France  the  island  of  Gorea  on  the  coast  ot 
Africa.  FraLce  was  put  in  possession  of  the  forts  and  factories 
which  belonged  to  her  in  the  East  Indies,  on  the  coasts  of  Coro- 
mandel,  Orissa,  Malabar,  and  Bengal,  under  the  restriction  oi 
keeping  up  no  military  force  in  Bengal. 

In  Europe,  France  restored  all  the  conquests  she  had  made 
in  Germany;  as  also  the  island  of  Minorca.  England  gave  up 
to  her  Belleisle  on  the  coast  of  Brittany ;  while  Dunkirk  was 
kept  in  the  same  condition  as  had  been  determined  by  the  peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  island  of  Cuba,  with  the  Havana,  was 
restored  to  the  King  of  Spain,  who,  on  his  part,  ceded  to  Eng- 
land Florida,  Avith  Fort  Aug-ustine  and  the  Bay  of  Pensacola. 
The  King  of  Portugal  was  restored  to  the  same  state  in  which 
he  had  been  before  the  war.  The  colony  of  St.  Sacrament  in 
America,  which,  the  Spaniards  had  conquered,  was  given  back 
to  him.^ 

The  peace  of  Paris,  of  which  we  have  just  now  spoken,  was 
the  era  of  England's  greatest  prosperity.  Her  commerce  and 
navigation  extended  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  Avere  sup- 
ported by  a  naval  force,  so  much  the  more  imposing,  as  it  was 
no  longer  counterbalanced  by  the  maritime  power  of  France, 
which  had  been  almost  annihilated  in  the  preceding  war.  The 
immense  territories  which  that  peace  had  secured  her,  both  in 
Africa  and  America,  opened  new  channels  for  her  industry ; 
and,  what  deserves  especially  to  be  remarked,  is,  that  she  ac- 
quired at  the  same  time  vast  and  important  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies. 

The  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul  in  India  had  fallen  into  decay 
about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  viceroys 
and  petty  governors  of  the  Empire,  called  Soubahs  and  Nabobs, 
had  become  independent,  and  usurped  the  prerogatives  of  roj^alty 
in  the  districts  under  their  authority ;  while  the  Mogul  Empe- 
lor,  reduced  almost  to  the  single  cit^^  of  Delhi,  his  capital,  pre- 
served nothing  but  the  shadow  of  sovereign  power,  by  means  of 
ihe  investitures  which  he  granted  to  these  ambitious  princes, 
and  the  coinage  that  was  struck  in  his  name.  Whenever  any 
differences  arose  among  these  princes,  they  usually  had  recourse 
to  the  European  nations,  who  had  settlements  in  India,  and  had 
erected  forts  with  the  consent  of  the  Great  Mogul,  where  they 
kept  an  armed  force  for  the  protection  of  their  commerce.  If 
the  French  took  the  part  of  one  nabob,  it  was  sufficient  to  induce 
the  English  to  espouse  the  quarrel  of  his  adversary;  and  while 
the  two  nations  were  mutually  cultivating  peace  in  Europe 
they  ware  ofton  at  the  same  time  making  war  in  India,  by  fur 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713— 17.S9.  95 

nishing  supplies  to  their  respective  allies.  Success  was  for  a 
long  time  equal  on  both  sides ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  war  of 
1755,  and  by  the  victories  and  conquests  of  the  famous  Lord 
Clive,  that  England  obtained  a  decided  ascendency  over  the 
French  in  that  quarter  of  the  world. 

Sourajah  Dowlah,  the  Soubah  of  Bengal,  instigated,  as  is  sup- 
posed, by  the  French,  had  taken  possession  of  Calcutta  (1756,) 
the  principal  settlement  of  the  English  on  the  Ganges.  His 
cruel  treatment  of  the  English  garrison,  which  he  had  made 
prisoners  of  war,  excited  the  resentment  of  that  nation.  To 
avenge  this  outrage,  Colonel  Clive,  supported  by  Admiral  "vYat- 
son,  retook  Calcutta  (Jan.  1757;)  and  after  having  dispossessed 
the  French  of  Chandernagore,  their  principal  establishment  on 
the  Ganges,  he  vanquished  the  Soubah  in  several  actions,  de- 
posed him,  and  put  in  his  place  Jaffier  Ali  Khan,  his  general 
and  prime  minister,  who  was  entirely  devoted  to  England. 

With  this  era  commences  the  foundation  of  the  British  Empire 
in  India.  It  happened  a  short  time  after,  that  the  Mogul  Empe- 
ror, Shah  Allum,  being  driven  from  his  capital  by  the  Fatans, 
an  Indian  tribe,  solicited  the  protection  of  the  English,  who 
availed  themselves  of  this  occasion,  as  well  as  of  the  death  of 
Jaflier  Ali,  which  happened  at  this  time,  to  get  themselves  vested 
by  treaty  (1765,)  and  by  means  of  an  Imperial  charter,  in  the 
sovereignty  of  all  Bengal.  In  virtue  of  this  title,  which  legiti- 
mated their  power  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  they  seized  on  the 
public  revenues  of  the  kingdoms  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa ; 
with  the  reservation  of  an  annual  tribute,  v;hich  they  promised 
to  pay  to  the  Mogul  Emperor,  and  certain  pensions  which  they 
assigned  to  the  Soubahs,  whose  phantom  power  they  disposed 
of  at  their  pleasure.  The  dominion  of  the  English  in  India,  was 
increased  still  more  by  subsequent  conquests ;  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  was  the  powerful  state  of  ]\Iysore,  which  they 
utterly  overthrew,  after  a  series  of  wars  which  they  carried  on 
with  Hyder  Ali,  and  his  successor  Tippoo  Saib.^ 

[The  death  of  Ferdinand  VI.,  King  of  Spain,  was  an  event  of 
some  importance.  He  was  succeeded  bjr  his  brother  Don  Carlos, 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.  by  his 
second  marriage,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  III.  Under 
this  prince  the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  penetrated 
into  Spain,  where  it  displayed  an  energy,  and  gave  rise  to  con- 
sequences, which  had  not  yet  attended  it  in  France.  It  occa- 
sioned the  downfall  of  the  Jesuits,  which  was  accompanied  by 
deeds  repugnant  to  justice  and  humanity.  The  ministers  and 
counsellors  of  that  monarch,  the  Counts  Arranda,  Florida  Blanca, 
and  Campomanes,  introduced  into  the  internal  administration 


94  CHAPTER  IX. 

of  Spain,  especially  its  finances  and  tactics,  an  order  and  regu- 
larity which  had  been  long  unknown  in  that  country.  Agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  industry  were  beginning  to  recover  from 
their  langour,  when  the  American  war  again  threw  them  into 
a  state  of  fatal  depression.] 

Before  quitting  Naples  to  take  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Spain,  Don  Carlos,  who,  as  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  had  the 
title  of  Charles  VII.,  published  a  fundamental  law,  bearing,  that 
agreeably  to  former  treaties  which  did  not  admit  the  union  of 
the  Italian  States  with  the  Spanish  monarchy,  he  transferred 
the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  his  third  son  Don  Ferdinand ; 
as  his  eldest  son,  Don  Philip,  was  incapable  of  reigning,  and  his 
second,  Don  Carlos,  was  destined  for  the  throne  of  Spain.  He 
intrusted  the  administration  to  a  regency,  during  the  nonage  of 
the  young  prince,  whose  majority  was  fixed  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen. By  ihis  law  he  regulated  the  order  of  succession  which 
was  to  take  place  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Tvv'o  Sicilies,  and  which 
was  the  same  as  that  which  Philip  V.  had  established  in  Spain 
at  the  Cortes  of  1713.  After  the  descendants  male  and  female 
of  his  own  body,  Charles  substituted  his  brothers  Don  Philip, 
Duke  of  Parma,  and  Don  Louis ;  adding,  that  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  should  never  in  any  case  be  united  with  the 
Spanish  monarchy.  This  regulation  of  the  new  King  of  Spain 
accorded  perfectly  with  the  terms  of  the  seventh  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  (173S,)  which  secured  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  to  that  prince  and  his  descendants,  male  and  female  ; 
and  failing  these,  to  his  ^^ounger  brothers  and  their  descendants, 
of  both  sexes. 

The  King  of  Sardinia  continued,  however,  to  enforce  his  right 
of  reversion  to  that  part  of  Placentia,  which  the  fourth  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  secured  to  him,  in  case  Don 
Carlos  should  remove  from  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to 
the  crown  of  Spain.  The  Court  of  France,  wishing  to  retain  that 
possession  for  Don  Philip,  and  to  prevent  the  tranquillity  of  Italy 
from  being  disturbed  by  the  pretensions  of  the  King  of  Sardinia, 
engaged  to  procure  that  prince  an  equivalent  with  which  he 
should  have  reason  to  be  satisfied.  This  equivalent  was  settled 
(June  10,  1763)  by  a  convention  concluded  at  Paris,  between 
France,  Spain,  and  the  King  of  Sardinia.  The  latter  consented 
to  restrict  his  right  of  reversion  in  the  two  cases  specified  in  the 
seventh  article  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  viz.  (1.)  Fail- 
ing the  male  descendants  of  Don  Philip ;  (2.)  Should  that  prince, 
or  one  of  his  descendants,  be  called  either  to  the  throne  of  Spain 
or  to  that  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  and  should  one  or  other  of  these 
two  case.i  happen  in  the  meantime,  the  crowns  of  France  and 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  95 

Spain  engaged  that  the  King  of  Sardinia  should  enjoy  the  same 
amount  of  annual  revenue,  which  might  accrue  to  him  (after 
aeducting  the  expenses  of  administration,)  from  that  part  of  Pla- 
centia  on  the  Nura,  should  he  ever  come  into  actual  possession. 
Foi  this  purpose,  France  undertook,  by  a  special  agreement, 
which  was  signed  at  Paris  the  same  day  with  the  preceding,  to 
pay  the  King  of  Sardinia,  by  twelve  instalments,  the  sum  of 
eight  millions  two  hundred  livres  ;  on  condition  of  reverting  to 
France,  should  one  or  other  of  these  alternatives  happen. 

The  sudden  aggrandizement  of  Russia,  since  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Great,  had  changed  the  political  system  of  the  North.  That 
power  had  raised  herself  to  the  first  rank.  She  dictated  the  law 
to  Poland  and  Sw^eden,  her  ancient  rivals;  disposed  of  the 
throne  of  Poland  on  every  change  of  reign ;  and  at  the  same 
time  decided  the  fate  of  Courland.  That  dutchy,  which  had 
long  been  possessed  by  the  family  of  Kettler  who  held  it  as  a 
fief  of  the  crown  of  Poland,  had  become  vacant  on  the  death  of  the 
Duke  Ferdinand,  the  last  male  descendant  of  that  House.  Ann, 
Empress  of  Russia,  being  then  only  Dutchess  of  Courland,  had  a 
favourite,  named  Ernest  John  Biron,  a  man  raised  by  fortune, 
whose  grandfather  had  been  groom  to  James  III.,  Duke  of  Cour- 
land. When  that  princess  mounted  the  throne  of  Russia,  she 
raised  Biron  to  the  rank  of  Count,  and  to  the  office  of  Great 
Chamberlain  and  Prime  Minister.  The  haughty  favourite  as- 
sumed the  name  and  arms  of  the  fam.ily  of  Biron,  in  France ; 
and  prevailed  with  the  Empress  to  grant  him  the  dutchy  of 
Courland.  At  the  death  of  the  last  Duke,  he  even  succeeded  in 
getting  himself  elected  by  the  States  of  that  country  (1737;) 
with  the  aid  of  a  body  of  Russian  troops,  which  the  Empress 
had  sent  to  Mittau,  to  support  his  election.  He  was  invested 
in  the  dutchy  by  the  Republic  of  Poland,  to  be  possessed  by  him- 
self and  his  heirs-male  ;  but  he  did  not  long  enjoy  this  new  dig- 
nity. He  was  deprived  of  it  on  the  death  of  the  Empress  (1740;) 
and  banished  to  Siberia  by  the  Grand  Dutchess  Ann,  mother  of 
the  3'oung  Emperor.  This  princess  caused  a  new  election  to 
be  made  by  the  nobility  of  Courland.  The  dutchy  was  then 
conferred  on  Louis  Ernest,  Prince  of  Brunswick,  who  was  to 
marry  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.  But  the  young 
Emperor,  Iwan,  having  been  dethroned  immediately  after,  the 
Prince  of  Brunswick  never  obtained  possession  of  the  dutchy. 
The  Empress  Elizabeth  having  decla^-ed  to  tlie  Republic  of 
Poland  that  the  Duke  de  Biron  shoula  never  be  liberated  from 
his  exile,  Augustus  III.,  King  of  Poland,  declared  the  dutchy  o|. 
Courland  vacant.  He  then  prevailed  on  the  States  of  that  coun- 
try to  elect  his  own  son.  Prince  Charles,  whom  he  solemnly 
invested  in  the  dutchy  (1759.) 


96  CHAPTER    IX. 

A  new  change  happened  at  the  death  of  the  Empress  Eliza- 
beth, in  1762.  Peter  III.,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Rus- 
sia, recalled  the  Duke  de  Biron  from  his  exile.  The  Empress, 
Catherine  II.,  who  succeeded  her  husband  that  same  year,  went 
even  forther  than  this  ;  she  demanded  the  restoration  of  do 
Biron  to  the  dutchy  of  Courland,  and  obliged  Prince  Charles  of 
Saxony  to  give  it  up  to  him  (1769.)  The  Duke  de  Biron  then 
resigned  the  dutchy  to  his  son  Peter,  who,  after  a  reign  of  twen- 
ty-five years,  surrendered  it  to  the  Empress;  the  States  of 
Courland  and  Semigallia  made  a  formal  submission  to  Russia 
(March  2S,  1795.) 

The  dethronement  of  Peter  III.,  which  we  have  just  men 
tioned,  was  an  event  very  favourable  to  Denmark,  as  it  relieved 
that  kingdom  from  a  ruinous  war  with  which  it  v/as  threatened 
on  the  part  of  the  Emperor.  Peter  III.  was  the  head  of  the 
House  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  Denm-ark  had  deprived  of 
their  possessions  in  Sleswick,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
asters that  befell  Sweden,  which  had  protected  that  family 
against  the  Danish  kings.  The  Dukes  of  Holstein-Gottorp  ex- 
claimed against  that  usurpation  ;  to  which  the  Court  of  Denmark 
had  nothing  to  oppose,  except  their  right  of  conquest,  and  the 
guarantee  which  the  Kings  of  France  and  England,  as  media- 
tors in  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  had  given  to  Denmark  with 
respect  to  Sleswick. 

Peter  III.  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  of  Russia,  when 
he  began  to  concert  means  for  recovering  his  ancient  patrimo- 
nial domains,  and  avenging  the  wrongs  which  the  Dukes  of 
Holstein-Gottorp,  his  ancestors,  had  received  at  the  hands  of 
Denmark.  Being  determined  to  make  war  against  that  power, 
he  attached  the  King  of  Prussia  to  his  cause,  and  marched  a 
Ru-sian  army  of  60,000  men  towards  the  frontiers  of  Denmark 
Si:\  thousand  Prussians  were  to  join  this  army,  which  was  sup- 
ported by  a  Russian  fleet  to  be  stationed  on  the  coasts  of  Po- 
me rania.  The  King  of  Denmark  made  every  effort  to  repel  the 
invasion  with  which  he  was  threatened.  He  set  on  foot  an  army 
of  70,000  meii,  the  command  of  which  he  intrusted  to  M.  de 
St.  Germain,  a  distinguished  French  officer. 

The  Danish  army  advanced  towards  Mecklenburg,  and  esta- 
b!!:shed  their  head-quarters  in  the  town  of  that  name,  one 
league  from  Wismar.  The  Danish  fleet,  consisting  of  twenty 
sail  of  the  line  and  el^-T'en  frigates,  appeared  at  the  same  time 
off  Ro-stock.  The  flames  of  war  were  about  to  kindle  in  the 
North,  and  Peter  III.  was  on  the  point  of  joining  his  army  in 
person  at  IMecklenburg,  when  he  was  dethroned,  after  a  short 
reign  of  six  months  (July  9,  1762.)     The  Empress  Catherir'2 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  17i:>"-17S9.  97 

il.,  who  succeeded  him,  did  not  think  fit  to  espouse  the  quarrel 
of  her  husband.  She  immediately  recalled  the  Russian  army 
from  Mecklenburg;  and  being  desirous  of  establishing  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  North  on  a  solid  basis,  and  connrming  a  good  un- 
derstanding between  the  two  principal  branches  of  the  House 
of  Holstein,  she  agreed,  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  King 
of  Denmark  (176-5,)  to  terminate  all  these  differences  by  a 
provisional  arrangement,  which  was  not  to  take  effect  until  the 
majority  of  the  Grand  Duke  Paul,  the  son  of  Peter  III. 

This  accommodation  between  the  two  Courts  was  signed  at 
Copenhagen  (April  22,  1762.)  The  Empress,  in  the  name  of 
her  son,  gave  up  her  claim  to  the  ducal  part  of  Sleswick,  oc- 
cupied by  the  King  of  Denmark.  She  ceded,  moreover,  to 
that  sovereign  a  portion  of  Holstein,  possessed  by  the  family  of 
Gottorp,  in  exchange  for  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Del- 
menhorst.  It  was  agreed,  that  these  counties  should  be  erect- 
ed into  dutchies,  and  that  the  ancient  suffrage  of  Holstein-Got- 
torp,  at  the  Imperial  Diet,  should  be  transferred  to  them.  This 
provisional  treaty  was  ratified  when  the  Grand  Duke  came  of 
age  ;  and  the  transference  of  the  ceded  territories  took  place  in 
177(i.  At  the  same  time  that  prince  declared,  that  he  designed 
the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Deimenhorst  to  form  an  esta- 
blishment for  a  3^ounger  branch  of  his  family,  that  of  Eutin  ; 
to  which  the  contracting  powers  also  secured  the  bishopric  of 
Lubec,  to  be  held  in  perpetual  possession.  The  bishop  of  Lubec, 
the  head  of  the  younger  branch  of  the  Gottorp  family,  was  that 
same  year  put  in  possession  of  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and 
Deimenhorst ;  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  erected  these  coun- 
ties into  a  dutchy  and  fief-male  of  the  Empire,  under  the  title 
of  the  Dutchy  of  Hoistein-Oldenburg. 

Here  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  the  revolutions  that  took 
place  in  the  Island  of  Corsica,  which,  after  a  long  series  of  troubles 
and  distractions,  passed  from  the  dominion  of  G-enoa  to  that  of 
France.  The  oppressions  which  the  Corsicans  had  suffered 
under  the  government  of  the  Genoese,  who  treated  them  with 
extreme  rigour,  had  rendered  their  yoke  odious  and  insupporta- 
ble. They  rose  several  times  in  rebellion  against  the  Republi- 
cans ;  but  from  the  want  of  union  among  themselves,  they  failed 
in  the  different  attempts  Avhich  they  made  for  effecting  their 
liberty  and  independence. 

One  of  the  last  insurrections  of  the  Corsicans  was  that  of 
1729.  They  chose  for  their  leader  Andrew  Ceccaldi  of  a  noble 
family  in  the  Island,  and  Luigi  Giafferi,  a  man  of  courage  and 
an  enthusiast  for  liberty.  The  Genoese,  after  trying  in  vain  to 
subdue  the  insurgents,  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  pro* 

9 


9S  CHAPTER  11. 

tection  of  foreigners.  They  applied  to  the  Emperor  Chanes 
VL,  who  sent  them  several  detachments  of  troops  under  tne 
command  of  General  Wachtendonk,  and  Prince  Frederic  Louis 
of  Wurtemherg-.  The  Corsicans,  too  feeble  to  oppose  an  enemy 
so  superior  in  strength,  were  glad  to  lay  down  their  arms.  But 
the  war  about  the  Polish  Succession  having  obliged  the  Empe- 
ror to  v/ithdraw  his  troops,  the  Islanders  raised  a  new  insurrec- 
tion. A  general  assembly  was  then  convened,  which  declared 
Corsica  to  be  a  free  and  independent  republic  (1734.)  Giaiferi 
was  re-elected  General,  and  had  for  his  colleague  Hyacinthus 
Paoli,  father  to  the  famous  general  of  that  name.  Thus  the  Ge- 
noese, after  lavishing  much  expense  on  auxiliary  troops,  had  the 
mortification  to  find  themselves  still  in  the  same  condition  in 
which  they  were,  before  receiving  the  Imperial  succours.  They 
then  took  into  their  pay  bodies  of  Swiss  and  Grison  troops ;  and 
even  enlisted  outlaws  and  vagabonds,  and  ,placed  them  in  their 
ranks  to  oppose  the  Corsicans. 

It  happened,  during  these  transactions,  that  an  adventurer  ap- 
peared in  Corsica,  the  celebrated  Theodore  Baron  Neuhof.  He 
was  descended  of  a  noble  family  in  the  county  of  Mark,  in  West- 
phalia ;  and  having  procured  arms  and  ammunition  at  Tunis, 
he  repaired  to  Corsica  (1736,)  where  he  was  determined  to  try 
his  fortune.  His  engaging  manners,  added  to  the  prospects 
wh'ch  he  held  out  of  a  powerful  foreign  assistance,  induced  the 
Corsicans  to  confer  on  him  the  royal  dignity.  He  was  proclaim- 
ed King  of  Corsica,  and  immediately  assumed  the  external 
badges  of  royalt}^.  He  appointed  guards  and  officers  of  state, 
corned  money  in  his  own  name,  and  created  an  order  of  knight- 
hood, called  the  Redemptioii.  Taking  advantage  of  the  enthu- 
siasm with  which  he  had  inspired  the  Corsicans,  he  boldly  made 
war  on  the  Genoese,  and  laid  several  of  their  places  under 
blockade.  But  his  money  being  exhausted,  and  the  people  be- 
ginning to  cool  in  their  attachment  towards  him,  he  took  the 
determination  of  applying  for  assistance  to  foreigners.  He  em- 
barked for  Holland,  where  he  found  means  to  engage  a  society 
of  m^srchants,  by  the  allurements  of  a  lucrative  commerce  with 
Corsica,  to  furnish  him  with  artillery,  ammunition,  and  other 
supplies,  with  which  he  returned  to  the  Island. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  Genoese,  threatened  with 
loosing  for  ever  their  sovereignty  over  Corsica,  entered  into  an 
as'^ociation  with  the  Court  of  Versailles.  This  Court,  fearing 
that  England  would  take  advantage  of  these  disturbances  to  gel 
possession  of  the  Island,  concerted  measures  with  the  Court  oi 
Vienna,  for  obliging  the  Corsicans  to  return  to  their  allegiance 
lo  the  Genoese.     For  this  purpose,  a  plan  of  pacification  was 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  99 

drawn  up  at  Versailles,  and  Count  de  Boissieux  was  charg-ed  to 
carry  it  into  execution.  This  General  landed  in  the  Island 
(17.38,)  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  French  auxiliaries  ;  and  his  ar- 
rival determined  King  Theodore  to  abandon  Corsica,  and  seek 
his  safety  in  flight.  He  retired  to  London,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  debt.  After  a  long  capTTvity  he  was  set  at  liberty, 
and  died  in  a  state  of  misery  (1756.)  Boissieux  harassed  the 
Corsicans  exceedingly,  but  he  failed  in  his  efforts  to  reduce  them 
eo  submission.  His  successor,  the  Marquis  de  Maillebois,  was 
more  fortunate ;  he  took  his  measures  with  such  precision  and 
vigour,  that  he  obliged  the  Islanders  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and 
receive  the  law  from  the  conqueror.  Their  Generals,  Giafferi 
and  Paoli,  retired  to  Naples. 

The  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  having  obliged  the 
French  Court  to  recall  their  troops  from  Corsica,  that  island  be- 
came the  scene  of  new  disturbances.  Gafforioand  Matra  then 
took  upon  them  the  functions  of  generalship,  and  the  direction 
of  affairs.  They  had  a  colleague  and  coadjutor  in  the  person 
of  Count  Rivarola,  a  native  of  Corsica,  who,  with  the  assistance 
of  some  English  vessels  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Genoese 
from  Bastia  and  San  Fiorenzo.  The  Corsicans  might  have 
pushed  their  advantages  much  farther,  if  they  could  have  sub- 
dued their  own  feuds  and  private  animosities,  and  employed 
themselves  solely  in  promoting  the  public  interest;  but  their 
internal  divisions  retarded  their  success,  and  allowed  their  ene- 
mies to  recover  the  places  they  had  conquered.  Rivarola  and 
Matra  having  resigned  the  command,  the  sole  charge  devolved 
on  Gafforio,  who  was  a  man  of  rare  merit  and  of  tried  valour. 
He  was  beginning  to  civilize  his  countrymen,  and  to  give  some 
stability  to  the  government  of  the  island,  when  he  was  assassi- 
nated, as  is  supposed,  by  the  emissaries  of  the  Genoese  (1753.) 
His  death  plunged  Corsica  once  more  into  the  state  of  disorder 
and  anarchy,  from  which  he  had  laboured  to  deliver  it. 

At  length  appeared  the  celebrated  Pascal  Paoli,  whom  his 
aged  father  had  brought  from  Naples  to  Corsica.  Being  elected 
General-in-chief  by  his  countrymen  (1755,)  he  inspired  then 
with  fresh  courage ;  and  while  he  carried  on  the  war  with  sue 
cess  against  the  Genoese,  he  made  efforts  to  reform  abuses  in  the 
State,  and  to  encourage  agriculture,  letters  and  arts.  Nothing 
was  wanting  to  accomplish  this  object,  and  to  confirm  the  liberty 
and  independence  of  his  country,  but  the  expulsion  of  the  Geno- 
ese from  the  maritime  towns  of  Bastia,  San  Fiorenzo,  Calvi,  Al- 
gagliola  and  Ajaccio;  the  only  places  which  still  remained  in 
their  power.  In  this  he  would  probably  have  succeeded,  had  he 
not  met  with  new  interruptions  from  France,  who  had  underta- 


100 


OHAPTER  IX- 


ken,  by  the  several  treaties  which  she  had  concluded  with  ihe 
Genoese  in  the  years  1752,  1755, 1756  and  1764,  to  defend  their 
ports  and  fortifications  in  that  island. 

The  original  intention  of  the  French,  in  taking  possession  of 
these  places,  was  not  to  carry  on  hostilities  with  Paoli  and  the 
natives,  but  simply  to  retain  them  for  a  limited  time,  in  discharge 
of  a  debt  which  the  French  government  had  contracted  with  the 
Eejablic  of  Genoa.  The  Genoese  had  flattered  themselves, 
that  if  exonerated  from  the  duty  of  guarding  the  fortified  places, 
they  would  be  able,  with  their  own  forces,  to  reconquer  all  tiiv- 
rest  of  the  island ;  but  it  was  not  long  before  they  found  them- 
selves deceived  in  their  expectations.  The  Corsicans  drove  the 
Genoese  from  the  island  of  Capraja  (1767.)  They  even  took 
possession  of  Ajaccio,  and  some  other  parts  which  the  French 
had  thought  fit  to  abandon.  At  the  same  time  the  shipping  of 
the  Corsicans  made  incessant  incursions  on  the  Genoese,  and 
annoyed  their  commerce. 

The  Senate  of  Genoa,  convinced  at  last  that  it  was  impossible 
for  them  to  subdue  the  island,  and  seeing  the  time  approach 
when  the  French  troops  were  to  take  their  departure,  took  the 
resolution  of  surrendering  their  rights  over  Corsica  to  the  crown 
of  France,  by  a  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Versailles  (May  15, 
176S.)  The  King  promised  to  restore  the  island  of  Capraja  to 
to  the  Republic,  He  guaranteed  to  them  all  their  possessions 
on  terra  Jirma ;  and  engaged  to  pay  them  annually  for  ten 
years,  the  sum  of  200,000  livres.  The  Genoese  reserved  to 
themselves  the  right  of  reclaiming  the  sovereignty  of  Corsica, 
on  reimbursing  the  King  for  the  expenses  of  the  expedition  he 
was  aboui  lo  undertake,  as  well  as  for  the  maintenance  of  his 
troops.  This  treaty  occasioned  strong  remonstrances  on  the  part 
of  the  Corsicans,  who  prepared  themselves  for  a  vigorous  de- 
fence. The  first  campaign  turned  to  their  advantage.  It  cost 
France  several  thousand  men,  and  about  thirty  millions  of  livres. 
The  Duke  de  Choiseul,  far  from  being  discouraged  by  these  dis- 
asters, transported  a  strong  force  into  the  island.  He  put  the 
Count  de  Vaux  in  the  place  of  the  Marquis  de  Chauvehn,  who, 
by  the  skilful  dispositions  which  he  made,  found  himself  master 
of  all  Corsica,  in  less  than  two  months.  The  Islanders  not  hav- 
ing  received  from  England  the  supplies  which  they  had  request- 
ed, the  prospect  of  which  had  kept  up  their  courage,  considered 
it  rash  and  hopeless  to  make  longer  resistance.  The  difTerent 
provinces,  in  their  turn,  gave  in  their  submission ;  and  the  prin- 
cipal leaders  of  the  Corsicans  dispersed  themselves  among  the 
neighbouring  States.     Pascal  Paoli  took  refuge  in  England. 

The  throne  of  Poland  having  become  vacant  by  the  death  of 


PERif  D  vin.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  101 

Augustus  TIL  (Oct.  5,  1763,)  the  Empress  Catherine  II.  des- 
tined that  crown  for  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  a  Polish  nobleman, 
who  had  gained  her  favour  when  he  resided  at  St.  Petersburgh 
as  plenipotentiary  of  Poland.  That  princess  having  gained  over 
the  Court  of  Berlin  to  her  interests,  sent  several  detachments  of 
troops  into  Poland  ;  and  in  this  manner  succeeded  in  carrying 
the  election  of  her  favourite,  Avho  was  proclaimed  King  at  the 
Diet  of  Warsaw  (Sept.  7,  1764.)  It  w^as  at  this  diet  of  election 
that  the  Empress  formally  interceded  with  the  Republic  in 
favour  of  the  Dissidents  (or  dissenters)  of  Poland  and  Lithuania, 
with  the  view  of  having  them  reinstated  in  those  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical rights,  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  the  in- 
tolerance of  the  Catholics.  The  name  of  Dissidents  w^as  then 
given  in  Poland  to  the  Greek  non-conformists  and  to  the  Pro- 
testants, both  Lutherans  and  Calvinists.  That  kingdom,  as  well 
as  Lithuania,  had  contained  from  the  earliest  ages  a  vast  num- 
ber of  Greeks,  who  persisted  in  their  schism,  in  spite  of  the 
efforts  which  were  incessantly  made  l^y  the  Polish  clergy  for 
bringing  them  back  to  the  pale  of  the  Romish  church.  The 
Protestant  doctrines  had  been  introduced  into  Poland,  and  had 
made  considerable  progress  in  course  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury ;  more  especially  under  the  reign  of  Sigismund  Augustus. 
The  nobles  who  were  attached  to  that  form  of  worship,  had  ob- 
tained, at  the  Diet  of  Wilna  (1563,)  the  right  of  enjoying,  along 
with  the  Greeks,  all  the  prerogatives  of  their  rank,  and  of  being 
admitted  without  distinction,  both  to  the  assemblies  of  the  Diet, 
and  the  offices  and  dignities  of  the  Republic.  Moreover,  their 
religious  and  political  liberties  had  been  guaranteed  in  the  most 
solemn  manner,  not  only  by  treaties  of  alliance,  and  the  Pacta 
Conventa  of  the  kings,  but  also  by  the  laws  and  constitution  of 
their  kingdom.  The  Catholics  having  afterwards  become  the 
stronger  party,  their  zeal,  animated  by  their  clergy  and  the  Jesuits, 
led  them  to  persecute  those  whom  they  regarded  as  heretics. 
They  had  in  various  ways  circumscribed  their  religious  liberties, 
especially  at  the  Diet  of  1717;  and  in  those  of  1733  and  1736, 
they  went  so  far  as  to  exclude  them  from  the  diets  and  tribunals, 
and  in  general  from  all  places  of  trust ;  only  preserving  the  peace 
with  them  according  to  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Republic. 

The  Dissidents  availed  themselves  of  the  influence  which 
the  Empress  of  Russia  had  secured  in  the  affairs  of  Poland,  to 
obtain  by  her  means  the  redress  of  their  grievances.  Thut  prin- 
cess interposed  more  especially  in  favour  of  the  Greeks,  accord- 
ing to  the  ninth  article  of  the  peace  of  Movscow  between  Russia 
and  Poland  (1686;)  while  the  Courts  of  Berlin,  Stockholm, 
London,  and  Copenhagen,  as  guarantees  of  the  peace  of  Oliva, 

9* 


.02  CHAPTER  lit 

urged  the  second  article  of  that  treaty  in  support  of  the  Pro- 
testant dissenters.  Far  from  yielding  to  an  intercession  so 
powerful,  the  Diet  of  Warsaw,  instigated  by  the  clergy  and  the 
Court  of  Rome,  in  the  year  1766  confirmed  all  the  former  laws 
against  the  Protestants  which  the  foreign  courts  had  desired  to 
be  altered  and  amended.  They  merely  introduced  some  few 
modifications  in  the  lav/  of  1717,  relative  to  the  exercise  of  their 
worship. 

This  palliative  did  not  satisfy  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg, 
which  persisted  in  demanding  an  entire  equality  of  rights  in 
favour  of  those  under  its  protection.  The  Dissidents  had  the 
courage  to  resist,  and  entered  into  a  confederacy  at  the  assem- 
blies vrhich  were  held  at  Sluckz  (1767)  and  Thorn.  Such  ot 
the  Catholic  nobility  as  were  discontented  with  the  government, 
allied  themselves  with  the  Dissidents,  and  formed  several  dis- 
tinct confederacies,  which  afterwerds  combined  into  a  general 
confederation  under  Marshal  Prince  Radzivih  An  extraordi- 
nary Diet  was  then  assembled  at  Warsaw.  Their  deliberations, 
which  began  October  5,  1767,  Avere  very  tumuhuous.  Without 
being  intimidated  by  the  presence  of  a  Russian  army,  the 
Bishop  of  Cracow  and  his  adherents  gave  way  to  the  full  torre»t 
of  their  zeal,  in  the  discourses  which  they  pronounced  before 
the  Diet.  The  Empress  caused  them  to  be  arrested  and  con- 
ducted into  the  interior  of  Russia,  whence  they  weje  not  per- 
mitted to  return  till  after  an  exile  of  several  years.  They  agreed 
at  length,  at  that  Diet,  to  appoint  a  committee,  composed  of  the 
different  orders  of  the  Republic,  to  regulate  all  matters  regard- 
ing the  Dissidents,  in  concert  with  the  ministers  of  the  protect- 
ing courts,  A  separate  act  was  drawn  up  (February  24,  1768) 
in  the  form  of  a  convention  between  Russia  and  Poland. 

By  that  act,  the  Dissidents  were  reinstated  in  all  their  former 
rights.  The  regulations  which  had  been  passed  to  their  pre- 
judice in  the  years  1717,  1733,  1736,  and  1766,  were  annulled; 
and  a  superior  court,  composed  equally  of  both  parties,  was 
granted  to  them,  for  terminating  all  disputes  which  might  arise 
between  persons  of  diflferent  religions.  This  act  was  confirmed 
by  the  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  concluded  at  Warsaw  be- 
tv/een  Russia  and  Poland  (Feb.  24,  176S,)  by  which  these  two 
powers  guaranteed  to  each  other  the  whole  of  their  possessions 
in  Europe.  The  Empress  of  Russia  guaranteed,  more  especially, 
the  liberty,  constitution,  and  indivisibility  of  the  Polish  Republic. 

The  act  we  have  just  now  mentioned,  as  well  as  another 
which  modified  what  were  called  the  cardinal  or  fundamental 
aws  of  the  Republic,  having  displeased  a  great  majority  of  the 
Poles,  they  used  every  effort  t.>  have  these  acts  recalled.     The 


PERIOD  nil.     A.  D.  1713—1789  103 

Diet  of  1768  was  no  sooner  terminated,  tlian  they  formed  them- 
selves into  a  confederacy  at  Bar  in  Podolia,  for  the  defence  of 
their  religion  and  liberties.  By  degrees,  these  extended  to 
several  Palatinates,  and  were  at  length  combined  into  a  general 
confederation,  under  the  Marshal  Count  De  Pac.  The  standards 
of  these  confederates  bore  representations  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  the  Infant  Jesus.  Like  the  Crusaders  of  the  middle  ages, 
they  wore  embroidered  crosses  on  their  garments,  with  the  motto 
Conquer  or  Die.  The  Russians  despatched  troops  to  disperse 
the  confederates  as  fest  as  they  combined  :  but  at  length,  with 
the  assistance  of  France,  and  M.  De  Vergennes,  the  French 
Ambassador  at  the  Porte,  they  succeeded  in  stirring  up  the 
Turks  against  the  Russians.  The  war  between  these  two  Em- 
pires broke  out  towards  the  end  of  1768,  v/hich  proved  disas- 
trous for  the  Turks,  and  suppressed  also  the  confederates  in 
Poland.  The  manifesto  of  the  Grand  Signior  against  Russia 
was  published  October  30th,  and  his  declaration  of  war  Decem- 
ber 4th,  1768. 

The  Empress  despatched  several  armies  against  the  Turks, 
and  attacked  them  at  once  from  the  banks  of  the  Dniester  to 
Mount  Caucasus.  Prince  Alexander  Galitzin,  who  commanded 
the  principal  army,  vras  to  cover  Poland,  and  penetrate  into 
Moldavia.  He  passed  the  Dniester  different  times,  but  was  al- 
ways repulsed  by  the  Turks,  who  were  not  more  fortunate  in 
their  attempts  to  force  the  passage  of  that  river.  On  their  last 
attempt  (September  1769,)  twelve  thousand  men  had  succeeded 
in  crossing  it,  when  there  happened  a  sudden  flood  which  broke 
down  the  bridge,  and  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  Turks.  This  body 
was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Russians,  when  a  panic  seized  the  Ot- 
toman army,  who  abandoned  their  camp  and  the  fortress  of 
Choczim.  The  Russians  took  possession  of  both  without  cost- 
ing them  a  single  drop  of  blood,  and  soon  after  penetrated  into 
the  interior  of  Moldavia  and  Walkchia. 

The  campaign  of  1770  was  most  splendid  for  the  Russians. 
General  Romanzow,  Vv^ho  succeeded  Prince  Galitzin  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  Moldavia,  gained  two  brilliant  victories 
over  the  Turks  near  the  Pruth  (July  18,)  and  the  Kukuli 
(August  1,)  which  made  him  m.aster  of  the  Danube,  and  the 
tov/ns  of  Ismael,  Kilia,  and  Akerman,  situated  in  Bessarabia, 
near  the  mouth  of  that  river.  Another  Russian  army,  under 
the  command  of  General  Count  Panin,  attacked  the  fortress  of 
Bender,  defended  by  a  strong  Turkish  garrison.  It  was  carried 
by  assault  (Sept.  26,)  and  the  greater  part  of  the  garrison  put  to 
the  sword. 

The  Empress  did  not  confine  herself  to  repulsing  the  Turks 


104  CHAPTER  IX. 

on  the  banks  of  the  Dniester  and  the  Danube,  and  harassing 
their  commerce  in  the  Black  Sea.  She  formed  the  bokl  pro- 
ject of  attacking  them  at  the  same  time  in  the  islands  of  the  Ar- 
chipelago, and  on  the  coasts  of  Greece  and  the  Morea.  A  Rus- 
sian fleet,  under  the  command  of  Alexis  Orloff  and  Admiral 
Spiritoff,  sailed  from  the  Baltic,  and  passed  the  Northern  Seas 
and  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  on  their  way  to  the  Archipelago. 
Being  joined  b}^  the  squadron  of  Rear-Admiral  Elphinstone,  they 
fought  an  obstinate  battle  with  the  fleet  of  the  Capitan  Pacha 
(July  5,  1770,)  between  Scio  and  Anatolia.  The  ships  of  the 
two  commanders,  Spiritoff*  and  the  Capitan  Pacha,  having  met 
in  the  engagement,  one  of  them  caught  fire,  when  both  were 
blown  into  the  air.  Darkness  separated  the  combatants  ;  but  the 
Turks  having  imprudently  retired  to  the  narrow  bay  of  Chisme, 
the  Russians  pursued  them,  and  burnt  their  whole  fleet  during 
the  night.  This  disaster  threw  the  city  of  Constantinople  into 
great  consternation  ;  and  the  bad  state  of  defence  in  which  the 
Dardanelles  were,  gave  them  reason  to  fear,  that  if  the  Rus- 
sians had  known  to  take  advantage  of  this  panic,  it  would  have 
been  easy  for  them  to  have  carried  the  Turkish  capital.  Rear- 
Admiral  Elphinstone,  who  commanded  one  of  the  Russian  squad- 
rons, had  suggested  that  advice  ;  but  the  Russian  Admirals 
did  not  think  proper  to  follow  it. 

The  Avar  on  the  Danube  was  continued  next  ^^ear,  though 
feebly  ;  but  the  second  Russian  army,  under  the  command  of 
Prince  Dolgoruki,  succeeded  in  forcing  the  lines  at  Perekop,  de- 
fended by  an  army  of  60,000  Turks  and  Tartars,  commanded 
by  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea  in  person.  Dolgoruki,  after  hav- 
ing surmounted  the  formidable  barrier,  made  himself  master  of 
the  Crimea,  as  also  of  the  Island  of  Taman  ;  and  received  from 
the  Empress,  as  the  reward  of  his  exploits,  the  surname  of 
Krbnski.  An  act  was  signed  by  certain  pretended  deputies 
from  the  Tartars,  by  which  tlmt  nation  renounced  the  dominion 
of  the  Ottomans,  and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
Russia  (1772.) 

These  conquests,  however  splendid  they  might  be,  could  not 
fail  to  exhaust  Russia.  Obliged  frequently  to  recruit  her  ar- 
mies, v.diich  were  constantly  thinned  by  battles,  fatigues,  and 
diseases,  she  soon  saw  the  necessity  of  making  peace.  The 
plague,  that  terrible  ally  of  the  Ottomans,  passed  from  the  army 
into  the  interior  of  the  Empire,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Mos- 
cow, where  it  cut  off*  nearly  100,000  men  in  the  course  of  a 
single  year  (1771.)  What  added  still  more  to  the  embarrass- 
ments of  Catherine  II.  was,  that  the  Court  of  Vienna,  which, 
in  conjunction  with  that  of  Berlin,  had  undertaken  to  mediate 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713— 17S9.  105 

between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  rejected  with  disdain  the  condi- 
tions of  peace  proposed  by  the  Empress.  Moreover,  they 
strongly  opposed  the  independence  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
as  well  as  of  the  Tartars  ;  and  would  not  even  permit  that  the 
Russians  should  transfer  the  seat  of  war  to  the  right  bf  nk  of 
the  Danube. 

The  Court  of  Vienna  went  even  farther :  it  threatened  to 
make  common  cause  with  the  Turks,  to  compel  the  Empress  to 
restore  all  her  conquests,  and  to  place  matters  between  the  Rus- 
sians and  the  Turks  on  the  footing  of  the  treaty  of  Belgrade. 
An  agreement  to  this  effect  was  negotiated  with  the  Porte,  and 
signed  at  Constantinople  (July  6,  1771.)  This  convention, 
however,  was  not  ratified,  the  Court  of  Vienna  having  changed 
its  mind  on  account  of  the  famous  dismemberment  of  Poland, 
concerted  between  it  and  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  St.  Peters- 
burg. The  Empress  then  consented  to  restore  to  the  Turks 
the  provinces  of  Moldavia  and  "Wallachia,  on  the  conclusion  of 
the  peace  ;  and  the  Court  of  Vienna  again  engaged  to  exert  its 
friendly  interference  in  negotiating  peace  betvv'een  Russia  and 
the  Porte. 

In  consequence  of  these  events,  the  year  1772  was  passed 
entirely  in  negotiations.  A  suspension  of  arms  was  agreed  to 
between  the  two  belligerent  powers.  A  Congress  was  opened  a^ 
Foczani  in  Moldavia,  under  the  mediation  of  the  Courts  of  Ber- 
lin and  St.  Petersburg.  This  Congress  was  followed  by  another, 
which  was  held  at  Bucharest  in  Wallachia.  Both  of  these 
meetings  proved  ineffectual,  the  Turks  having  considered  the 
conditions  proposed  by  Russia  as  inadmissible  ;  and  what  dis- 
pleased them  still  more  was,  the  article  relative  to  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Tartars  in  the  Crimea.  This  they  rejected  as  con- 
trar}^  to  the  principles  of  their  religion,  and  as  tending  to  esta- 
blish a  rivalry  between  the  two  Caliphs.  They  succeeded, 
however,  in  settling  the  nature  of  the  religious  dependence 
under  which  the  Khans  of  the  Crimea  were  to  remain  v/ith  re- 
gard to  the  Porte ;  but  they  could  not  ])ossibly  agree  as  to  the 
surrender  of  the  ports  of  Jenikaleh  and  Kerch  ;  nor  as  to  the 
unrestrained  liberty  of  navigation  in  the  Turkish  seas,  which 
the  Russians  demanded.  After  these  conferences  had  been  re- 
peatedly broken  off,  hostilities  com^menced  anew  (1773.)  The 
Russians  tv/ice  attempted  to  establish  themselves  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  but  Vvdthout  being  able  to  accompli.sh  it ; 
they  even  lost  a  great  number  of  men  in  the  different  actions 
which  they  fought  with  the  Turks. 

The  last  campaign,  that  of  1774,  was  at  length  decisive. 
Abdul  Hammed,  who  had  just  succeeded  his  brother  Mustapha 


106  CHAPTER  IX. 

III.  on  the  throne  of  Constantinople,  being  eager  to  raise  the 
glory  of  the  Ottoman  arm's,  made  extraordinary  preparations 
for  this  campaign.  His  troops,  reckoned  about  300,000  men, 
greatly  surpassed  the  Russians  in  point  of  number ;  but  they 
were  not  equal  in  point  of  discipline  and  military  skill.  Aboui 
the  end  of  June,  Marshal  Romanzow  passed  the  Danube, 
without  meeting  any  obstacle  from  the  Ottoman  army.  That 
General  took  advantage  of  a  mistake  which  the  Grand  Vizier 
had  committed,  in  pitching  his  camp  near  Schumla  at  too  great 
a  distance  from  his  detachments,  and  cut  otf  his  communication 
with  these  troops,  and  even  with  his  military  stores.  The  de- 
feat of  28,000  Turks,  who  were  bringing  a  convoy  of  four  or 
five  thousand  wagons  to  the  arm)'-,  by  General  Kamenski, 
struck  terror  into  the  camp  of  the  Grand  Vizier,  who,  seeing  his 
army  on  the  point  of  disbanding,  agreed  to  treat  with  Marshal 
Romanzow  on  such  terms  as  that  general  thought  fit  to  prescribe. 

Peace  was  signed  in  the  Russian  camp  at  Kainargi,  four  leagues 
from  Silistria.  By  that  treaty,  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  Boud- 
ziac,  and  Cuban,  were  declared  entirely  independent  of  the  Porte, 
to  be  governed  henceforth  by  their  own  sovereign.  Russia  ob- 
tained for  her  merchant  vessels  free  and  unrestrained  naviga- 
tion in  all  the  Turkish  seas.  She  restored  to  the  Turks  Bes- 
sarabia, Moldavia,  and  Wallachia  ;  as  well  as  the  islands  in  the 
Archipelago  which  were  still  in  her  possession.  But  she  re- 
served the  city  and  territory  of  AzofT,  the  two  Kabartas,  the  for- 
tresses of  Jenikaleh  and  Kerch  in  the  Crimea,  and  the  Castle  of 
Kinburn,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  opposite  OczakofT,  with 
the  neck  of  laud  between  the  Bog  and  the  Dnieper,  on  which 
the  Empress  afterwards  built  a  new  city,  called  Cherson,  to  serve 
as  an  entrepot  for  her  commerce  with  the  Levant.  The  foun- 
dation of  this  city  was  laid  by  General  Hannibal  (Oct.  19, 
1778,)  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  fifteen  versts  from 
the  confluence  of  the  Inguletz  with  that  river. 

The  House  of  Austria  also  reaped  advantages  from  that  war, 
by  the  occupation  of  Bukowina,  which  she  obtained  from  Rus- 
sia, who  had  conquered  it  from  the  Turks.  This  part  of  Mol- 
davia, comprehending  the  districts  of  Suczawa  and  Czernowitz, 
was  claimed  by  the  Court  of  Vienna  as  one  of  its  ancient  ter- 
ritories in  Transylvania,  which  has  been  usurped  by  the  princes 
of  Moldavia.  The  Porte,  who  was  indebted  to  Austria  for 
the  restitution  of  this  latter  province,  had  no  alternative  but  to 
abandon  the  districts  claimed  by  Austria.  Prince  Ghikas  of 
Moldavia,  having  opposed  the  cession  of  these  provinces,  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  the  Porte  ;  and  Bukowina  was  confirm- 
ed  to   Austria    by  subsequent  conventions  (1776,  and  1777,) 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  107 

which  at  the  same  time  regulated  the  limits  between  the  two 
States.  The  peace  of  Kainargi,  though  glorious  for  Kussia, 
proved  most  calamitous  for  the  Ottoman  Porte.  By  establishing 
the  independence  of  the  Tartars,  it  lost  the  Turks  one  ot 
their  principal  bulwarks  against  Russia;  and  they  were  indig- 
nant at  seeing  the  Russians  established  on  the  Black  Sea,  and 
permitted  unrestrained  navigation  in  all  the  Turkish  seas. 
ITenceforth  they  had  reason  to  tremble  for  the  safety  of  their 
capital,  which  might  be  assailed  with  impunity,  and  its  supplies 
intercepted,  on  the  least  disturbance  that  might  arise  between  the 
two  Empires. 

The  many  disasters  which  the  Turks  had  experienced  in  the 
war  we  have  now  mentioned,  had  a  direct  influence  on  the  fate 
of  Poland,  w^hich  ended  in  the  dismemberment  of  that  kingdom. 
This  event,  which  had  been  predicted  by  John  Casimir  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  brought  about  by  the  mediation  of  the 
Courts  of  Berlin  and  Vienna  for  the  restoration  of  peace  between 
Russia  and  Turkey.  The  conditions  of  that  treaty,  which  were 
dictated  by  the  Empress  Catherine  II.,  having  displeased  the 
Court  of  Vienna,  w^hich  had  moreover  displayed  hostile  inten- 
tions against  Russia,  by  despatching  troops  into  Hungary,  and 
taking  possession  of  a  part  of  Poland,  which  Austria  claimed  as 
anciently  belonging  to  Hungary,  the  Empress  took  this  occasion 
of  observing  to  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  who  then  sojourned  at 
her  Court,  that  if  Austria  seemed  inclined  to  dismember  Poland, 
the  other  neighbouring  powers  w^ere  entitled  to  do  the  same. 
This  overture  was  comrrunicatedby  Prince  Henry  to  his  brother 
the  King  of  Prussia,  who  resolved  to  act  on  this  new  idea.  He 
foresaw  it  w^ould  be  a  proper  means  for  indemnifying  Russia, 
contenting  Austria,  and  augmenting  his  own  territories,  by 
establishing  a  communication  between  the  kingdom  of  Prussia, 
and  his  dutchy  of  Brandenburg.  These  considerations  induced 
him  to  set  on  foot  a  negotiation  wdth  the  courts  of  Vienna  and 
St.  Petersburg.  He  gave  the  former  to  understand,  that  if  war 
should  break  out  between  Austria  and  Russia,  he  could  not  but 
take  part  in  it  as  the  ally  of  the  latter  power  ;  while  he  repre- 
sented to  the  Empress  of  Russia,  that  if  she  would  consent  to 
restore  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  the  Turks,  and  indemnify  her- 
self by  a  part  of  Poland,  she  would  avoid  a  new^  war,  and  fiicili- 
tate  an  accommodation  with  the  Porte.  In  this  manner  did  be 
succeed,  after  a  long  and  difficult  negotiation,  in  recommeiiaing 
to  the  two  Imperial  courts,  a  project  which  was  to  give  Europe  ^ 
the  example  of  a  kingdom  dismembered  on  mere  reasons  of  con- 
venience. A  preliminary  agreement  was  drawn  up,  in  which 
the  equality  of  the  respective  portions  of  the  three  courts  was 


108  CHAPTER   IX. 

assumed  as  the  basis  of  the  intended  partition.  A  negotiation 
was  afterwards  entered  into  at  St.  Petersburg,  for  regulating  the 
portion  to  be  given  to  the  Court  of  Vienna;  as  the  Empress  and 
the  King  of  Prussia,  had  ah'eady  agreed  about  the  divisions  to 
which  they  thought  they  might  lay  claim. ^^^ 

At  length  the  formal  conventions  were  signed  at  St,  Peters- 
burg, between  the  ministers  of  the  three  Courts  (Aug.  5,  1772.) 
The  boundaries  of  the  territories  and  districts,  which  were  to 
fall  to  the  share  of  iho  three  powers  respectively,  were  there 
definitively  settled  and  guaranteed  to  each  other.  They  agreed 
to  defer  taking  possession  till  the  month  of  September  following, 
and  to  act  in  concert  for  obtaining  a  final  arrangement  with  the 
Republic  of  Poland.  The  Empress  engaged  by  the  same  treaty 
to  surrender  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  the  Turks,  in  order  to 
expedite  the  restoration  of  p'eace  between  her  and  the  Porte.  In 
terms  of  that  agreement,  the  declarations  and  letters-patent  of 
the  three  Courts,  were  presented  at  Warsaw,  in  September 
1772  ;  and  on  taking  possession  of  the  territories  and  districts 
which  had  been  assigned  them,  they  published  memorials  for 
establishing  the  legitimacy  of  their  rights  over  the  countries 
which  they  claimed.  The  King  of  Poland  and  his  ministry,  in 
vain  claimed  the  assistance  and  protection  of  the  powers  that 
guaranteed  the  treaties.  They  had  no  other  alternative  left, 
than  to  condescend  to  every  thing  which  the  three  courts  de- 
manded. A  Diet  which  was  summoned  at  Warsaw,  appointed 
a  delegation,  taken  from  the  Senate  and  the  Equestrian  order, 
to  transact  with  the  plbnipotentiaries  of  the  three  powers,  as  to 
the  arrangements  of  the  difTerent  treaties  by  which  the  provinces 
already  occupied  were  to  be  formally  ceded  to  them  on  the  part 
of  the  Republic.  These  arrangements  were  signed  at  Warsaw, 
September  IS,  1773,  and  afterwards  ratified  by  the  Diet  of  Poland. 

To  Austria  was  assigned,  in  terms  of  her  treaty  with  the  Re- 
public, the  thirteen  towns  in  the  county  of  Zips,  which  Sigis- 
mund,  King  of  Hungary,  had  mortgaged  to  Poland  in  1412 ; 
besides  nearly  the  half  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow,  part  of  Sando- 
mire,  Red  Russia,  the  greater  part  of  Belz,  Pocutia,  and  part  of 
Podolia.  The  tovrns  in  the  county  of  Zips  were  again  incor- 
porated with  Hungary,  from  which  they  had  been  dismembered ; 
and  all  the  rest  were  erected  into  a  particular  State,  under  the 
name  of  the  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria.  One  very 
important  advantage  in  the  Austrian  division  Avas,  the  rich  salt 
mines  in  Wieliczka,  and  Bochnia,  and  Sambor,  which  furnished 
salt  to  the  gi'eater  part  of  Poland. ^^ 

Russia  obtained  for  her  share,  Polish  Livonia,  the  greater 
part  of  Witepsk  and  Polotsk,  the  whole  Palatinate  of  Mscislaw, 


PERIOD  vni.     A.  D,  17]  3—1789.  109 

and  the  two  extremities  of  the  Palatinate  of  Minsk.^^  These 
the  Empress  formed  into  two  grand  governments,  those  of  Polotsk 
and  Mochilew.  The  King  of  Prussia  had  the  states  of  Great 
Poland,  situated  beyond  the  Netze,  as  well  as  the  whole  of 
Polish  Prussia,  except  the  cities  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn,  which 
were  reserved  to  Poland. ^-^  That  republic,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty 
with  the  King  of  Prussia,  renounced  also  her  rights  of  domaine, 
and  the  reversion  which  the  treaties  of  Welau  and  Bidgost  had 
secured  to  her  with  regard  to  Electoral  Prussia,  as  well  as  the 
districts  of  Lauenburg,  Butow,  and  Draheim.  The  portion  of 
the  King  of  Prussia  was  so  much  the  more  important  in  a  poli- 
tical point  of  view,  as  it  united  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  with  his 
possessions  in  Germany ;  and,  by  giving  him  the  command  of 
the  Vistula,  it  made  him  master  of  the  commerce  of  Poland ; 
especially  of  the  corn-trade,  so  valuable  to  the  rest  of  Europe. 

The  three  courts,  in  thus  dismembering  Poland,  renounced, 
in  the  most  formal  manner,  all  farther  pretensions  on  the  re- 
public ;  and,  lastly,  to  consummate  their  work,  they  passed  an 
act  at  Warsaw,  by  which  they  sanctioned  the  liherimi  veto,  and 
the  unanimity  in  their  decisions  formerly  used  at  the  Diet  in 
state  matters ;  the  crown  was  declared  elective,  and  foreign 
princes  were  to  be  excluded.  The  prerogative  of  the  King,  al- 
ready very  limited,  was  circumscribed  still  more  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  council ;  and  it  was  statuted,  that  no  one 
could  ever  change  this  constitution,  of  which  the  three  powers 
had  become  the  guarantees. 

[This  partition  of  Poland  must  be  regarded  as  the  harbinger  of 
the  total  overthrow  of  the  political  system  w^hich  for  three  hun- 
dred years  had  prevailed  in  Europe.  After  so  many  alliances 
had  been  formed,  and  so  many  wars  undertaken,  to  preserve  the 
weaker  states  against  the  ambition  of  the  greater,  we  here  find 
three  powers  of  the  first  rank  combining  to  dismember  a  state 
which  had  never  given  them  the  slightest  umbrage.  The  bar- 
riers between  legitimate  right  and  arbitrary  power  were  thus 
overthrown,  and  henceforth  the  destiny  of  inferior  states  was  no 
longer  secure.  The  system  of  political  equilibrium  became  the 
jest  of  innovators,  and  many  well  disposed  men  began  to  regard 
it  as  a  chimera.  Though  the  chief  blame  of  this  transaction 
must  fall  on  the  courts  of  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  and  Vienna, 
those  of  London  and  Paris  were  accomplices  to  the  crime,  by 
allowing  this  spoliation  to  be  consummated  without  any  mark  of 
their  reprobation.] 

In  vSweden,  the  aristocratic  system  had  prevailed  since  the 
changes  which  had  been  introduced  into  the  form  of  government 
by  the  revolution  of  1720.     The  chief  power  resided  in  the  body 

VOL.  IT.  10 


110 


CHAPTER  IX. 


of  the  Senate,  and  the  royal  authority  was  reduced  to  a  mere 
shadow.  The  same  factions,  the  Hats  and  the  Bonnets,  of  which 
we  have  spoken  above,  continued  to  agitate  and  distract  the  state. 
The  Hats  were  of  opinion,  that  to  raise  the  glory  of  Sweden, 
and  to  recover  the  provinces  of  Livonia  and  Finland,  it  was' ne- 
cessary to  cultivate  friendship  with  France  and  the  Porte,  in 
order  to  secure  their  support  in  case  of  a  rupture  with  Russia. 
The  Bonnets,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  that  Sweden,  ex- 
hausted by  the  preceding  wars,  ought  to  engage  in  no  under- 
taking against  Russia.  In  preferring  a  sj^stem  of  pacification, 
they  had  no  other  object  in  view  than  to  maintain  peace  and 
good  understanding  with  all  states,  without  distinction.  These 
two  factions,  instigated  by  foreign  gold,  acquired  a  new  impor- 
tance when  the  war  broke  out  between  Russia  and  the  Porte. 
It  was  in  the  Diet  of  1769  that  the  Hats  found  means  to  got 
possession  of  the  government,  by  depriving  the  members  of  the 
opposite  party  of  their  principal  employments.  There  was  some 
reason  to  believe  that  France,  in  consequence  of  her  connexions 
with  the  Porte,  had  used  every  effort  to  stir  up  Sweden  against 
Russia,  and  that  the  mission  of  Vergennes,  who  passed  from 
Constantinople  to  Stockholm,  had  no  other  object  than  this. 
Russia  had  then  to  make  every  exertion  to  raise  the  credit  and 
influence  of  the  Bonnets,  in  order  to  maintain  peace  with  Swe- 
den. In  these  endeavours,  she  was  assisted  by  the  Court  of 
London,  who  were  not  only  willing  to  support  the  interests  of 
Russia,  but  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  thwart  France  in  her  po- 
litical career. 

The  death  of  Adolphus  Frederic,  which  happened  in  the 
meantime,  opened  a  new  field  for  intrigue  in  the  Diet,  which 
was  summoned  on  account  of  the  accession  of  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Gustavus  III.  (Feb.  12,  1771.)  This  young  prince  at 
first  interposed  between  the  two  parties,  with  a  view  to  conciliate 
them ;  but  with  so  little  success,  that  it  rather  increased  their 
animosity,  until  the  Bonnets,  who  were  supported  by  Russia  and 
England,  went  so  far  as  to  resolve  on  the  total  expulsion  of  the 
Hats,  not  only  from  the  senate,  but  from  all  other  places  and 
dignities  in  the  kingdom.  Licentiousness  then  became  extreme ; 
and  circumscribed  as  the  ro3^al  power  alread}^  was  in  the  time  of 
Adolphus  Frederic,  they  demanded  new  restrictions  to  be  imposed 
on  his  successor.  The  treaties  that  were  projected  with  Russia 
and  England,  were  evidently  the  result  of  the  system  adopted  by 
that  faction  who  had  now  seized  the  reins  of  government. 

In  this  state  of  affairs,  the  young  king  saw  the  necessity  of 
attempting  some  change  in  the  system  of  administration.  His 
gentleness  and  eloquence,  and  his  affable  and  popular  manners, 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  Ill 

had  gained  him  a  number  of  partisans.  He  possessed  in  an 
eminent  degree  the  art  of  dissimulation ;  and  while  he  was 
making  every  arrangement  for  a  revolution,  and  concerting  mea- 
sures in  secret  with  the  French  ambassador,  he  seemied  to  have 
nothing  so  much  at  heart  as  to  convince  the  world  of  his  sincere 
attachment  to  the  established  constitution.  It  is  alleged,  that  he 
had  sent  emissaries  over  the  whole  kingdom  to  stir  up  the  people 
against  their  governors ;  and  that  he  might  have  some  pretext 
for  calling  out  his  troops,  he  induced  Captain  Hellichius,  the 
commandant  of  Christianstadt  in  Blekingen,  to  raise  the  standard 
of  revolt  against  the  states  w^ho  still  continued  their  sittings  at 
Stockholm. 

That  officer,  known  afterwards  by  the  name  of  Gustafsckeld, 
or  the  Shield  of  Gustavvs,  published  at  first  a  kind  of  manifesto, 
in  which  he  reproached  the  States  for  their  misconduct ;  which 
he  showed  to  have  been  diametrically  opposite  to  the  public  in- 
terest and  the  laws  of  the  kingdom.  Prince  Charles,  the  King's 
brother,  who  was  at  that  time  at  Landscrona  in  Schonen,  being 
informed  of  the  proceedings  of  the  commandant  of  Christianstadt, 
immediately  assembled  the  troops  in  the  provinces,  and  marched 
to  that  place,  with  the  intention,  as  is  said,  of  stifling  the  revolt 
in  its  birth.  The  news  of  this  insurrection  spread  consternation 
in  the  capital.  The  States  were  suspicious  of  the  King,  and  took 
measures  to  prevent  the  ambitious  designs  which  they  supposed 
him  to  entertain.  Hellichius  was  proclaimed  a  rebel  by  the 
Senate,  and  guilty  of  high  treason.  They  advised  the  King  not 
to  quit  Stockholm,  the  command  of  which  w^as  intrusted  to  a 
senator,  the  Count  of  Kalling,  with  the  most  ample  powers.  At 
length  the  regiment  of  Upland,  whose  officers  were  devoted  to 
the  Senate,  were  ordered  to  the  capital,  with  the  intention,  as  is 
supposed,  of  arresting  the  King.  That  prince  then  saw  that  he 
had  no  longer  time  to  delay,  and  that  he  must  finish  the  execu- 
tion of  the  plan  which  he  had  proposed. 

On  the  morning  of  the  19th  of  August,  the  King  presented 
himself  to  the  troops  who  mounted  guard  at  the  palace ;  and 
having  assembled  the  officers,  he  detailed  to  them  the  unfortu- 
nate state  of  the  kingdom,  as  being  the  consequence  of  those 
dissensions  which  had  distracted  the  Diet  for  more  than  fourteen 
months.  He  pointed  out  to  them  the  necessity  of  abolishing  that 
haughty  aristocracy  who  had  ruined  the  state,  and  to  restore  the 
constitution  to  what  it  was  before  the  revolution  of  1680  ;  ex- 
pressing at  the  same  time  his  decided  aversion  for  absolute  and 
despotic  power.  Being  assured  of  the  fidelity  of  the  guards, 
who  were  eager  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him,  he  ordered 
a  detachment  to  surround  the  Council  Chamber  w^here  the  Se- 


112  CHAPTER  IX. 

nators  were  assembled,  and  put  the  leaders  of  the  ruling  party 
under  arrest.  The  artillery  and  other  regiments  of  guards  hav- 
ing also  acknowledged  his  authority,  their  example  was  soon 
followed  by  all  the  colleges  (or  public  offices,)  both  civil  and 
military.  The  arrest  against  Hellichius  was  revoked,  and  the 
regiment  of  Upland  received  orders  to  march  back.  These  mea- 
sures and  some  others  were  executed  with  so  much  skill  and 
punctuality,  that  the  public  tranquillity  was  never  disturbed ; 
and  by  five  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  the  revolu- 
tion seemed  to  be  accomplished  without  shedding  a  single  drop 
of  blood.  Next  day,  the  magistrates  of  the  city  took  the  oath  to* 
the  King,  and  the  assembly  of  the  States  was  summoned  to  meet 
on  the  21st.  On  that  day  the  King  caused  the  palace  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  troops,  and  cannons  to  be  pointed  into  the  court  op- 
posite the  Chamber  of  the  States.  Seated  on  his  throne,  and 
surrounded  by  his  guards,  the  King  opened  the  assembly  by  an 
energetic  discourse  which  he  addressed  to  the  members,  in  which 
he  painted,  in  lively  colours,  the  deplorable  state  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  indispensable  necessity  of  applying  some  prompt  remed3^ 
The  new  form  of  government  which  he  had  prepared  was  read 
by  his  orders,  and  adopted  without  opposition  by  the  whole  four 
orders  of  the  kingdom.  The  king  then  drew  a  psalm-book  from 
his  pocket,  and  taking  off  his  crown,  began  to  sing  Te  Dcu?n,  in 
which  he  was  joined  by  the  whole  assembly.  Matters  passed 
in  the  interior  of  the  provinces  with  as  little  tumult  and  opposi- 
tion as  in  the  capital  and  principal  cities.  The  King's  brothers 
received,  in  his  name,  the  oath  of  fidelity  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants and  the  military. 

In  virtue  of  this  new  form  of  government,  all  the  fundamen- 
tal laws  introduced  since  1680  were  cancelled  and  abolished. 
The  succession  to  the  throne  was  restricted  to  males  only. 
The  lineal  order,  and  the  right  of  primogeniture,  as  settled  by 
the  convention  of  1743,  and  by  the  decree  of  the  Diet  of  1750, 
were  confirmed.  The  King  was  to  govern  alone,  according  to 
the  laws ;  and  the  Senate  were  to  be  considered  as  his  counsel- 
lors. All  the  senators  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  King,  and 
matters  were  no  longer  to  be  decided  by  a  plurality  of  votes. 
The  senators  were  simply  to  give  their  advice,  and  the  decision 
belonged  to  the  King.  Courts  of  justice,  however,  were  ex- 
cepted. The  chief  command  of  all  the  forces  in  the  kingdom, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  and  the  supreme  direction  of  the  Exche- 
quer, were  conferred  on  the  King.  On  the  report  of  the  senate, 
he  filled  up  all  the  high  offices  in  the  state,  both  military,  civil, 
and  ecclesiastical.  He  alone  had  the  right  of  pardoning,  and 
of  summoning  the  States,  who  could  never  assemble  on  their 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  113 

o^vn  authority,  except  in  a  case  where  the  throne  became  vacant, 
by  the  total  extinction  of  the  roj-al  family  in  the  male  line.  The 
duration  of  the  Diets  was  fixed  for  three  months,  and  the  King 
had  the  privilege  of  dissolving  them  at  the  end  of  that  time. 
He  could  make  no  new  laws,  nor  interpret  the  old  ones,  nor  im- 
pose subsidies  or  assessments,  nor  declare  war,  without  the  ad- 
rice  and  consent  of  the  States.  He  was  allowed,  however,  to 
levy  an  extraordinary  tax,  in  cases  where  the  kingdom  might 
be  attacked  by  sudden  invasion  ;  but  on  the  term.ination  of  the 
war,  the  States  were  to  be  assembled,  and  the  new  tax  discon- 
tinued. All  negotiations  for  peace,  truces,  and  alliances,  whe- 
ther offensive  or  defensive,  were  reserved  to  the  King,  by  whom 
they  were  to  be  referred  to  the  Senate.  If,  in  these  cases,  the 
unanimous  voice  of  the  Senate  was  opposed  to  that  of  the 
King,  it  became  his  duty  to  acquiesce  in  their  opinion.  Every 
Swedish  citizen  was  to  be  judged  by  his  natural  judge.  The 
King  could  attaint  neither  the  life,  honour,  nor  fortune  of  any 
citizen,  otherwise  than  by  the  legal  form.s.  All  extraordinary 
commissions  or  tribunals  were  to  be  suppressed,  as  tending  to 
establish  tyranny  and  despotism. 

The  revolution  of  Stockholm,  of  which  v^'e  have  just  now 
spoken,  had  nothing  in  common  with  that  which  happened  at  Co- 
penhagen the  same  year  ;  and  which,  without  in  any  way  af- 
fecting the  constitution  of  the  kingdom,  merely  transferred  the 
reins  of  government  from  the  hands  of  the  reigning  Queen  to 
those  of  the  Queen-dowager. ^•*- 

In  a  remote  corner  of  Europe,  there  existed  an  association  of 
warriors,  of  a  kind  quite  peculiar,  namely,  that  of  the  Zaparog 
Cossacs  ;  so  called  because  they  dwelt  near  the  cataracts  of  the 
Dnieper,  where  they  served  as  a  military  frontier,  first  to  the 
Poles,  and  afterwards  to  the  Russians.  The  chief  residence  of 
these  Cossacs  was  called  Setscha.  It  contained  a  considerable 
mass  of  houses,  scattered  and  badly  constructed,  and  had  a 
small  fort  occupied  by  a  Russian  garrison.  The  position  of 
Setscha  had  not  ab.vays  been  the  same  ;  but  it  was  ultim.ately 
fixed,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Borysthenes,  opposite  Kame- 
noi-Saton,  an  ancient  fortress  of  the  Russians,  and  was  called 
New  Setscha.  These  Cossacs,  known  in  Poland  by  the  name 
of  Haydamacs,  and  formidable  by  their  incursions  and  their  de- 
vastations, had  adopted  a  republican  form  of  government.  Their 
capital  was  divided  into  thirty  Kureiies,  or  quarters.  Every 
Cossac  belonged  to  one  of  these  Kurenes.  There  he  lodged 
when  he  stayed  at  Setscha,  and  was  obliged  to  conform  to  its 
laws.  All  those  who  belonged  to  the  same  Kurene,  formed  as  it 
were  one  and  the  same  family.     Like  the  ancient  Spartans, 

voir*  u.  iO** 


114  CHAPTER  IX. 

they  were  nourished  with  the  same  food,  and  ate  at  the  same 
table.  The  overseer  of  each  separate  Kurene  was  called  Ata- 
man, and  the  chief  of  all  the  Kurenes  Kosckeiuoi-Atamaji.  All 
the  chiefs,  without  distinction,  were  elected  by  common  consent; 
the  Ataman  by  his  own  Kurene,  and  the  Koschewoi  by  the 
whole  Kurenes  united.  They  were  deposed  whenever  they  be- 
came unpopular.  The  assemblies  of  Setscha  were  either  ordi- 
nary or  extraordinary.  In  that  which  Avas  regularly  held  every 
year  on  the  1st  of  January,  they  made  a  formal  division  of  the 
fields,  rivers,  and  lakes,  among  the  Kurenes.  They  made  use 
of  lots  in  order  to  avoid  disputes  ;  and  they  renewed  them  every 
year,  that  a  favourable  chance  might  be  given  to  all  the  Kurenes 
in  succession.  At  that  assembly  they  elected  new  chiefs,  if  they 
happened  to  be  discontented  with  the  old  ones.  As  for  the  ex- 
traordinary assemblies,  they  were  held  when  it  was  in  agitation 
to  undertake  a  campaign,  or  to  make  an  excursion  ;  and  gene- 
rally on  all  occasions  when  the  common  interest  seemed  to  re- 
quire it.  They  had  a  judge  and  some  other  officers  in  Setscha. 
The  judge  never  pronounced  sentence  except  in  affairs  of  little 
importance.  Those  which  appeared  more  v/eighty  required  the 
intervention  of  all  the  chiefs.  They  would  suffer  no  woman  to 
remain  in  Setscha.  Those  who  were  inclined  to  marry  were 
obliged  to  remove  elsewhere.  To  keep  up  their  numbers  the 
Zaparogs  received  deserters  and  fugitives  from  all  nations. 
They  were  particularly  careful  to  recruit  their  ranks  with  young 
boys,  whom  they  kidnapped  in  their  excursions  ;  and  brought 
them  up  according  to  their  customs  and  manner  of  living. 

The  treaty  of  Andrussov  between  Russia  and  Poland  had 
left  these  Cossacs  under  the  common  protection  of  those  two 
States.  They  preferred  that  of  Russia,  and  were  continued 
under  the  dominion  of  that  power  b}^  the  peace  of  Moscow. 
Being  afterwards  implicated  in  the  revolt  of  Mazeppa,  they  put 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  af- 
ter the  battle  of  Pultowa,  and  transferred  their  capital  of  Setscha 
to  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  nearer  its  mouth.  Being 
discontented  under  the  Tartars,  who  repressed  their  incursions, 
and  often  imposed  exactions  on  Setscha,  they  took  the  resolution 
of  putting  themselves  once  more  under  the  dominion  of  Rus- 
sia (1733.)  The  Empress  Anne  confirmed  them  in  their  pri- 
vileges, and  furnished  money  to  assist  them  in  rebuilding  their 
capital  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dnieper. 

As  they  continued,  however,  to  commit  robbery  and  plunder 
on  the  frontiers  without  intermission,  and  having  neither  friends 
nor  allies,  Catherine  II.  resolved  to  annihilate  this  fantastic  as- 
sociation.    Besides  their  depredations,  the  Zaparogs  were  ac- 


PERIOD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  115 

cused  of  having  usurped  possession  of  several  countries  between 
the  Dnieper  and  the  Bog;  as  well  as  of  several  districts  which 
had  at  all  times  belonged  to  the  Cossacs  of  the  Don.  What 
more  particularly  exasperated  the  Empress  against  them,  was, 
that  being  so  obstinately  attached  to  their  absurd  form  of  go- 
vernment, they  opposed  every  scheme  of  reform,  the  object  of 
Avhich  was  to  make  them  live  in  regular  society,  and  in  the 
bonds  of  matrimony ;  or  to  induce  them  to  form  themselves  into 
regiments,  after  the  manner  of  the  other  Cossacs.  They  had 
also  refused  to  send  their  deputies  to  Moscow,  at  the  time  when 
Catherine  had  sent  for  them  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire,  for 
the  formation  of  a  new  code  of  laws  ;  and  there  was  some  rea- 
son to  fear  they  might  attempt  to  revolt,  on  account  of  the 
changes  which  the  Empress  proposed  to  m.ake  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  government.  These  and  other  considerations  in- 
duced that  princess  to  despatch  a  body  of  troops  against  Setscha 
(1775.)  The  Zaparogs,  attacked  unawares,  and  inclosed  on  all 
hands,  sav/  themselves  without  the  means  of  making  the  least 
resistance.  Their  capital  was  destroyed,  and  their  w^hole  tribe 
dispersed.  Those  who  were  not  inclined  to  embrace  another 
kind  of  life,  were  sent  back  to  their  native  towns  and  their  re- 
spective countries. 

The  succession  of  Bavaria  reverted  of  right  to  the  Elector 
Palatine,  Charles  Theodore,  as  head  of  the  elder  branch  of  Wit- 
telsbach.  That  prince  had  on  his  side,  the  Feudal  Law  of  Ger- 
many, the  Golden  Bull,  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  and  family 
compacts  frequentl)'"  renewed  between  the  two  branches  of  that 
house  ;  all  Europe  was  persuaded  that,  should  the  case  so  turn 
out,  the  rights  of  the  Elector  Palatine  would  be  beyond  all  con- 
troversy. Meantime,  the  Elector  Maximilian  had  scarcely 
closed  his  eyes,  when  several  pretenders  appeared  on  the  field,  to 
dispute  the  succession  as  his  presumptive  heirs.  The  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  claimed  all  the  fiefs  of  the  Empire,  which  his  pre- 
decessors  had  conferred  on  the  house  of  Bavaria,  without  ex- 
pressly including  the  princes  of  the  Palatine  branch  in  these 
investitures.  The  Empress,  Maria  Theresa,  besides  the  fiefs  of 
the  Upper  Palatinate  holding  of  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  demand- 
ed all  the  countries  and  districts  of  Lower  and  Upper  Bavaria, 
as  well  as  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  which  had  been  possessed  by 
the  Princes  of  Bavaria-Straubingen,  who  had  become  extinct  in 
1425.  She  also  alleged  a  pretended  investiture,  which  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund  had  granted,  in  1426,  to  his  son-in-law  Duke 
Albert  of  Austria.  The  Electress-Dowager  of  Saxony,  sister  to 
the  last  Elector  of  Bavaria,  thought  herself  entitled  to  claim  the 
allodial  succession,  which  she  made  out  to  be  very  extensive, 


116  CHAPTER  IX. 

Lastly,  the  Dukes  of  Mecklenburg  brought  forward  an  ancienC 
deed  of  reversion,  which  their  ancestors  had  obtained  from  th«^ 
Emperors,  over  the  landgraviate  of  Leuchtenbejg. 

Before  these  different  claims  could  be  made  known,  the  Aus- 
trian troops  had  entered  Bavaria,  immediately  after  the  death  of 
the  late  Elector,  and  taken  possession  of  all  the  countries  and 
districts  claimed  by  the  Emperor  and  the  Empress-Queen.  The 
Elector  Palatine,  intimidated  by  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  ac- 
knowledged the  lawfulness  of  all  the  claims  of  that  court,  by  a 
convention  which  was  signed  at  Vienna  (Jan.  3,  1778,)  but  which 
the  Duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  his  successor  and  heir  presumptive, 
refused  to  ratify.  That  prince  was  supported  in  his  opposition 
by  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  treated  the  pretensions  of  Austria 
as  chimerical,  and  as  being  incompatible  with  the  security  of  the 
constitution  of  the  Germanic  body.  The  King  interposed  in  this 
affair,  as  being  a  guarantee  for  the  peace  of  V/estphalia,  and  a 
friend  and  ally  of  the  parties  concerned,  who  all  claimed  his  pro- 
tection. He  demanded  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  that  they  should 
withdraw  their  troops  from  Bavaria,  and  restore  to  the  Elector 
the  territories  of  which  they  had  deprived  him.  A  negotiation 
on  this  subject  was  opened  between  the  two  courts,  and  numerous 
controversial  writings  were  published ;  but  the  proposals  of  the 
King  of  Prussia  not  proving  agreeable  to  the  court  of  Vienna, 
the  conferences  were  broken  off  about  the  end  of  June  1778,  and 
both  parties  began  to  make  preparations  for  war. 

It  was  about  the  beginning  of  July  when  the  King  of  Prussia 
entered  Bohemia,  through  the  county  of  Glatz,  and  pitched  his 
camp  between  Jaromitz  and  Konigratz,  opposite  that  of  the  Em- 
peror and  Marshal  Daun,  from  which  he  was  only  separated  by 
the  Elbe,  Another  army,  composed  of  Prussians  and  Saxons, 
and  commanded  by  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  penetrated  into 
Bohemia  through  Lusatia  ;  but  they  were  stopped  in  their  march 
by  Marshal  Laudohn,  who  had  taken  up  a  ver}/"  advantageous 
position,  and  defeated  all  the  measures  of  the  Prince  of  Prussia. 
At  length  a  third  Prussian  army  marched  into  Austria  and  Sile- 
sia, and  occupied  the  greater  part  of  that  province.  Europe  had 
never  seen  armies  more  numerous  and  better  disciplined,  and 
commanded  by  such  experienced  generals,  approach  each  other 
so  nearly  without  some  memorable  action  taking  place.  The 
Emperor  and  his  generals  had  the  good  sense  to  act  on  the  de- 
fensive ;  while  the  efforts  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  to  bring  him  to 
a  general  engagement,  proved  altogether  unavailing.  This 
prince,  who  had  lost  a  great  many  men  by  sickness  and  deser- 
tion, was  compelled  to  evacuate  Bohemia  about  the  end  of  Oc- 
tober, and  his  example  was  soon  followed  by  his  brother  Prince 


.:ekioD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  117 

Henry.  At  tli^  beginning  of  this  first  campaign,  the  Empress- 
Queen  being  desirous  of  peace,  had  sent  Baron  Thugut  to  the 
King  of  Prussia,  to  offer  him  new  proposals.  A  conference  was 
agreed  to  take  place  at  the  convent  of  Braunau  (Aug.  1778,) 
Avhich  had  no  better  success  than  the  preceding,  on  account  of 
the  belligerous  disposition  of  the  Emperor,  who  was  for  continu- 
ing the  war.  At  length  the  return  of  peace  was  brought  about 
by  the  powerful  intervention  of  the  courts  of  Versailles  and  St. 
Petersburg. 

France,  who  was  obliged,  by  the  terms  of  her  alliance  with 
Austria,  to  furnish  supplies  for  the  Empress-Queen,  could  not  in 
the  present  case  reconcile  this  engagement  w4th  the  interests  of 
her  crown,  nor  with  the  obligations  which  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia had  imposed  upon  her,  v.'ith  respect  to  the  Germanic  body. 
Besides,  the  war  which  had  broken  out  between  her  and  England, 
on  account  of  her  alliance  with  the  United  States  of  x4.merica, 
made  her  anxious  for  the  restoration  of  peace  on  the  Continent, 
for  avoiding  every  thing  which  might  occasion  a  diversion  of  her 
maritime  forces.  The  Empress  of  Russia,  who  thought  her 
glory  interested,  could  not  remain  a  quiet  spectator  of  a  struggle 
which,  if  prolonged,  might  set  all  Europe  in  a  flame.  She'de- 
clared  to  the  Court  of  Vienna,  that  in  consequence  of  the  ties  of 
friendship  and  alliance  which  subsisted  between  her  and  the 
Court  of  Berlin,  she  would  find  herself  called  on  to  join  her 
troops  to  those  of  Prussia,  if  the  vrar  was  to  be  continued.  But, 
before  coming  to  that  extremity,  she  would  interpose  her  good 
offices,  conjointly  with  France,  to  bring  existing  differences  to  an 
amicable  conclusion. 

The  mediation  of  these  two  courts  having  been  accepted  by 
the  belligerent  powers,  a  congress  was  summoned  at  Teschen,in 
Silesia,  which  was  opened  in  the  month  of  March  1779.  The 
Empress  of  Russia,  to  give  the  greater  weight  to  her  interfer- 
ence, despatched  a  body  of  troops  to  the  frontiers,  destined  to  act 
as  auxiliaries  under  the  King  of  Prussia,  in  case  the  war  should 
happen  to  be  renewed.  Prince  Repnin,  who  commanded  that 
body,  appeared,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  capacity  of  ambassador- 
extraordinary  at  the  Congress.  France  sent,  on  her  part.  Baron 
de  Breteuil,  her  ambassador  at  the  Court  of  Vienna.  All  things 
being  already  prepared,  and  the  principal  difficulties  removed, 
the  peace  wtis  concluded  in  less  than  two  months.  By  this  treaty, 
the  convention  of  the  3d  of  January,  made  between  the  Court 
of  Vienna  and  the  Elector  Palatine,  was  annulled.  Austria  was 
required  to  give  up  all  her  possessions  in  Bavaria,  except  the 
places  and  districts  situated  between  the  Danube,  the  Inn,  and 
the  Salza,  which  were  ceded  to  her  as  all- she  could  claim  of  the 


A8  CHAPTER  IX. 

succession  of  Bavaria,  which  she  had  renounced  in  the  most  for- 
mal manner.  The  fiefs  of  the  Empire,  which  had  been  confer- 
red on  the  House  of  Bavaria,  were  secured  by  that  treaty  to  the 
Elector  Palatine  and  his  whole  family ;  as  well  as  those  situated 
in  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  holding  of  the  Crown  of  Bohemia. 

The  Elector  Palatine  engaged  to  pay  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
for  his  allodial  rights,  the  sum  of  six  millions  of  florins,  money 
of  the  Empire  ;  while  the  Empress-Queen  gave  up  to  the  said 
prince  the  rights  which  the  crown  of  Bohemia  had  over  certain 
seigniories  lying  within  Saxony,  and  possessed  by  the  Counts  of 
Schonburg.  The  Palatine  branch  of  Birkenfeldt,  whose  right  of 
succession  to  the  Palatine  estates  had  been  disputed,  on  the 
giound  of  their  being  the  issue  of  an  unequal  marriage,  were 
now  deckred  capable  of  succeeding  to  all  the  estates  and  pos- 
sessions of  the  House  of  Wittlesbach,  as  comprehended  in  the 
family  compacts  of  that  house. 

The  existing  treaties  between  the  Court  of  Vienna  and  the 
K.mg  of  Prussia,  and  also  those  of  Westphalia,  Breslau,  Berlin, 
and  Dresden,  were  renewed  and  confirmed ;  and  a  formal  ac- 
knowledgment made  to  the  royal  line  of  Prussia,  of  their  right 
to  unite  the  margraviates  of  Baireuth  and  Anspach,  failing  the 
present  possessors,  to  the  hereditary  succession  of  the  Electorate 
of  Brandenburg ;  which  right  the  House  of  Austria  had  called 
in  question  during  the  dispute  which  we  have  already  mention- 
ed. As  for  the  House  of  Mecklenburg,  the}^  granted  to  it  the 
privilege  of  the  7iu?i  appeIla?ido,  in  virtue  of  which,  no  one  could 
carry  an  appeal  from  the  tribunals  of  that  country  to  the  sove- 
reign courts  of  the  Empire.  The  two  mediating  powers  under- 
took to  guarantee  this  treaty.  Thus  the  war  for  the  succession 
of  Bavaria  was  checked  at  its  commencement.  The  following 
peculiarities  are  worthy  of  remark,  viz.  that  the  Palatine  family, 
who  were  the  party  chiefly  interested,  took  no  share  in  it ;  while 
Bavaria,  the  sole  cause  of  the  war,  was  no  way  engaged  in  it , 
and  the  Elector  Palatine,  who  had  even  refused  the  assistance 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  was,  nevertheless,  the  party  chiefly  ben- 
efited by  the  peace,  by  means  of  the  protection  of  that  prince. 

The  House  of  Austria  having  failed,  as  we  have  just  seen,  in 
her  project  of  conquering  Bavaria,  tried,  in  the  next  place,  to 
get  possession  of  that  country  by  way  of  exchange  for  the  Ne- 
therlands. The  Elector  Palatine  appeared  willing  to  meet  the 
views  of  the  Court  of  Vienna ;  but  it  was  not  so  with  the  Duke 
of  Deux-Ponts,  who  haughtily  opposed  the  exchange;  while  the 
King  of  Prussia,  who  supported  it,  was  obliged  to  acknowledge 
that  such  an  exchange  was  inadmissible,  and  in  opposition  both 
to  former  treaties,  and  to  the  best  interests  of  the  Germanic  body 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  119 

The  Court  of  Vienna  then  abandoned  this  project,  at  least  in 
appearance ;  but  the  alarm  which  it  had  caused  throughout  the 
Empire,  gave  rise  to  an  association,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Germanic  Confederation.  It  was  concluded  at  Berlin  (July 
23,  1785,)  between  the  three  Electors  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg-, 
and  Brunswick-Luneburg ;  besides  several  provinces  of  the  Im- 
perial State  who  adhered  to  it.  This  association,  purely  de- 
fensive, had  no  other  object  than  the  preservation  of  the  Ger- 
manic System,  with  the  rights  and  possessions  of  all  its  members. 

The  JRevolution  in  North  America,  deserves  to  be  placed 
among  the  number  of  those  great  events  which  belong  to  the 
general  history  of  Europe.  Besides  the  sanguinary  war  which 
it  kindled  between  France  and  England,  and  in  which  Spain 
and  Holland  were  also  implicated,  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
harbinger  of  those  revolutions  which  took  place  soon  after  in 
several  of  the  Continental  States  of  Europe.  The  English 
colonies  in  North  America  were  no  otherwise  connected  with 
the  mother  country,  than  by  a  government  purely  civil,  by  a 
similarity  of  manners,  and  by  customs,  which  long  usage  had 
rendered  sacred.  They  were  divided  into  provinces,  each  of 
which  had  its  particular  constitution  more  or  less  analogous  to 
that  of  England,  but  imperfectly  united  with  the  mother  coun 
try,  because  the  inhabitants  of  these  provinces  were  not  repre- 
sented in  the  national  Parliament.  If  they  had  been  so.  Great 
Britain  would  certainly  never  have  enjoyed  that  monopoly  which 
she  had  reserved  to  herself,  agreeably  to  the  colonial  system  of 
all  modern  nations.  The  exclusive  privilege  of  sending  her 
commodities  to  the  Americans,  by  fettering  their  industry,  alien- 
ated their  affections  from  England,  and  made  them  naturally  de- 
sirous of  shaking  off  her  yoke  ;  and  this  propensity  could  not 
fail  to  increase,  in  proportion  as  these  colonies  increased  in 
strength,  population,  and  wealth. 

One  consideration,  however,  likely  to  secure  their  allegiance, 
was  the  protection  which  England  granted  them  against  their 
powerful  neighbours  the  French  in  Canada,  the  Spaniards  in 
Florida,  and  the  Barbarians  in  the  West.  The  Canadians,  es- 
pecially, proved  daring  and  troublesome  neighbours  to  New  Eng- 
land, which  rendered  the  assistance  and  protection  of  the  mother 
country  indispensable.  The  aspect  of  affairs  changed  at  the 
time  of  the  peace  of  Paris  (1763.)  England,  by  getting  pos- 
session of  Canada  and  Florida,  broke  the  main  tie  which  at- 
tached the  colonies  to  her  government.  Delivered  then  from 
the  terror  of  the  French,  and  having  no  more  need  of  foreign 
succour  to  protect  them  from  their  attacks,  the  Americans  began 
to  concert  measures  for  extricating  themselves  from  the  domin- 
ion of  Britain. 


120  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  first  disturbances  that  broke  out  were  occasioned  by  the 
attempts  which  the  British  Parliament  had  made  to  impose 
taxes  on  the  Americans.  The  national  debt  of  England  having 
increased  considerably  during  the  preceding  war,  the  Parlia- 
ment thought  they  had  a  right  to  oblige  the  colonies  to  furnish 
their  quota  for  the  liquidation  of  that  debt,  which  had  been  con- 
tracted, in  part,  for  the  interests  of  America.  The  Parliament- 
passed  an  act,  according  to  which  all  contracts  in  the  American 
colonies  were  to  be  drawn  upon  stamped  paper  ;  and  the  tax  on 
the  stamp  was  regulated  according  to  the  different  objects  of  the 
coQtract.  When  this  act  had  passed  into  a  law,  and  was  about 
to  be  carried  into  effect  in  America,  it  caused  a  general  insur- 
rection. The  people  committed  all  sorts  of  excesses  and  abuses 
against  the  King's  officers.  The  Courts  of  Justice  were  shiit 
up,  and  the  colonies  began  to  form  associations  among  them- 
selves. They  disputed  the  right  of  the  British  Parliament  to 
impose  taxes  on  them. ;  alleging  that  they  were  not  represented 
there,  and  that  it  was  the  constitutional  privilege  of  every  Eng- 
lishman, not  to  be  taxed  except  by  means  of  his  own  represen- 
tatives. The  colonies  having  thus  attacked  the  sovereignty  and 
legislative  power  of  the  Parliament,  laid  an  interdict  on  all 
commerce  with  the  mother  country,  and  forbade  the  purchase 
of  coinmodities  imported  from  Great  Britain. 

The  Parliament  rescinded  the  Stamp  act.  They  published, 
however,  a  declaratory  act  which  set  forth,  that  the  colonies 
were  subordinate  to,  and  dependent  on,  the  Crown  and  Parlia- 
ment of  Great  Britain,  in  wdiom  resided  full  power  and  au- 
thority to  make  laws  and  statutes  binding  on  the  colonies,  in  all 
possible  cases.  The  provincial  assemblies  of  the  colonists  were 
enjoined,  by  that  act,  to  receive  into  their  towns  whatever  num- 
ber of  British  troops  the  mother  country  might  think  proper  to 
send,  and  to  furnish  them  with  wood  and  beer.  Far  from  al- 
laying these  disturbances,  this  new  act  tended,  on  the  contrary, 
to  exasperate  them  still  more.  The  Americans  considered  it  as 
tyrannical,  and  as  having  no  other  design  than  to  destroy  the 
foundation  of  their  liberty,  and  to  establish  an  absolute  and 
despotic^  power. 

The  British  ministry  made  still  farther  concessions.  They 
abandoned  altogether  the  idea  of  a  tax  to  be  levied  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  country,  and  limited  themselves  entirely  to  taxes 
or  duties  on  imported  goods.  The  Stamp  act  was  replaced  by 
another  (1767,)  which  imposed  certain  duties  on  tea,  paper, 
lead,  and  paint-colours,  &c.  &c.  exported  from  England  into  the 
colonies.  This  act  was  no  better  received  than  its  predecessor. 
The  Assembly  of  Massachusetts,  which  was  formed  at  Boston, 


Earthquake  at  Lisbon.     Vol.  2,  p.  86. 


Engagement  of  the  Russia7i  and  Turkish  Fleets 
offScio.      Vol.  2,  p.  104. 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  121 

addressed  circular  letters  to  all  the  colonies,  exhorting  them  to 
act  in  concert  for  the  support  of  their  rights  against  the  mother 
country.  The  resolutions  which  some  of  the  colonies  had  al- 
ready adopted,  of  prohibiting  tho  use  of  commodities  manufac- 
tured in  Great  Britain,  became  common  to  all  the  colonies  ;  and 
the  American  merchants  in  general,  countermanded  the  goods 
which  they  had  ordered  from  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
The  spirit  of  revolt  thus  extending  wider  and  wider,  the  British 
government  determined  to  employ  troops  for  the  restoration  of 
order  and  tranquillity  in  the  colonies,  and  making  them  respect 
the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  (1769.) 

Affairs  were  in  this  situation  when  Lord  North,  who  had  been 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  administration,  succeeded  in  calming 
the  minds  of  the  colonists,  by  passing  an  act  which  abolished 
the  obnoxious  taxes,  with  the  single  exception  of  that  on  tea. 
The  view  of  the  minister  in  retaining  this  tax,  was  not  of  reap- 
ing any  advantage  from  it ;  but  he  hoped  by  this  trilling  duty 
to  accustom  the  colonies  to  support  greater  taxes.  The  Ameri- 
cans v/ere  very  sensible  of  this  ;  however,  as  they  imported  very 
little  tea  from  England,  and  as  the  Dutch  furnished  them  with 
this  article  by  way  of  contraband,  they  showed  no  symptoms  of 
resentment  until  the  year  1773.  At  that  time,  the  Parliament 
having  given  permission  to  the  East  India  Company  to  export 
tea  to  America,  of  which  they  had  large  supplies  in  their  ware- 
houses, the  Americans,  indignant  to  see  this  Company  made  the 
organ  of  a  law  which  was  odious  to  them,  resolved  to  oppose  the 
landing  of  these  tea  cargoes.  Three  of  the  Company's  vessels, 
freighted  with  this  article,  having  arrived  at  Boston,  and  prepa- 
ring to  unload,  the  inhabitants  boarded  them  during  the  night 
of  the  21st  of  December,  and  threw  all  the  chests  into  the  sea, 
to  the  number  of  342.  In  the  other  provinces,  they  only  sent 
back  the  ships  loaded  v/ith  this  obnoxious  commodity.* 

On  the  news  of  this  outrage,  the  British  Parliament  thought 
it  necessary  to  adopt  rigorous  measures.  Three  acts  were  passed 
in  succession  (1774,)  the  first  to  lay  the  port  of  Boston  under  in- 
terdict ;  the  second  to  abolish  the  constitution  and  democratic 
government  of  IVlassachusetts,  and  substitute  a  royal  govern- 
ment ;  and  the  third  to  authorize  the  colonial  governors  to  trans- 
port to  England  the  Americans  who  were  accused  of  rebellion, 
to  be  tried  at  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  General  Gage  was  sent 
to  Boston  with  a  body  of  troops  and  several  vessels  to  carry  these 
coercive  measures  into  effect.  By  thus  adopting  decisive  mea- 
sures, the  British  Parliament  in  vain  flattered  themselves,  that 
they  could  reduce,  by  force,  a  continent  so  vast,  and  so  remote 
from  the  mother  country,  as  that  of  America.     Supposing  even 

VOL.  n.  11 


x22  CHAPTER    IX. 

?hat  ihey  could  have  succeeded,  the  spirit  and  nature  of  the 
English  government  would  never  have  permitted  them  to  main- 
tain their  conques-ts  by  force.  The  colonies,  however,  far  from 
being  intimidated  by  these  acts,  Avarmly  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  province  which  had  been  singled  out  for  punishment. 

A  general  Congress,  composed  of  the  representatives  of  all  the 
colonies,  was  opened  at  Philadelphia  (Sept.  5,  1774.)  They 
declared  the  acts  of  the  British  Parliament  against  Massachu- 
setts, to  be  unjust,  oppressive,  and  unconstitutional.  They 
agreed  never  more  to  import  articles  of  commerce  from  Great 
Britain  ;  and  to  present  an  address  to  the  King,  and  a  petition 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  for  the  redress  of  those  grievances  of 
which  the  colonies  had  to  complam.  This  latter  step  having 
produced  no  effect,  and  the  Parliament  having  still  persisted  in 
their  rigorous  measures,  hostilities  commenced  in  the  month  of 
April  1775.  The  American  Congress  then  conferred  the  com- 
mand of  their  army  on  George  Washington,  a  rich  planter  in 
Virginia,  who  had  acquired  considerable  military  reputation  by 
his  success  in  opposing  the  French  in  Canada  ;  and  at  the  same 
time,  to  raise  the  immediate  supplies  of  which  the  colonies  stood 
in  need,  the  Congress  agreed  to  issue  paper  money,  suflicient  to 
meet  the  unavoidable  expenses  of  the  war.  A  declaration,  pub- 
lished in  the  month  of  July,  1775,  explained  the  reasons  which 
had  compelled  the  Americans  to  take  up  arms ;  and  announced 
their  intention  not  to  separate  from  Great  Britain,  nor  adopt  a 
system  of  absolute  independence.  But  as  the  British  Ministry 
had  made  extraordinary  efforts  for  the  campaign  of  1776,  and 
.'aken  a  body  of  German  troops  into  their  pay,  the  Americans 
thought  proper  to  break  off  all  alliance  with  England,  that  they 
might  have  recourse  in  their  turn  to  the  protection  of  foreigners. 

The  independence  of  the  Colonies  was  therefore  formally  de- 
clared by  an  Act  of  Congress  (July  4,  1776.)  They  then  drew 
up  articles  of  confederation  and  perpetual  union  among  the  States 
of  America,  to  the  number  of  thirteen  provinces,  under  the  title 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  In  virtue  of  this  union,  each 
of  the  States  remained  master  of  its  own  legislative  and  inter- 
nal administration,  while  the  Congress,  which  was  composed  ot 
deputies  from  all  the  colonies,  had  the  power  of  regulating  all 
political  affairs ;  that  is  to  say,  every  thing  concerning  war  or 
peace,  alliances,  money  matl.^rs,  w^eights  and  measures,  posts, 
&c. ;  as  well  as  the  settlement  of  any  differences  Avhich  might 
arise  between  two  or  more  of  the  confederate  States.  The  first 
favourable  action  for  the  Americans,  in  their  war  against  Eng- 
land, was  that  at  Trenton  on  the  Delav/are,  (Dec.  25,  1776,) 
where  General  Washington  surprised  a  body  of  Hessians  and 


PERIOD  vm.     A   D.  1713—1789.  123 

English,  and  made  them  prisoners.  But  the  event  which  in 
some  degree  set  the  seal  to  the  independence  of  America,  was 
the  important  check  which  General  Burgoyne  met  with  near 
Saratoga.  Having  advanced  from  Canada  to  support  the  opera- 
tions of  General  Howe,  who  was  marching  on  Philadelphia,  he 
was  compelled  by  the  American  troops  under  General  Gates  to 
lay  down  his  arms,  by  a  capitulation  which  was  signed  in  the 
camp  at  Saratoga  (Oct.  16,  1777.)  The  news  of  this  disaster 
was  no  sooner  received  in  Europe,  than  France,  who,  during 
the  time  that  England  was  occupied  with  the  disturbances  in 
America,  had  put  her  marine  on  a  respectable  footing,  took  the 
resolution  of  acknowledging  the  New  Kepublic,  and  entered  into 
a  formal  alliance  with  it.  Treaties  of  friendship,  alliance,  and 
commerce,  were  concluded  at  Paris  between  them  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America  (Feb.  6,  1778.)  France  demanded  as  a 
primary  condition,  that  the  United  States  should  not  lay  down 
their  arms,  until  England  had  acknowledged  their  independence. 
The  notification  which  the  Court  of  France  made  to  that  of  Lon- 
don of  this  treaty  with  the  United  States,  became  the  signal  of 
war  between  these  two  nations. 

This  war  which  France  had  undertaken  against  England  for 
the  free  navigation  of  the  seas,  was  the  first  which  did  not  in- 
volve the  continent  of  Europe,  as  it  was  confined  entirely  to 
maritime  operations.  The  European  powers,  far  from  thwart- 
ing France  in  this  enterprise,  applauded  her  success ;  and  while 
Great  Britain  depended  on  her  own  strength,  and  had  not  a  sin- 
gle ally  on  the  Continent,  France  contrived  to  interest  Spain 
and  Holland  in  her  cause. 

Spain,  after  having  for  some  time  held  the  rank  of  a  m.edia- 
ting  power,  entered  into  the  war  in  fulfilment  of  those  engage- 
ments which  she  had  contracted,  by  the  Family  Compact ;  an(\ 
as  respected  Holland,  England  had  determined  to  break  with 
her.  The  British  ministry  Vv^ere  offended  at  that  Republic,  which, 
instead  of  granting  England  the  supplies  that  she  was  entitled 
to  claim  in  virtue  of  former  treaties,  had  lent  itself  an  accomplice 
to  the  interests  of  her  enemies.  The  Dutch,  on  their  side,  com- 
plained of  the  multiplied  vexations  with  which  they  were  inces- 
santly harassed  by  the  British  privateers.  They  had  sought 
to  protect  themselves  against  these,  under  the  shield  of  that 
armed  neutrality  which  the  Empress  of  Russia  had  just  negoti- 
ated for  protecting  the  commerce  of  neutral  States  ;  and  it  was 
in  order  to  prevent  their  accession  to  that  neutrality,  that  Eng- 
land made  such  haste  to  declare  war  against  the  Republic  (Dec. 
20,  17S0.) 

Without  entering  here  into  the  details  of  that  war,  the  prin- 


124  CHAPTER  IX. 

cipal  scene  of  which  was  in  America,  though  it  extended  lo 
Africa  and  the  Indies,  we  shall  con<ine  ourselves  to  a  few  gen- 
eral observations. 

AVhen  hosiiKties  commenced  between  France  and  England, 
the  latter  had  a  very  great  superiority  in  maritime  strength.  She 
had  armies  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  globe.  The  number  of 
her  vessels  was  prodigious.  Her  arsenals  were  overloaded  with 
stores.  Her  dock-yards  were  in  the  greatest  activity  ;  but  after 
France  and  Spain  had  united  their  naval  force,  it  was  no  longer 
possible  for  Great  Britain,  obliged  as  she  was  to  divide  her 
strength,  to  defend  her  distant  possessions  against  the  numerous 
attacks  of  the  French  and  their  allies.  Not  fewer  than  twenty- 
one  engagements  took  place  between  the  belligerent  powers  ;  in 
all  of  which  England,  from  the  experience  of  her  Admirals,  and" 
the  ability  of  her  naval  officers,  did  not  lose  a  single  ship  of  the 
line.  The  first  naval  action  was  fought  near  Usliant  (July  27, 
1778,)  between  D'Orvilliers  and  Admiral  Keppel.  This  action, 
the  glory  of  which  was  claimed  equally  by  both  nations,  was  as 
indecisive  as  most  of  those  which  followed  it.  The  only  decisive 
actior,  properly  speaking,  was  that  which  Admiral  Rodney  fought 
with  Count  de  Grasse  (April  12,  1782,)  betv.'een  the  islands  of 
Dominica  and  Saintes.  The  English  Admiral  having  broken 
the  French  line,  succeeded  in  taking  five  ships  of  the  line,  inclu- 
ding the  Admiral's,  and  had  the  honour  to  carry  him  prisoner 
to  London. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  English  stripped  the  French 
of  their  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  such  as  Pondicherry, 
Chandernagore,  and  Mahe.  They  took  from  them  the  islands 
of  St.  Peter  and  Miquelon,  as  well  as  that  of  St.  Lucia,  and 
Gorea  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  French  afterwards  repaid 
themselves  for  these  losses,  by  conquering  the  islands  of  Domin- 
ica, St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Tobago,  St.  Christophers,  Nevis  and 
Monteserrat.  All  the  forts  and  establishments  of  the  English 
on  the  Senegal  in  Africa,  as  well  as  Gondelore  in  the  East  In- 
dies, fell  into  their  possession. 

The  Spaniards  made  themselves  masters  of  the  forts  which 
the  English  occupied  on  the  Mississippi.  They  took  fort  Mo- 
bile or  Conde,  in  ancient  French  Louisiana,  and  subdued  the 
whole  of  Western  Florida,  with  the  town  of  Pensacola.  In 
Europe  they  recovered,  with  the  assistance  of  the  French,  the 
island  of  Minorca,  Avith  port  Mahon  and  fort  St.  Philip  ;  but  the 
combined  forces  of  the  two  nations  failed  in  their  enterprise 
against  Gibraltar.  This  place,  which  was  bravely  defended  by 
General  Elliot,  was  twice  relieved  with  supplies  by  the  English 
fleet — first  by  Admiral  Rodney  (1780,)  and  afterwards  by  Lord 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  125 

Howe  (1782.)  The  floating  batteries  invented  by  M.  D'Ar^on, 
which  were  directed  against  the  garrison,  were  destroyed  by  the 
red-hot  bullets  which  the  English  commander  showered  upon 
them  in  great  profusion.  It  was  chiefly  this  obstinate  determi- 
nation of  the  Spaniards  to  recover  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  that  for 
a  long  time  deprived  France  and  Spain  of  the  advantages  which 
ought  to  have  accrued  to  them  from  the  combination  of  their 
naval  strength  against  Great  Britain.  As  for  the  Dutch,  they 
experienced  heavy  losses  in  this  war;  their  islands  of  St.  Eu- 
statia,  Saba,  and  St.  Martin  in  the  Antilles,  Avere  seized  by  the 
English,  who  carried  off'  immense  booty.  Besides  their  esta- 
blishments of  Demarara  and  Essequibo  in  Guiana,  those  which 
they  had  on  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts,  especially  Ne- 
gapatam  and  Trincomalee,  on  the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  were  reduced 
in  succession.  The  French  succeeded,  however,  in  reconquer- 
ing the  Dvitch  Antilles,  and  the  fortress  of  Trincomalee. 

In  North  America,  the  success  of  the  war  was  for  a  long  time 
equally  balanced  between  the  English  and  the  Americans.  At 
length  Lord  Cornwallis,  after  having  conquered  the  two  Caroliuas, 
advanced  into  Virginia.  He  took  York  Town  and  Gloucester  ; 
but  having  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  that  province,  Generals 
Washington,  Rochambaud,  and  La  Fayette,  turned  their  forces 
against  him,  and  were  supporred  in  this  attack  by  a  French  fleet, 
which  the  Count  de  Grasse  had  brought  to  their  aid.  Lord 
Cornwallis,  surrounded  on  all  sides,  and  shut  up  in  York  Town, 
was  obliged  to  capitulate  (Oct.  19,  1781,)  and  surrendered  him- 
self and  his  whole  army  prisoners  of  war.  This  event  decided 
the  fate  of  America.  The  news  of  it  no  sooner  arrived  in 
England,  than  a  change  took  place  in  the  British  ministry. 
Lord  North  and  his  colleagues  resigned,  and  were  replaced 
by  the  members  of  the  opposite  party.  The  new  ministry 
attempted  to  negotiate  a  special  peace,  either  with  the  Ameri 
cans  or  with  the  Dutch  ;  but  their  efTorts  having  proved  unsuc 
cessful,  they  adopted  the  alternative  of  recognising  the  inde 
pendence  of  America,  and  then  entered  into  a  negotiation  with 
France.  A  conference  was  opened  at  Paris,  under  the  media- 
tion of  Joseph  II.  and  the  Empress  of  Russia.  It  continued  from 
the  month  of  October  1782,  till  September  1783,  when  definitive 
treaties  of  peace  were  signed  at  Paris  and  Versailles  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  England  and  Holland  did 
not  take  place  till  the  20th  May  1784. 

In  virtue  of  these  treaties,  the  independence  of  the  Thirteen 
United  States  of  America  was  acknowledged  by  England  ;  and 
the  boundaries  of  the  respective  possessions  of  the  two  powers 

roi«tr.  U'^ 


108  CHAPTER  rx. 

assumed  as  the  basis  of  the  intended  partition.  A  negctiation 
was  afterwards  entered  into  at  St.  Petei-sburg,  for  regulating-  the 
portion  to  be  given  to  the  Court  of  Vienna;  as  the  Empress  and 
the  King  of  Prussia,  had  ah-eady  agreed  about  the  divisions  to 
which  they  thought  they  might  lay  claim. ^'^ 

At  length  the  formal  conventions  were  signed  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, between  the  ministers  of  the  three  Courts  (Aug.  5,  1772.) 
The  boundaries  of  the  territories  and  districts,  which  were  to 
fall  to  the  share  of  ilie  three  powers  respectively,  were  there 
definitively  settled  and  guaranteed  to  each  other.  They  agreed 
to  defer  taking  possession  till  the  month  of  September  folloAving, 
and  to  act  in  concert  for  obtaining  a  final  arrangement  with  the 
Republic  of  Poland.  The  Empress  engaged  by  the  same  treaty 
to  surrender  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  the  Turks,  in  order  to 
expedite  the  restoration  of  peace  between  her  and  the  Porte.  In 
terms  of  that  agreement,  the  declarations  and  letters-patent  of 
the  three  Courts,  were  presented  at  Warsaw,  in  September 
1772  ;  and  on  taking  possession  of  the  territories  and  districts 
which  had  been  assigned  them,  they  published  memorials  for 
establishing  the  legitimacy  of  their  right?*  over  the  countries 
which  they  claimed.  The  King  of  Poland  and  his  ministry,  in 
vain  claimed  the  assistance  and  protection  of  the  powers  that 
guaranteed  the  treaties.  They  had  no  other  alternative  left, 
than  to  condescend  to  every  thing  which  the  three  courts  de- 
manded. A  Diet  which  was  summoned  at  Warsaw,  appointed 
a  delegation,  taken  from  the  Senate  and  the  Equestrian  order, 
to  transact  with  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  three  powers,  as  to 
the  arrangements  of  the  different  treaties  by  which  the  provinces 
already  occupied  were  to  be  formally  ceded  to  them  on  the  part 
of  the  Republic.  These  arrangements  were  signed  at  Warsaw, 
September  18, 1773,  and  afterwards  ratified  by  the  Diet  of  Poland. 

To  Austria  was  assigned,  in  terms  of  her  treaty  with  the  Re- 
public, the  thirteen  towns  in  the  county  of  Zips,  which  Sigis- 
mund.  King  of  Hungary,  had  mortgaged  to  Poland  in  1412 ; 
besides  nearly  the  half  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow,  part  of  Sando- 
mire,  Red  Russia,  the  greater  part  of  Belz,  Pocutia,  and  part  of 
Podolia.  The  towns  in  the  count}^  of  Zips  v,'ere  again  incor- 
porated with  Hungary,  from  which  they  had  been  dismembered  ; 
and  alltlie  rest  were  erected  into  a  particular  State,  under  the 
name  of  the  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria.  One  very 
important  advantage  in  the  Austrian  division  was,  the  rich  salt 
mines  in  Wieljczka,  and  Bochnia,  and  Sambor,  which  furnished 
salt  to  the  greater  part  of  Poland, ^^ 

Russia  obtained  for  her  share,  Polish  Livonia,  the  greater 
part  of  Witepsk  and  Polotsk,  the  whole  Palatinate  of  Mscislaw, 


PERIOD  vin.     A.  D.  1713*-1789.  87- 

II.,  who  succeeded  him,  did  not  think  fit  to  espouse  the  quarrel 
of  her  husband.  She  immediately  recalled  the  Russian  army 
from  Mecklenburg;  and  being  desirous  of  establishing  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  North  on  a  solid  basis,  and  confirming  a  good  un- 
derstanding between  the  two  principal  branches  of  the  House 
of  Holstein,  she  agreed,  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  King 
of  D-enmark  (1765,)  to  terminate  all  these  differences  by  a 
provisional  arrangement,  which  was  not  to  take  effect  until  the 
majority  of  the  Grand  Duke  Paul,  the  son  of  Peter  III. 

This  accommodation  between  the  two  Courts  was  signed  at 
Copenhagen  (x\pril  22,  1762.)  The  Empress,  in  the  name  of 
her  son,  gave  up  her  claim  to  the  ducal  part  of  Sleswick,  oc- 
cupied by  the  King  of  Denmark.  She  ceded,  moreover,  to 
that  sovereign  a  portion  of  Holstein,  possessed  by  the  famil^^  of 
Gottorp,  in  exchange  for  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Del- 
menhorst.  It  was  agreed,  that  these  counties  should  be  erect- 
ed into  dutchies,  and  that  the  ancient  suffrage  of  Holstein-Got- 
torp,  at  the  Imperial  Diet,  should  be  transferred  to  them.  This 
provisional  treaty  was  ratified  when  the  Grand  Duke  came  of 
age  ;  and  the  transference  of  the  ceded  territories  took  place  in 
1773.  At  the  same  time  that  prince  declared,  that  he  designed 
the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorst  to  form  an  esta- 
bhshment  for  a  ^^ounger  branch  of  his  family,  that  of  Eutin  ; 
to  which  the  contracting  powers  also  secured  the  bishopric  of 
Lubec,  to  be  held  in  perpetual  possession.  The  bishop  of  Lubec, 
the  head  of  the  younger  branch  of  the  Gottorp  family,  was  that 
same  yeD.Y  put  in  possession  of  the  counties  of  Oldenburg  and 
Delmenhorst ;  and  the  Em.peror  Joseph  11.  erected  these  coun- 
ties into  a  dutchy  and  fief-male  of  the  Empire,  under  the  title 
of  the  Dutchy  of  Holstein-Oldenburg. 

Here  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  the  revolutions  that  took 
place  in  the  Island  of  Corsica,  which,  after  a  long  series  of  troubles 
and  distractions,  passed  from  the  dominion  of  Genoa  to  that  of 
France.  The  oppressions  which  the  Corsicans  had  suffered 
under  the  government  of  the  Genoese,  who  treated  them  with 
extreme  rigour,  had  rendered  their  j^oke  odious  and  insupporta- 
ble. They  rose  several  times  in  rebellion  against  the  Republi- 
cans ;  but  from  the  want  of  union  among  themselves,  they  failed 
in  the  different  attempts  v/hich  they  made  for  effecting  thatr 
libert}'  and  independence. 

One  of  the  last  insurrections  of  the  Corsicans  was  that  of 
1729.  They  chose  for  their  leader  Andrew  Ceccaldi  of  a  noble 
family  in  the  Island,  and  Luigi  Giafferi,  a  man  of  courage  and 
an  enthusiast  for  liberty.  The  Genoese,  after  trying  in  \^ain  to 
subdue  the  insurgents,  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  tlie  pro- 

9 


128  CHAPTER   EX. 

tion.  Russia,  on  her  part,  who  regarded  the  independence  of 
the  Crimea  as  a  step  towards  the  execution  of  her  ambitious  pro- 
jects, expelled  the  Khan  Dowlat  Gueray,  who  was  favourably 
inclmed  towards  the  Porte,  and  put  Sahin  Gueray  in  his  place, 
who  was  devoted  to  the  interests  of  Russia.  This  latter  having 
been  dispossessed  by  Selim  Gueray,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Porte,  the  Empress  marched  a  body  of  troops  into  the  Crimea, 
under  the  command  of  Suwarow  (1778,)  and  restored  her  pro- 
tege to  the  throne  by  force  of  arms. 

The  Turks  made  great  preparations  for  war,  and  a  new  rup- 
ture between  the  two  empires  was  expected,  when,  by  the  inter- 
position of  M.  de  St.  Priest,  the  French  ambassador  to  the  Turk- 
ish Court,  the  Divan  consented  to  an  accommodation  which  was 
concluded  at  Constantinople  (March  21,  1779,)  under  the  name 
of  the  Explicative  Convention.  The  independence  of  the  Cri- 
mea, and  the  sovereignty  of  Sahin  Gueray,  were  thereby  acknoAV- 
ledged,  and  confirmed  anew.  Russia  and  the  Porte  engaged  to 
withdraw  their  troops  from  that  peninsula,  as  well  as  from  the 
island  of  Taman.  The  Porte  promised  especially  never  to  al- 
lege any  pretexts  of  spiritual  alliance,  for  interfering  with  the 
civil  or  political  power  of  the  Khans.  The  free  intercourse  be- 
tween the  Black  Sea  and  the  White  Sea,  was  secured  in  the  most 
express  manner  to  all  Russian  vessels  that  were  of  the  form,  size, 
and  capacity,  of  the  ships  of  other  nations  who  carried  on  trade 
in  the  ports  of  Turkey. 

This  convention  did  not  restore  any  permanent  good  under- 
standing between  the  two  Empires  ;  new  troubles  were  not  long 
in  springing  up  again  in  the  Crimea.  The  Khan  Sahin  Gueray 
was  once  more  expelled  by  the  party  adhering  to  the  Turks 
(17S2.)  A  Russian  army  immediately  entered  that  peninsula, 
and  restored  the  fugitive  Khan  ;  while  a  Russian  fleet  sailing 
from  the  port  of  AzofT,  cut  off  the  malecontents  from  all  commu- 
nication with  Constantinople.  Under  these  circumstances,  the 
Empress  Catherine  II.  thought  the  moment  had  arrived  for  pla- 
cing the  Crimea  among  the  number  of  her  own  provinces.  She 
caused  her  troops  to  occupy  that  peninsula,  as  well  as  the  whole 
of  Cuban  ;  and  expelled  the  Turks  from  Taman,  of  which  they 
had  made  themselves  masters,  with  the  view  of  opening  a  com- 
munication with  the  Tartars.  Finally,  she  explained,  in  a  man- 
ifesto, the  motives  which  induced  her  to  unite  the  Crimea  to  her 
Empire,  together  with  the  isle  of  Taman,  and  the  Cuban,  and 
required  Sahin  Gueray  formally  to  resign  the  sovereignty  which 
he  had  enjoyed  for  so  short  a  time  (June  28,  1783.) 

That  event  was  a  terrible  blow  to  the  Ottoman  Porte.  The 
inhabitants  of  Constantinople  loudly  demanded  war;  but  the 


i^iiRioD  vm.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  129 

Divan,  ^vho  were  sensible  of  their  weakne?^,  used  every  endea- 
vour to  avoid  it.  Tlie  preparations  of  the  Russians  both  by  sea 
and  land,  were  immense  ;  and  there  subsisted  a  co-operation  and 
a  perfect  intimacy  between  the  Courts  of  Vienna  and  St.  Peters- 
burg.  England  tried  in  vain  to  engage  the  Turks  to  take  up 
arms,'  but  they  were  withheld  by  France  and  Austria.  Instead 
of  fighting,  they  were  resolved  to  negotiate  ;  and  a  new  treatv 
was  signed  at  Constantinople  (Jan:  8,  1784.)  The  sovereignty 
of  the  Crimea,  the  island  of  Taman,  and  all  the  part  of  Cuban 
which  lay  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of  that  name,  and  form- 
ed, as  it  were,  a  frontier  betvv^een  the  tv/o  Empires,  were  aban- 
doned to  Russia.  The  fortress  of  Oczakoif,  to  which  the  Tar- 
tars of  the  Crimea  had  some  claims,  was  ceded  to  the  Porte, 
with  its  whole  territory.  Thus  ended  the  dominion  of  the  Tar- 
tars in  the  Crimea,  once  so  terrible  to  Russia.  The  Enipress 
formed  the  whole  of  that  vast  country  into  tvro  new  govern- 
ments, Taurida  and  the  Caucasus. 

There  had  existed  for  a  long  time  certain  disputes  between 
the  Dutch  and  the  government  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  as 
to  the  execution  of  the  Barrier  Treaty  (1715,)  and  that  of  the 
Hague  (1718.)  They  had  neglected  to  define  precisely  the 
limits  of  Dutch  Flanders,  which  these  treaties  had  pointed  out 
rather  than  determined  ;  and  for  a  long  time  the  Imperial  Court 
had  ceased  to  pay  the  Dutch  the  subsidies  which  the  Barrier 
Treaty  had  stipulated  in  their  favour.  That  court  would  not 
consent  to  agree  to  a  definitive  settlement  of  these  limits,  or  the 
payment  of  the  subsidies,  until  England  and  Holland  should  co- 
operate with  her  in  repairing  the  Barrier  towns,  whose  fortifica- 
tions had  been  ruined  during  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succes- 
sion. She  demanded,  also,  that  these  powers  should  unite  for 
concluding  a  treaty  of  commerce,  and  a  tariff  favourable  for  the 
Low  Countries,  as  they  had  engaged  to  do  by  former  treaties. 
At  length  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  thought  he  might  avail  him- 
self of  the  war  which  had  arisen  between  England  and  Holland, 
to  free  the  Austrian  Netherlands  entirely  from  the  claims  which 
the  B?a'rier  Treaty  had  imposed  on  them.  The  order  for  de- 
molishing all  the  fortified  places  in  the  Netherlands  compre- 
hended the  Barrier  towns  ;  and  the  Dutch  were  summoned  to 
Vv'ithdraw  their  troops  from  them.  These  republicans,  not  be- 
ing able  to  solicit  the  protection  of  England,  with  which  they 
were  at  war,  found  themselves  obliged  to  comply  with  the  sum- 
mons of  the  Emperor.  Their  troops  then  evacuted  all  the  Bar- 
rier towns  in  succession. 

This  compliance  on  the  part  of  the  Dutch,  encouraged  the 
Emperor  to  extend  his  pretensions  still  farther.     Not  content 


130  CHAPTER  IX. 

with  annulling  the  treaties  of  1715 — 18,  he  required  that  th« 
boundaries  of  Flanders  should  be  re-established  on  the  footing 
of  the  contract  of  1664,  between  Spain  and  the  States-General ; " 
and  instead  of  making  his  new  demand  a  subject  of  negotiation, 
he  took  possession  of  the  forts,  as  well  as  of  the  towns  and  dis- 
tricts included  within  the  limits  which  had  been  fixed  by  this 
latter  agreement.  The  Dutch  having  addressed  their  com- 
plaints to  the  Court  of  Vienna  against  these  violent  proceedings 
the  Emperor  consented  to  open  a  conference  at  Brussels  (1784,) 
for  bringing  all  these  disputes  to  an  amicable  termination.  He 
declared,  at  the  opening  of  the  meeting,  that  he  would  desist  from 
all  the  claims  which  he  had  against  the  Republic,  provided  they 
would  grant  the  Belgic  provinces  the  free  passage  and  naviga- 
tion of  the  Scheldt ;  with  the  privilege  of  direct  commerce  with 
India,  from  all  the  ports  in  the  Netherlands.  But  while  proposing 
this  state  of  things  as  the  subject  of  negotiation,  he  announced, 
that  from  that  momiont  he  was  firmly  resolved  to  consider  the 
Scheldt  as  free  ;  and  that  the  least  opposition,  on  the  part  of  the 
States-General,  would  be,  in  his  eyes,  as  the  signal  of  hostili- 
ties, and  a  declaration  of  war.  The  Dutch,  without  being  in- 
timidated by  these  threats,  declared  the  demand  of  the  Emperor 
to  be  contrary  to  their  treaties,  and  subversive  of  the  safety 
and  prosperity  of  their  Repubhc.  Vice-Admiral  Reynst  was 
ordered  to  station  himself,  with  a  squadron,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Scheldt,  and  to  prevent  all  Imperial  or  Flemish  ships  from  pass- 
ing. Tv/o  merchantmen  having  attempted  to  force  the  passage, 
the  Dutch  gave  them  a  broadside,  and  obliged  them  to  strike. 

The  Emperor  then  regarded  the  war  as  declared,  and  broke 
off  the  conference  at  Brussels  ;  he  had,  however,  made  no  pre- 
parations ;  and  the  Low  Countries  were  entirely  divested  of  their 
troops,  magazines,  and  warlike  stores.  The  prince  had  flatter- 
ed himself,  that  the  Court  of  France  would  espouse  his  quarrel, 
and  that  he  would  obtain  from  them  the  supplies  stipulated  by 
the  treaty  of  Versailles.  But  France,  who  was  then  negotiating 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Republic,  easily  foresaw,  that  if  she 
abandoned  them  at  that  particular  time,  they  would  be-  obliged 
to  throw  themselves  into  the  arms  of  England.  M.  de  Maille- 
bois  then  got  orders  to  pass  to  Holland,  while  France  set  on  foot 
two  armies  of  observation,  one  in  Flanders,  and  the  other  on  the 
Rhine.  The  King  wrote  to  the  Emperor  very  pressing  letters, 
wishing  him  to  adopt  pacific  measures. 

These  proceedings  and  the  numerous  difficulties  which  the 
war  of  the  Netherlands  presented  to  the  Emperor,  induced  him 
to  accept  the  mediation  of  the  Court  of  Fiance  ;  a  negotiation 
on  this  subject  was  entered  into  at  Versailles.     The  Emperor 


PERIOD  VITI.      A.  D.  1713—1789.  131 

there  persisted  at  first  in  maintaining  the  liberty  of  the  Scheldt, 
but  afterwards  became  less  rigid  on  this  point.  He  was  con- 
tent to  enforce  his  other  claims.  This  negotiation  was  as  tedi- 
ous as  it  was  intricate.  It  occupied  the  French  ministry  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  year  17S5.  The  Emperor  insisted 
much  on  the  cession  of  Maestricht,  and  the  territory  of  Outre- 
Meuse.  From  this  demand  he  would  not  recede,  except  on  the 
payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money  by  way  of  indemnity,  and 
another  in  reparation  of  the  damage  ^^'hich  the  inundation  of 
Flanders,  ordered  by  the  States-General,  had  occasioned  to  his 
Austrian  subjects.  By  the  peace  which  was  signed  at  Fontain- 
bleau,  the  treaty  of  Munster  (1648)  was  renewed  ;  but  nothing 
was  said  of  the  Barrier  treaty,  nor  of  that  of  Vienna  (1731.) 
They  agreed  on  shutting  the  Scheldt  from  Saftingen,  as  far  as 
the  sea ;  as  well  as  the  Canals  of  Saas,  Swin,  and  other  com- 
munications with  the  sea  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  States- 
General  engaged  to  pay  the  Emperor,  in  lieu  of  his  claims  on 
Maestricht  and  the  Outre-Meuse,  the  sum  of  9,500,000  Dutch 
florins  ;  and  another  of  500,000  florins  for  repairing  the  damages 
done  by  the  inundations.  That  Prince  got  ample  satisfaction 
on  the  subject  of  most  of  his  other  claims  ;  and  France  under- 
took to  guarantee  the  treaty.  Immediately  after  it  was  signed, 
they  renewed  the  negotiation  respecting  the  treaty  of  alliance 
projected  between  France  and  the  Republic.  This  treaty  was 
also  signed  at  Fontainbleau  (Nov.  10,  1785)  two  days  after  the 
treaty  of  peace. 

Various  intestine  disturbances  at  that  time  agitated  the  Repub- 
lic of  the  United  Provinces.  The  animosity  of  the  Republican 
party  against  the  Stadtholder  and  his  partisans,  had  been  re* 
Tived  more  keenl^r  than  ever,  on  account  of  the  war  in  Ame- 
rica between  France  and  England.  The  Republicans  reproach- 
ed the  Stadtholder  for  his  devotedness  to  the  interests  of  Eng- 
land, which  had  made  him  neglect  their  marine,  and  fail  in  the 
protection  which  he  owed  the  Dutch  commerce,  in  his  capacity 
of  Admiral-General  of  the  forces  of  the  Republic.  The  dif- 
ferent magistrates  of  the  municipal  tovvms,  in  order  to  discredit 
the  Stadtholder  in  the  opinion  of  the  public,  encouraged  peri- 
odical writers  to  inveigh  against  the  person  of  AVilliam  V.  and 
nis  administration.  They  blamed  his  counsellors,  and  especially 
Louis  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who,  as  governor  to  the  Stadtholder 
during  his  minority,  had  had  the  principal  direction  of  aftairs, 
and  who  still  continued  to  aid  him  with  his  councils. 

The  city  of  Amsterdam,  which  had  always  been  distinguish- 
ed for  its  opposition  to  the  Stadtholder,  was  the  first  that  de- 
manded the  removal  of  the  Duke,  whom  they  blamed  as  the 


132  CHAPTER  IX. 

cause  of  the  languid  state  of  their  maritime  power.  That 
jirince  was  compelled  to  resign,  (17S4,)  and  even  to  withdraw 
from  the  territories  of  the  Republic.  The  retirement  of  the  Duke 
emboldened  the  opponents  of  the  Stadtholder,  who  soon  wentbe- 
vond  all  bounds.  That  party,  purely  aristocratic  in  its  origin,  had 
been  afterwards  reinforced  hy  a  multitude  of  democrats,  who, 
not  contented  with  humbling  the  Stadtholder,  attacked  even 
the  power  of  the  magistrates  ;  and  tried  to  change  ;he  constitu- 
tion, by  rendering  the  government  more  popular  and  dcmocra''.... 
In.  the  principaF  towns,  associations  were  formed  under  the 
name  of  Free  Bodies,  for  exercising  the  citizens  in  the  manage- 
ment of  arms.  The  party  opposed  to  the  Stadtholder  took  the 
name  of  Patriots.  They  were  secretly  supported  by  France, 
who  wished  to  employ  them  as  an  instrument  for  destroying  the 
influence  of  England,  and  attaching  the  Republic  to  her  own 
interests.  A  popular  insurrection,  which  happened  at  the  Hague 
(17So,)  furnished  the  States  of  Holland  with  a  pretext  for  re- 
moving the  Stadtholder  from  the  command  of  that  place,  which 
was  intrusted  to  a  Council.  This  blow,  stnick  at  a  prerogative 
which  Vv'-as  regarded  as  inherent  in  the  Stadtholdership,  induced 
the  Prince  of  Orange  to  quit  the  Hague,  and  fix  his  residence 
in  the  province  of  Guelders,  the  States  which  v\'ere  most  par- 
ticularly devoted  to  him.  An  attack  which  the  prince  made 
against  the  towns  of  Elburg  and  Hattem,  for  refusing  to  ex- 
ec Lite  the  orders  which  he  had  intimated  to  them  in  the  name 
of  the  States  of  Guelders,  exasperated  the  minds  of  the  Dutch. 
It  added  to  the  strength  of  the  Patriotic  party,  and  encouraged 
the  Slates  of  Holland  to  make  a  renev.'ed  attack  on  the  Stad- 
tholdership ;  and  even  to  go  so  far  as  to  suspend  the  prmce  from 
the  functions  of  Captain-General  of  that  province. 

The  Court  of  Berlin  had  taken  measures,  both  with  the 
Slates-General  and  the  province  of  Holland,  to  facilitate  an  ac- 
commodation between  the  two  parties.  Frederic  William  II. 
who  succeeded  his  uncle  Frederic  the  Great,  (17S6,)  sent  to  the 
Hague,  with  this  vievv%  the  Count  de  Gortz,  his  minister  of  state  ; 
while  M.  Gerard  de  Rayneval  was  ordered  to  repair  thither  on 
the  part  of  France.  A  negotiation  was  opened  between  these 
two  ministers  and  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Patriotic  party, 
but  Avithout  effect.  Their  animosities  rather  increased,  and  the 
Patriots  broke  out  into  every  kind  of  violence.  They  dismis- 
sed the  magistrates  of  the  chief  towns  by  force,  and  replaced 
t'aem  by  their  own  adherents  ;  a  step  which  obliged  the  aristo- 
crats to  coalesce  with  the  Stadtholder's  party,  in  order  to  with- 
stand the  fury  of  the  republicans.  A  civil  war  seemed  to  all 
.appearance  inevitable.     In  this  state  of  matters,  the  Princess  of 


Destruction  of  the  Bastile  at  Paris  by  the  People 
Vol.  2,  p.  145. 


Execution  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France.     Vol .  2,  p.  1 5 1 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  133 

Orangfe  took  the  resolution  of  repairing  in  person  to  the  Hague, 
with  the  design,  as  she  alleged,  of  endeavouring  to  restore 
peace.  She  was  arrested  on  her  route  by  a  detachment  of  the 
republican  corps  of  Gouda  (June  28,  1787,)  and  conducted  to 
Schcenhoven,  whence  she  was  obliged  to  return  to  Nimeguen, 
without  being  able  to  accomplish  the  object  of  her  journey. 

The  King  of  Prussia  demanded  satisfaction  for  this  outrage 
offered  to  his  sister.  The  States  of  Holland,  not  feeling  dis- 
posed to  give  it  in  the  terms  which  the  King  demanded,  he  sent 
a  body  of  20,000  men  to  Holland,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  Avho,  in  the  space  of  a  month,  made  him- 
self master  of  the  whole  country,  and  even  obliged  the  city  ot 
Amsterdam  to  submit.  All  the  former  resolutions  which  had 
been  taken  for  limiting  the  power  of  the  Stadtholder,  were  then 
annulled,  and  the  prince  was  re-established  in  the  plenitude  of 
his  rights. 

Although  the  subsistence  of  the  alliance  between  France  and 
the  Republic  was  obviously  connected  with  the  cause  of  the 
Patriots,  the  former  took  no  steps  to  support  that  party,  or  to 
oppose  the  invasion  of  the  Prussians.  France  had  even  the 
weakness  to  negotiate  with  the  Court  of  London,  for  disarming 
their  respective  troops  ;  declaring,  that  she  entertained  no  hos- 
tile intentions  relative  to  what  had  passed  in  Holland.  The  po- 
litics of  the  States-General  from  that  time,  underwent  a  com- 
plete revolution.  Renouncing  their  alliance  with  France,  they 
embraced  that  of  Prussia  and  Great  Britain.  By  the  treaties 
which  were  signed  at  Berlin  and  the  Hague  (April  15,  1788,) 
these  two  powers  undertook  to  guarantee  the  resolutions  of 
1747  and  1748,  which  made  the  Stadtholdership  hereditary 
in  the  House  of  Orange.  France  thus  shamefully  lost  the 
fruits  of  all  the  measures  which  she  had  taken,  and  the  sums 
which  she  had  lavished  for  attaching  Holland  to  her  federative 
system,  in  opposition  to  England. 

The  troubles  v/hich  we  have  just  now  mentioned  were  soon 
followed  by  others,  which  the  innovations  of  the  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II.  had  excited  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  The  differ- 
ent edicts  which  that  Prince  had  published  since  the  first  of 
January  1787,  for  introducing  a  new  order  of  adminisU'ation  in 
the  Government,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  of  the  Belgic  pro- 
vinces, were  regarded  by  the  States  of  that  country  as  contra/^y 
to  the  established  constitution,  and  incompatible  with  the  en- 
gagements contracted  by  the  sovereign  on  his  accession.  The 
great  excitement  which  these  innovations  caused,  induced  the 
Emperor  to  recall  his  edicts,  and  to  restore  things  to  their  an- 
cient footing.     Nevertheless,  as  the  public  mind  had  been  exas- 

VOL.  IT.  12 


134  CHAPTEB  IX. 

perated  on  both  sides,  disturbances  were  speedily  renewed.  The 
Emperor  having  demanded  a  subsidy,  which  was  refused  by  tlie 
States  of  Brabant  and  Hainault,  this  circumstance  induced  him 
to  revoke  the  amnesty  which  he  had  granted  ;  to  suppress  the 
States  and  Sovereign  Council  of  Brabant ;  and  to  declare,  that 
he  no  longer  considered  himself  bound  by  his  Inaugural  Con- 
tract. A  great  number  of  individuals,  and  several  members  of 
the  States,  were  arrested  by  his  orders.  The  Archbishop  of 
Mechlin,  and  the  Bishop  of  Antwei-p,  were  suspected  of  having 
fomented  these  disturbances,  and  saved  themselves  by  flight. 

Two  factions  at  that  time  agitated  the  Belgic  Provinces,  Vvdiere 
they  fanned  the  flame  of  civil  discord.  The  one,  headed  by  Vonk, 
an  advocate,  and  supported  by  the  Dukes  of  Ursel  and  Arem- 
berg,  inclined  to  the  side  of  Austria.  These  limited  their  de- 
mands to  the  reformation  of  abuses,  and  a  better  system  of  re- 
presentation in  the  States  of  the  Netherlands.  The  other,  under 
the  direction  of  Vandenioot,  and  the  Pensionary  Vaneupen, 
while  adhering  to  the  support  of  the  ancient  forms,  pretended  to 
vest  in  the  States,  that  sovereignty  and  independence  of  which 
they  wished  to  deprive  the  House  of  Austria.  The  partisans  of 
Vonk  hoped  to  effect,  by  their  own  means,  the  reforms  which 
they  had' in  view;  while  the  adherents  of  Vandernoot  founded 
their  hopes  on  the  assistance  of  foreigners — especially  of  Prussia, 
who  would  not  fail,  they  supposed,  to  seize  this  occasion  of  weak- 
ening the  power  of  Austria.  This  latter  party  had  undertaken 
to  open  an  asylum  for  the  discontented  emigrants  of  Brabant,  in 
the  territory  of  the  United  Provinces  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Breda.  The  two  parties  acted  at  first  in  concert.  Vandermerscb, 
a  native  of  Menin  in  Flanders,  and  formerly  a  Colonel  in  tha 
Austrian  service,  was  proposed  by  Vonk,  and  received  as  Gen- 
eral by  both  parties.  A  body  of  the  insurgents,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Vand'^rmersch,  marched  to  Turnhout  in  Brabant,  and 
repulsed  the  Austrians,  who  had  come  to  attack  them  under  the 
orders  of  General  Schroeder.  This  first  success  gave-a  stimu- 
iu.s  to  the  insurrection,  which  spread  from  Brabant  over  the  other 
Belgic  provinces.  The  Austrians  abandoned  by  degrees  all  the 
principal  towns  and  places,  and  retired  to  the  fortress  of  Luxem- 
burg. Vandernoot  made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Brussels. 
The  States  of  Brabant  assembled  in  that  city,  and  proclaimed 
their  independence  (Dec.  29,  1789.)  The  Emperor  Joseph  II. 
was  declared  to  have  forfeited  the  sovereignty,  by  having  viola- 
ted the  engagements  which  he  had  come  under  by  his  Inaugural 
Compact. 

_  The  example  of  Brabant  was  soon  followed  by  the  other  pro- 
vinces.    An  assembly  of  Deputies,  from  all  the  Belgic  provinces 


PERIOD  viii.     A.  D.  1713—1789.  135 

was  formed  at  Brussels  (Jan.  11,  1790.)  They  signed  an  Act, 
by  which  these  provinces  joined  in  a  confederacy,  under  the  title 
of  the  United  Belgic  States.  The  rights  of  sovereignty,  in  as 
far  as  regarded  their  common  defence,  vv'ere  vested  in  a  Con 
gress,  composed  of  deputies  from  the  different  provinces,  under 
the  name  oi  the  Sovei'eigii  Congress  of  tlte  Belgic  States.  Each 
province  preserved  its  independence,  and  the  exercise  of  the 
legislative  power.  Their  union  was  declared  permanent  and 
irrevocable.  They  meddled  neither  with  religion  nor  the  con- 
stitution, and  they  admitted  no  other  representatives  than  those 
who  had  been  already  nominated.  This  latter  determination 
highly  displeased  General  Vandermersch,  and  all  those  of  Vonk's 
party,  who  had  as  much  horror  for  an  oligarchy  in  the  States  as 
for  the  despotism  of  the  Court  of  Vienna,  The  party  of  the 
States  prevailed  nevertheless  by  the  influence  of  Vandernoot, 
and  the  instigations  of  the  priests  and  monks.  Vandermersch, 
and  all  the  zealous  partisans  of  reform,  were  removed  from  the 
management  of  affairs.  The  former  was  even  arrested,  and 
General  Schonfield  put  in  his  place.  Ruinous  impeachments 
and  imprisonments  were  the  consequences  of  this  triumph  of  the 
aristocratic  faction. 

These  divisions,  added  to  the  death  of  Joseph  II.,  which  hap- 
pened in  the  meantime,  produced  a  change  favourable  for  the 
interests  of  the  Court  of  Vienna..  Leopold  II.,  who  succeeded 
his  brother  on  the  throne  of  Austria,  seemed  disposed  to  termi- 
nate all  these  differences ;  and  the  Belgic  Congress,  seeing  they 
could  not  reckon  on  the  assistance  of  foreign  powers,  were  also 
desirous  of  coming  to  an  accommodation.  The  Court  of  Berlin 
had  refused  its  protection  to  the  Belgians,  and  that  of  London 
was  decidedly  opposed  to  their  independence.  These  two  courts, 
conjunctly  with  the  U-nited  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  inter- 
posed their  mediation  for  allaying  those  disturbances.  The 
Emperor  Leopold  solemnly  engaged,  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
three  mediating  powers,  to  govern  the  Netherlands  agreeably  to 
the  constitution,  laws,  and  privileges  which  had  been  in  force 
under  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa ;  never  to  do  any  thing  to 
their  prejudice  ;  and  to  annul  whatever  had  been  done  to  the 
contrary  under  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  A  declaration  published 
by  Leopold  (Nov.  1790,)  enjoined  all  his  Belgic  subjects  to  take 
anew  the  oath  of  allegiance.  That  Prince  gi'anted  a  general 
and  unconditional  pardon  to  all  those  who  should  lay  down  their 
arms  within  a  given  time.  All  the  provinces  in  succession  ac- 
knowledged their  allegiance.  Brussels  opened  her  gates  to  the 
Austrian  troops  (Dec.  2,  1790,)  and  the  patriots  Vaneupen  and 
Vandernoot  took  refuge  in  Holland. 


136  CHAPTER  IX. 

The  animosity  which  had  for  a  long  time  subsisted  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte,  occasioned  a  new  war  between  these  two 
powers  in  1787.  The  Turks  could  not  endure  the  humiliating 
conditions  which  the  late  treaties  with  Russia  had  imposed  on 
them.  The  high  tone  which  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg  used 
in  their  communications  with  the  Porte,  wounded  the  pride  of 
the  Ottomans  ;  and  the  extraordinary  journey  of  the  Empress 
to  Cherson  and  the  Crimea  (May  1787,)  in  which  she  was  ac- 
companied by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  created  alarm  even  in 
the  city  of  Constantinople.  The  inhabitants  of  that  capital 
thought  they  could  perceive,  in  that  journey,  a  premeditated  de- 
sign in  the  Courts  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna  to  annihilate 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  divide  the  spoil  between  them.  The 
Court  of  London,  supported  by  that  of  Berlin,  dexterously  fanned 
the  spark  which  lay  concealed  under  these  ashes.  They  wish- 
ed to  be  avenged  on  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg  for  the  difficul- 
ties which  she  had  thrown  in  the  way  of  renewing  their  treaty 
of  commerce ;  as  well  as  the  advantageous  conditions  which  she 
had  granted  to  France  by  the  commercial  treaty  concluded  with 
that  power.  The  great  activity  with  which  Russia  had  carried 
on  her  commerce  in  the  Black  Sea,  since  she  had  obtained  en- 
tire libert}^  by  her  treaties  with  the  Pone,  excited  likewise  the 
jealousy  of  England,  who  was  afraid  that  the  commercial  con- 
nexions which  she  maintained  with  that  power,  through  the 
Black  Sea,  might  thereby  be  destroyed.  The  Turks,  moreover, 
had  to  complain  of  the  Russian  Consul  in  Moldavia,  who,  as 
they  alleged,  sought  every  means  to  interrupt  the  peace  and  good 
understanding  between  the  two  Empires.  They  demanded  that 
he  should  be  recalled,  and  moreo\'er,  that  the  Empress  should 
renounce  the  protection  of  Prince  Heraclius,  and  withdraw  her 
troops  from  Georgia.  Finally,  they  wished  that  all  Russian 
vessels  that  passed  the  Straits  should  be  subjected  to  an  exami- 
nation, in  order  to  prevent  contraband  trade. 

These  demands  were  no  sooner  made,  than  the  Divan,  with- 
out waiting  for  an  answer  from  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg, 
determined  to  proclaim  war  (Aug.  18,  1787,)  by  sending  the 
Russian  minister,  M.  de  Boulgakoff,  to  the  Castle  of  the  Seven 
Towers.  On  the  news  of  this  rupture,  the  Empress  despatched 
a  considerable  force  against  the  Turks  ;  her  troops  extended 
from  Kaminiec  in  Podolia,  to  Balta,  a  Tartar  village  on  the 
frontiers  of  Poland,  between  the  Dniester  and  the  Bog.  Prince 
Potemkin,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  arm}^  had  under  him 
Suwarow,  Repnin,  Kamenskoi,  and  others.  The  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II.,  after  having  for  some  time  supported  the  character  of 
mediator  between  the  Turks  and  Russians,  engaged  in  the  war 


PERIOD  VIII.      A.  D.  1713— 17S9.  13? 

as  the  ally  of  Kussia  (Feb.  9,  1788.)  He  attacked  the  Turks 
in  Moldavia,  and  on  several  points  of  Hungary.  Marshal  Lau- 
don  undertook  the  siege  of  Belgrade,  of  which  he  made  himself 
master  (Oct.  S,  1789.)  It  was  obvious,  however,  that  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Austrians  did  not  correspond  either  to  the  ability  of 
their  generals  or  the  superiorily  of  their  arms. 

Another  enemy  of  Russia  appeared  on  the  stage.  Gustavus 
III.,  King  of  Sweden,  listened  to  the  insinuations  of  the  Cabi- 
nets of  London  and  Berlin,  and  made  a  diversion  in  favour  of 
the  Porte.  That  prince,  after  renewing  his  alliance  with  the 
Porte,  commenced  the  war  against  Russia,  at  the  very  instant 
when  the  whole  of  her  forces  were  turned  against  the  Turks. 
A  land  army  was  formed  by  his  orders  in  Finland,  while  a 
Swedish  fleet,  consisting  of  twenty  ships  of  the  line  and  ten 
frigates,  advanced  on  Cronstadt,  and  threw  the  city  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg into  a  state  of  great  terror.  An  engagement  between 
the  two  fleets  took  place  near  the  Isle  of  Hoogland  (May  30, 
17S9.)  Both  sides  fought  with  equal  advantage  ;  but  an  un- 
foreseen event  disconcerted  the  measures  of  the  Swedish  mo- 
narch. After  he  had  made  his  dispositions  for  attacking  the 
city  of  Fredricksheim  in  Finland,  several  officers  of  his-  army 
refused  to  march,  alleging  as  a  reason,  that  the  constitution  of 
the  kingdom  would  not  permit  them  to  be  accessary  to  an  offen- 
sive war,  which  the  Swedish  nation  had  not  sanctioned.  The 
example  of  these  officers  occasioned  the  defection  of  a  great 
part  of  the  troops.  The  expedition  to  Finland  failed,  and  the 
Russians  thus  gained  time  to  put  themselves  in  a  state  of  defence. 

The  Empress,  thus  attacked  by  the  King  of  Sweden,  claimed 
the  supplies  v/hich  Denmark  owed  her,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance 
which  subsisted  between  the  tw^o  States.  The  Danes  fitted  out 
a  squadron,  and  marched  a  body  of  auxinary  troops  into  tne  go- 
vernment of  Bohus,  which  they  soon  conquered  (1788.)  From 
Bohus  they  marched  to  West  Gothland,  and  laid  siege  to  Got- 
tenburg.  The  King  of  Sweden  hastened  in  person  to  the  de- 
fence of  that  place,  one  of  the  most  important  in  his  kingdom. 
It  would  certainly  have  fallen,  however,  but  for  the  powerful 
intervention  of  the  Cabinets  of  London  and  Berlin,  wdio  oblig- 
ed the  Court  of  Copenhagen  to  conclude  the  different  truces 
with  Sweden  (1789,).  and  to  adopt  a  perfect  neutrality,  evfen 
with  the  consent  of  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  war  between  the  Swedes  and  the  Russians  v/as  then  con- 
fined to  naval  operations,  the  success  of  which,  in  the  campaigns 
of  1789  and  1790,  was  nearly  equal  on  both  sides.  The  defeat 
which  the  Swedish  fleet  sustained  in  the  Gulf  of  Viburg  f July 
3, 1790,)  was  compensated  by  the  victory  which  the  King  of  Swe- 

VOL.  II.  12  ^' 


138  CHAPTER    IX. 

den  gained  in  person  (July  9,  10,)  at  Swenkasund  over  the 
Russian  fleet,  commanded  by  the  Prince  of  Nassciu-Siegen. 
This  action,  which  cost  the  Russians  many  men,  and  a  great 
number  of  their  ships,  tended  to  accelerate  the  peace  between 
the  two  powers.  The  King  of  Sweden  being  deserted  by  the 
Courts  of  London  and  Berlin,  who  had  drawn  him  into  the  war, 
was  terrified  lest  the  Russians  should  take  advantage  of  the  dis- 
contents that  prevailed  among  the  Swedish  Nobles,  to  penetrate 
into  the  interior  of  his  kingdom.  He  willingly  accepted  the 
equitable  conditions  which  the  Empress  of  Russia  proposed  to 
him.  Peace  was  concluded  in  the  Plain  of  Werela,  near  the 
river  Kymen  (Aug.  14,  1790,)  between  the  advanced  posts  of 
the  two  camps  :  and  the  limits  of  both  States  were  re-estab- 
lished on  the  footing  of  former  treaties. 

As  to  the  events  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  the  Porte, 
they  were  entirely  in  favour  of  the  former  power.  A  body  of 
Russian  troops,  in  conjunction  with  the  Austrian  army,  made 
themselves  masters  of  Choczim  (Sept.  1788.)  Prince  Potem- 
Kin  undertook  the  siege  of  the  important  fortress  of  Oczakofl 
(Dec.  17,)  and  carried  the  piace  by  assault,  in  spite  of  the  cou- 
rageous defence  made  by  the  Turks.  The  whole  garrison  was 
put  to  the  sword,  and  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  met  with 
the  same  fate.  Suwarow  and  the  Prince  of  Coburg  beat  the 
Turks  near  Focksani  in  Moldavia  (July  21,  1789.)  The  same 
General,  with  the  assistance  of  that  Prince,  gained  a  brilliant 
victory  over  the  Turks  near  Martinesti,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rymna  (Sept.  22,)  which  gained  him  the  epithet  of  RymnisM. 
The  taking  of  the  fortress  of  Bender,  was  an  immediate  conse- 
quence of  that  victory.  Besides  the  province  of  OczakofT,  the 
whole  of  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia,  with  Tulcza,  Isakzi,  Kilia,  and 
Ismael,  and  the  fortress  of  Sudjoukkale,  in  Turkish  Cuban,  fell 
successivelv  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  The  taking  of 
Ismael  by  Suwarow,  occasioned  prodigious  slaughter.  It  cost 
the  lives  of  30,000  Ottomans  ;  without  reckonmg  the  prisoners, 
who  amounted  to  the  number  of  10,000. 

These  victories  stirred  up  the  jealousy  of  the  British  minis- 
try, who  fitted  out  an  expedition  to  make  a  new  diversion  in  fa- 
vour of  the  Porte,  and  engaged  their  ally,  the  King  of  Prussia, 
to  despatch  a  body  of  troops  to  the  frontiers  of  Silesia  and 
Poland.  Not  confining  himself  to  these  operations,  that  Prince 
concluded  a  formal  alliance  with  the  Porte,  in  which  he  agreed 
to  declare  war  against  the  Austrians,  as  well  as  the  Russians,  in 
the  course  of  next  spring.  The  Emperor  Leopold  II.,  yielding 
to  these  menaces,  and  being  desirous  of  restoring  peace  to  his 
subjects,  concluded    an  agreement  at  Reichenbach  (July  27. 


PERIOD  VIII.     A.  D.  1713 — 1789.  139 

1790,)  with  the  Court  of  Berlin,  by  which  he  granted  an  armis- 
tice, and  consented  to  make  a  special  peace  with  the  Porte  on 
the  basis  of  the  status  ante  helium.  This  peace  was  signed 
at  Szistowa,  in  Bulgaria  (Aug.  4,  1791,)  under  the  mediation 
of  Holland  and  Prussia.  The  Emperor  restored  Belgrade,  and 
in  general,  all  that  he  had  taken  from  the  Turks  during  the 
war.  He  agreed  to  retain  Choczim  no  longer  than  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  peace  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks  ;  only 
they  promised  him  a  more  advantageous  frontier  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  XJnna  ;  and  on  the  side  of  Wallachia,  the  river 
Tzerna  was  adopted  as  the  boundary  between  the  two  Empires. 

The  Empress  of  Russia  having  resolved  not  to  receive  the 
proposals  which  the  two  allied  courts  offered  her,  then  continued 
the  war  alone  against  the  Porte,  and  her  generals  signalized 
themselves  by  new  exploits.  At  length  the  British  ministry  be- 
ing convinced  that  this  Princess  would  never  yield,  thought  fit 
to  abandon  the  terms  v.diich,  in  concert  with  the  Court  of  Ber- 
lin, they  had  demanded,  as  the  basis  of  the  peace  to  be  conclud- 
ed between  Russia  and  the  Porte.  Besides,  they  were  desirous 
of  making  up  matters  with  Russia,  at  the  time  when  she  de- 
tached herself  from  France,  by  renouncing  the  engagements 
which  she  had  contracted  with  that  power  by  the  treaty  of  com- 
merce of  17S7,  with  the  Court  of  Berlin.  The  British  minis- 
try agi'eed  never  to  assist  the  Turks,  should  they  persist  in  re- 
fusing the  equitable  conditions  of  peace  which  the  Empress  had 
offered  them. 

A  negotiation  was  opened  at  Galatz  on  the  Danube.  The 
preliminaries  between  Russia  and  the  Porte  were  signed  there; 
and  the  definitive  peace  concluded  at  Jassy  in  Moldavia  (Jan. 
9,  1792.)  This  treaty  renewed  the  stipulations  of  all  former 
treaties  since  that  of  Kainargi.  The  Dniester  was  establishea 
as  a  perpetual  frontier  between  the  two  Empires.  The  Turks 
ceded  to  Russia  the  fortress  of  Oczakotf,  with  all  the  country 
lying  between  the  Bog  and  the  Dniester.  The  cession  of  the 
Crimea,  the  isle  of  Taman,  and  part  of  the  Cuban,  lying  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  of  that  name,  was  confirmed  to  Russia. 
The  Porte  likewise  engaged  to  put  a  stop  to  the  piracies  of  the 
Barbary  Corsairs,  and  even  to  indemnify  the  subjects  of  Russia 
for  their  losses,  should  they  not  obtain  reparation  within  a  lim- 
ited time.  Russia  likewise  restored  all  her  other  conquests ; 
only  stipulating,  for  certain  advantages,  in  favour  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia. 

It  had  been  agreed  between  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  two 
Empires,  that  the  Porte  should  pay  a  sum  of  12,000,000  of 
piasters,  to  indemnify  Russia  for  the  expenses  of  the  war.    But 


140  CHAPTER  X. 

immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  the  Empress  gave 
intimation  that  she  would  renounce  this  payment  in  favour  of 
the  Porte ;  a  piece  of  generosity  which  excited  the  admiration 
of  the  Ottoman  plenipotentiaries.  The  peace  of  Jassy  gave 
new  energy  to  the  commerce  of  the  Russians  on  the  Black 
Sea ;  and  the  Empress  founded  the  town  and  port  of  Odessa, 
which  is  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Black  Sea,  between  the  Bog 
and  the  Dniester,  about  nine  leagues  distant  from  Oczakoff. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PERIOD  IX. 


From  the  commencement  of  the  French  Pvevolutioii  to  the  down- 
fall of  Buo7iaparie.     a.  d.  1789—1815. 

"  The  period  of  the  French  Revolution,  on  which  we  are  en- 
tering, does  not  comprehend  more  than  twenty-five  years  ;  but 
that  short  space  contains  more  lessons  of  important  instruction 
than  the  two  centuries  which  preceded  it.  In  course  of  that 
time,  the  condition  of  Europe  was  entirely  changed.  The  po- 
litical system,  which  it  had  cost  the  combined  labour  of  three 
hundred  years  to  rear,  was  overturned  from  its  basis,  burying 
kingdoms  and  whole  nations  in  the  ruins. 

It  was  an  era  fertile  in  examples  both  of  virtues  and  vices. 
It  displayed  the  extremes  of  suffering  and  violence,  of  meanness 
and  magnanimity.  Kingdoms  rose  and  disappeared  by  turns. 
New  principles  in  morals  and  politics  flourished  for  a  day,  and 
were  quickly  superseded  by  others.  Europe  was  subdued  and 
enslaved,  first  in  the  name  of  liberty  and  equality,  and  after- 
wards to  gratify  the  ambition  of  a  conqueror.  At  length  an 
end  was  put  to  this  reign  of  despotism  ;  and  the  nations  of  the 
Continent  were  delivered  from  a  usurpation  which  they  had  too 
long  supported  with  patience. 

The  system  of  political  equilibrium  invented  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  established  by  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  and 
Utrecht,  was  totally  overthrown  by  France,  during  the  period  of 
which  we  speak.  Two  causes  accelerated  its  downfall.  The 
first  was  the  violation  of  its  fundamental  principles,  by  the  three 
powers  who  dismembered  Poland, — an  act  which  made  justice' 
and  equity  yield  to  convenience,  and  set  an  example  that  might 
prove  dangerous  to  their  own  security.  The  other  was  the 
general  belief  which  prevailed  in  the  Cabinets  of  Europe,  that 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1789 — 1815.  141 

the  project  of  founding  an  universal  monarchy  was  for  ever 
hopeless  and  visionary — a  persuasion  which  had  lulled  them 
into  a  state  of  fatal  repose.  This  project,  however,  which  they 
thought  impracticable,  was  actually  carried  into  execution ; 
though  it  appeared  under  a  new  form.  The  daring  individual 
who  conceiv^ed  the  design,  gave  it  the  name  of  the  Federative 
System.  By  his  plan,  the  different  States  on  the  Continent  were 
to  preserve  an  apparent  independence,  .vhenever  this  did  not 
thwart  his  own  views  ;  but  their  policy  was  to  be  entirely  sub- 
servient to  his  interest,  and  to  be  regulated  according  to  his  di- 
rection. In  this  manner  he  undertook  to  conquer  the  whole 
world,  with  the  aid  of  the  Federal  States,  who  were  obliged  to 
espouse  his  quarrels,  and  to  make  common  cause  with  him 
against  every  power  that  refused  to  submit  voluntarily  to  his 
sway,  or  to  that  of  his  family,  whom  he  placed  as  his  vassals  op 
some  of  the  most  ancient  thrones  of  Europe. 

To  this  was  added  another,  which  he  called  the  Continental 
System.  Its  main  object  was  to  exclude  Great  Britain  from  all 
commerce  with  the  other  European  states.  By  this  means  he 
hoped  to  deprive  her  of  the  command  of  the  sea,  of  which  she 
was  now  undisputed  mistress  ;  to  annihilate  her  commerce  ;  cut 
off  the  sources  of  her  wealth ;  ruin  her  marine  ;  and  even  to 
overthrow  the  constitution,  which  had  so  long  been  the  boast  and 
happiness  of  the  English  nation.  Had  it  been  possible  to  carry 
this  project  into  execution,  the  Continent  must  necessarily  have 
been  impoverished  and  ruined. 

The  twenty-five  years  of  which  we  are  now  to  give  a  brief 
outline,  are  so  crowded  Avith  events,  that,  for  the  sake  of  perspi- 
cuity, it  will  be  necessary  to  divide  them  into  separate  periods. 
In  the  history  of  France,  the  natural  divisions  are  the  five  fol- 
lowing, viz.  (1.)  From  the  opening  of  the  States-General,  May 
5,  1789,  till  the  abolition  of  Monarchy  and  the  Constitutional 
Government,  Aug.  10,  1792.  (2.)  The  Reign  of  Terror ;  from 
Aug.  10,  1792,  till  Oct.  26,  1795,  when  the  Convention  ceased 
to  govern  France.  (3.)  The  Republican  Government;  from 
Oct.  26,  1795  till  May  18,  1804,  when  Buonaparte  was  declared 
Emperor.  (4.)  The  Reign  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte  ;  from  May 
18,  1804,  till  March  30,  1814,  when  the  Allies  entered  Paris. 
(5.)  The  Restoration  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  after  an  exile  of 
more  than  twenty  years. 

These  divisions  point  oufe-  the  most  remarkable  changes  that 
occurred  in  France  during  this  period.  Nevertheless,  as  we 
must  notice  the  events  which  took  place  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  a 
more  convenient  division  will  be  as  follows.  (1.)  From  the 
commencement   of  the   French   Revolution  till   the   Peace  of 


142  CHAPTER    X. 

Amiens,  March  27,  1802.  (2.)  From  the  Peace  of  Amiens  till 
the  year  1810,  when  the  power  of  France  was  at  its  greatest 
height.  (3.)  From  the  end  of  the  year  ISIO,  till  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  in  November  1815,  which  includes  the  decline  and  fall  ot 
the  French  Empire  under  Buonaparte,  and  the  restoration  of  a 
new  political  system  in  Europe.  After  giving  a  sketch  of  the 
various  events  which  happened  in  France,  we  shall  shortly  ad- 
vert to  the  revolution  which  the  different  states  of  Europe  un 
derwent  during  the  same  time.  The  affairs  of  other  parts  of 
the  world  can  only  be  taken  notice  of,  as  they  may  happen  to  be 
connected  or  interwoven  with  those  of  Europe. 

We  now  return  to  the  first  of  these  periods,  commencing  with 
the  origin  of  the  French  Revolution  (May  1789,)  and  ending 
with  the  Peace  of  Amiens. 

The  primary  and  elementary  causes  of  the  Revolution  in 
France  must  be  traced  back  to  the  disordered  state  of  her  finan- 
ces, which  began  under  Louis  XIV. ;  to  the  general  immorality 
which  prevailed  under  the  Regent  Orleans ;  to  the  mal-admin- 
istration  of  the  government  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  ;  and, 
finally,  to  the  new  doctrines,  both  religious  and  political,  which 
had  become  fashionable  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

It  is  not  to  be  denied,  that  there  were  many  abuses  in  the  ex- 
isting government  of  France  that  required  to  be  corrected.  The 
royal  prerogative  at  that  time,  may  be  called  arbitrary  rather 
than  despotic,  for  the  Monarch  had,  in  reality,  greater  power 
than  he  exercised.  The  persons  and  properties  of  the  subject 
were  at  the  disposal  of  the  crown,  by  means  of  imposts,  confis- 
cations, letters  of  exile,  &c.  ;  and  this  dangerous  authority  was 
resisted  only  by  the  feeblest  barriers.  Certain  bodies,  it  is  true, 
possessed  means  of  defence,  but  these  privileges  were  seldom 
respected.  The  noblesse  were  exempted  from  contributions  to 
the  state,  and  totally  separated  from  the  commons,  by  the  prohi- 
bition of  intermarriages.  The  clergy  were  also  exempted  from 
taxation,  for  which  they  substituted  voluntary  grants.  Besides 
these  oppressive  imposts,  the  internal  administration  was  badly 
organized.  The  nation,  divided  into  three  orders,  which  were 
again  subdivided  into  several  classes,  was  abandoned  to  all  the 
evils  of  despotism,  and  all  the  miseries  of  partial  representation. 
The  noblesse  were  divided  into  courtiers,  who  lived  on  the  fa- 
vour of  the  prince,  and  who  had  no  common  sympathies  with 
the  people.  They  held  stations  in  the  army  for  which  they 
were  not  qualified,  and  made  a  trade  of  all  appointments  and 
offices  of  trust.  The  clergy  were  divided  into  two  classes,  one 
of  which  was  destined  for  the  bishoprics  and  abbacies  with  their 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1815.  143 

rich  revenues,  while  the  other  was  destined  to  poverty  and  la- 
bour. The  commons  scarcely  possessed  a  third  part  of  the 
soil,  for  which  they  were  compelled  to  pay  feudal  services  to  the 
territorial  barons,  tithes  to  the  priests,  and  taxes  to  the  King. 
Tn  compensation  for  so  many  sacrifices,  they  enjoyed  no  rights, 
had  no  share  in  the  administration,  and  were  admitted  to  no  pub- 
lic employments. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  France  when  Louis  XVI.  ascended 
the  throne.  This  order  of  things  could  not  continue  for  ever; 
but  with  proper  caution  and  skilful  management,  many  salutary 
improvements  might  have  been  introduced,  without  plunging 
the  nation  into  rebellion  and  anarchy.  Louis  XVL  had  just 
views  and  amiable  dispositions  ;  but  he  was  without  decision  of 
character,  and  had  no  perseverance  in  his  measures.  His  pro- 
jects for  regenerating  the  State  encountered  obstacles  which  he 
had  not  foreseen,  and  which  he  found  it  impossible  to  overcome. 
He  was  continually  vacillating  in  the  choice  of  his  ministers ; 
and  his  reign,  up  to  the  assembling  of  the  States-General,  was 
a  complication  of  attempted  reforms,  which  produced  no  benefi- 
cial result.  Maurepas,  Turgot,  and  Malesherbes,  had  been  succes- 
sively intrusted  with  the  management  of  affairs  ;  but  tliey  found 
it  impossible  to  give  satisfaction  to  any  party.  Their  efiorts  for 
retrenchment  displeased  the  courtiers,  while  the  people  v.^ere  dis- 
contented at  the  continuation  of  existing  abuses.  The  exhaust- 
ed state  in  which  the  American  war  had  left  the  finances  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  unskilfulness  of  the  ministers  :  one  of  whom, 
the  celebrated  Necker,  could  contrive  no  other  method  of  repair- 
ing these  losses,  than  by  means  of  forced  loans,  which  augment- 
ed the  national  debt,  and  added  to  the  other  embarrassments  of 
the  government.  The  plan  of  M.  de  Calonne,  another  of  the 
ministers,  v/as  to  assemble  the  Notables,  or  respectable  and  dis- 
tinguished persons  of  the  kingdom  (Feb.  23,  1787,)  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  through  their  means  those  new  imposts  which 
he  could  not  expect  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris. 
But  this  assembly  seemed  little  disposed  to  second  his  designs. 
They  discovered,  with  astonishment,  that  within  a  few  years 
loans  had  been  raised  to  the  amount  of  one  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  forty-six  millions  of  francs  :  and  that  there  was  an  an- 
nual deficit  in  the  revenue  of  one  hundred  and  forty  miUions. 
This  discovery  was  the  signal  for  the  retirement  of  Calonno. 

His  successor.  Cardinal  Brienne,  the  Archbishop  of  Toulouse, 
tried  in  vain  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Parliament,  who 
declared,  by  a  solemn  protestation  (May  3,  17SS,)  that  the  right 
of  granting  supplies  belonged  to  the  States-General  alone.  Louis 
XVL,  yielding  to  this  expression  of  the  public  opinion,  promised 


144  CHAPTER  X. 

to  assemble  the  deputies  of  the  nation.  A  second  meeting  of 
the  Notables,  held  at  Versailles  (Nov.  6,)  deliberated  as  to  the 
form  and  constitution  of  the  States-General.  M.  Necker,  who 
was  recalled  to  the  ministry,  counselled  the  King  to  prefer  the 
advice  of  the  minority,  who  had  espoused  the  popular  side  ;  and 
proposed  to  grant  to  the  Ticrs-Etat,  or  Third  Order,  a  double 
number  of  Representatives  in  the  States-General ;  which  advice 
was  followed. 

The  States-General  were  summoned  to  meet  at  Versailles  on 
the  27th  of  April  1789.  The  number  of  deputies  was  twelve 
hundred ;  six  hundred  of  whom  were  of  the  Tiers-Etat,  three 
hundred  of  the  noblesse,  and  three  hundred  of  the  clergy.  The  ' 
King  opened  the  assembly  in  person  (May  5,  1789.)  It  was 
accompanied  with  great  solemnity  and  magnificence.  The  clergy 
occupied  the  first  place  ;  next  came  the  noblesse.  The  Tiers- 
Etat  followed  last.  These  individuals  comprehended  the  choice 
of  the  nation  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  were  entirely  inex- 
perienced in  state  affairs,  and  not  a  few  of  them  were  imbued 
with  the  principles  of  the  new  philosophy.  The  majority  pro- 
posed to  regenerate  the  government  according  to  their  own  specu- 
lative notions  ;  while  others  secretly  entertained  the  hope  of 
overturning  it,  to  gratify  their  own  antipathies ;  or  to  satiate 
their  avarice  and  ambition. 

A  difTerence  immediately  arose  on  the  question,  whether  they 
should  sit  according  to  their  orders.  Conciliatory  measures 
having  been  tried  in  vain,  the  deputies  of  the  Tiers-Etat  resolved 
to  declare  themselves  a  Natioyial  Assembhj.  The  King  having 
ordered  them  to  suspend  their  sittings,  they  changed  their  place 
of  assembly  to  a  Tennis  Court,  where,  in  opposition  to  the  Royal 
authority,  they  took  an  oath  never  to  separate  until  they  had 
achieved  the  regeneration  of  France.  The  majority  of  the 
clergy,  and  some  of  the  nobles,  joined  this  tumultuous  assembly. 
Louis  XVI.,  by  a  Royal  Sessioji  (June  23,)  condemned  the  con- 
duct of  this  meeting  ;  abrogated  its  decisions  ;  and  published  a 
declaration  containing  the  basis  of  a  free  constitution.  But  the 
authority  of  the  King  had  now  ceased  to  be  respected.  The 
National  Assembly  refused  to  accept  from  him  as  a  boon,  what 
they  were  preparing  to  seize  by  force.  Alarmed  at  this  opposi- 
tion, Louis  commanded  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  to  join  the 
popular  party,  or  Tiers-Etat,  as  a  measure  for  conciliating  the 
public  mind. 

The  prime  agent  in  this  revolution  was  Mirabeau,  a  man  of 
an  ambitious  and  turbulent  spirit,  who  inflamed  the  Assembly 
by  his  violent  harangues.  A  demagogue  from  interest,  and  of 
good  abilities,  though  immoral  in  his  character,  he  was  resolved 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1815.  145 

to  build  his  fortune  on  the  pubUc  troubles,  and  to  prevent,  by  all 
means  in  his  power,  the  first  symptoms  of  a  return  to  subordina- 
tion and  tranquillity.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  supplied  money 
to  corrupt  the  troops,  and  excite  insurrections  over  all  parts  of 
France. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  King  assembled  an  army  at  Versailles, 
under  the  command  of  Marshal  Broglio ;  and  banished  Necker 
(July  11,)  with  whom  he  had  some  just  reasons  to  be  displeased. 
This  was  the  signal  for  a  popular  commotion.  Paris  was  in  a 
state  of  the  greatest  fermentation.  The  press  inflamed  the  pub- 
lic mind.  The  people  discussed  in  the  open  air  those  questions 
which  v/ere  agitated  in  the  Assembly.  A  table  served  the  pur- 
pose of  a  rostrum ;  and  every  citizen  became  an  orator,  who 
harangued  on  the  dangers  of  his  country,  and  the  necessity  of 
resistance.  The  mob  forced  the  Bastille  (July  14,)  seized  on  the 
depots  of  arms,  mounted  the  tri-coloured  cockade,  which  was  the 
distinctive  banner  of  the  city  of  Paris,  and  became  that  of  the 
apostles  of  the  revolution.  Bailly,  the  academician,  was  appoint- 
ed mayor ;  the  citizens  formed  themselves  into  a  National  Guards 
under  the  command  of  the  Marquis  La  Fayette.  The  King, 
placed  in  so  critical  a  situation,  and  surrouuded  with  danger, 
consented  to  withdraw  the  troops  collected  in  the  capital  and 
the  neighbourhood.  He  recalled  M.  Necker,  (July  17,)  and  re- 
paired to  Paris  to  intimate  his  good  intentions  to  the  Assembly ; 
declaring,  that  he  identified  himself  with  the  nation,  and  relied 
on  the  affection  and  allegiance  of  his  subjects. 

The  National  Assembly  had  usurped  the  whole  legislative 
power,  and  undertaken  to  draw  up  a  new  constitution.  Their 
charter  commenced  with  a  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man. 
Such  was  the  ardour  of  their  revolutionary  enthusiasm,  that  they 
abolished,  without  discussion,  and  at  one  nocturnal  sitting,  the 
feudal  regime,  the  rights  and  privileges  of  provinces  and  corpo- 
rations, the  tithes,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  seignorial  preroga- 
tives. It  was  decreed  (Aug.  4,)  that  the  legislative  power  should 
be  exercised  by  a  single  chamlDer ;  and  that  the  King  could  not 
refuse  his  sanction  to  these  decrees  longer  than  four  years. 

As  the  Revolution  did  not  proceed  with  a  rapidity  equal  to  the 
wishes  of  the  Orleans  faction,  they  took  care  to  stir  up  ne\v  insur- 
rections. The  mob  of  Paris  attacked  Versailles  (Oct.  6,)  in- 
vested the  Chateau,  committed  the  most  horrible  excesses,  and 
conducted  the  King  and  his  family  prisoners  to  Paris,  where 
they  were  followed  by  the  National  Assembly.  These  legisla- 
tors decreed  the  spoliation  of  the  clergy,  by  placing  their  benefices 
at  the  disposal  of  the  nation.  They  ordered  the  division  of 
France  into  eighty-three  departments ;  the  sale  of  the  crown- 

VOL.  II.  13 


43  CHAPTER  X. 

iands,  and  ecclesiastical  property  ;  the  proceeds  of  which  to  he 
pledged  for  the  redemption  of  the  paper  money,  which  was  or- 
dered to  be  issued,  under  the  name  of  assi gnats  ;  the  admission 
of  Jews  to  the  rights  of  citizens;  the  prohibition  of  monastic 
vows ;  the  right  of  the  National  Assembly  to  declare  war,  in 
consequence  of  a  proposition  from  the  King ;  a  secular  constitu- 
tion, which  rendered  the  clergy  independent  of  the  head  of  the 
church,  and  gave  the  people  a  right  to  nominate  their  bishops  ; 
the  abolition  of  the  noblesse  ;  and  the  establishment  of  a  tribunal 
at  Orleans,  for  judging  crimes  of  high  treason  against  the  nation. 

Occupied  with  these  decrees  (1790-91,)  the  National  Assem- 
bly left  the  King  no  authority  to  repress  the  crimes  and  excesses 
which  were  multiplying  every  day  within  the  kingdom ;  nor  did 
they  adopt  themselves  any  measures  for  putting  a  stop  to  them. 
The  King,  indeed,  according  to  the  plan  of  their  constitution, 
was,  to  be  the  depository  and  supreme  head  of  the  executive 
power ;  but  he  had  been  stripped  of  the  means  necessary  to  the 
effective  exercise  of  any  authority  whatever.  He  had  neither 
places  to  grant,  nor  favours  to  bestow.  He  was  left  without  any 
control  over  the  inferior  parts  of  the  administration,  since  the 
men  who  filled  these  posts  were  elected  by  the  people.  He  was 
not  even  allowed  the  pomp  of  a  throne,  or  the  splendour  of  a 
crown.  The  Assembly  seemed  to  think  it  a  part  of  their  glory 
to  divest  their  monarch  of  his  most  valuable  prerogatives.  They 
imagined  that  a  monarchy  could  subsist  when  its  authority  was 
reduced  to  a  phantom  ;  that  the  throne  could  stand  secure  amidst 
the  ruin  of  ranks  ;  exposed  to  all  the  waves  of  faction,  and  when 
every  sentiment  of  respect  and  affection  was  destroyed.  Such 
was  the  idea  of  royalty  entertained  by  the  French  legislators. 
By  abolishing  the  gradations  of  society,  they  sapped  the  very 
foundations  of  that  frail  and  imaginary  majesty  which  they  had 
modelled  and  fashioned  according  to  their  own  ideas.  Thousands 
of  noble  families,  finding  their  lives  insecure,  resolved  to  abandon 
the  country.  The  King  himself  made  an  attempt  to  escape  from 
the  captivity  in  which  he  was  held.  He  did  escape  in  disguise, 
but  was  recognised,  and  arrested  at  Varcnnes  by  the  National 
Guard  (June  25,)  reconducted  to  Paris,  and  suspended  from  his 
functions.  Monsieur,  the  King's  brother,  was  more  fortunate. 
He  arrived  at  Brussels.  The  Count  D'Artois,  the  younger 
brother,  had  quitted  -France  the  year  before. 

The  Orleans  party  undertook  to  compel  the  National  Assem- 
bly to  pronounce  the  deposition  of  the  King.  A  large  assemblage, 
which  had  met  in  the  Champs^de-Mars  (July  17,  1791,)  was  dis- 
persed by  an  armed  force,  by  order  of  Bailly,  and  commanded 
by  La  Fayette.     The  moderate  party  in  the  National  Assembly 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  147 

had  gained  the  ascendancy.  The  constitutional  articles  were 
revised  in  some  points,  and  digested  into  a  systematic  form. 
The  King  accepted  this  new  code  (Sept.  13;)  and  there  was 
every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  resolved  to  carry  it  into  exe- 
cution. The  Constituent  Assembly,  aftei  having  declared  Avig- 
non and  Venaissin  annexed  to  France,  separated  (Sept.  30,)  to 
make  way  for  a  Legislative  Assembly. 

The  Royal  brothers  and  most  of  the  emigrants,  having  fixed 
their  residence  at  Coblentz,  published  addresses  to  all  the  Courts 
of  Europe,  to  solicit  their  assistance  in  restoring  the  King,  and 
checking  the  revolutionary  torrent  which  threatened  to  inundate 
Germany.  The  Princes  of  the  Empire,'  who  had  possessions  in 
Alsace,  found  themselves  aggrieved  by  the  decrees  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  in  respect  to  those  rights  which  had  been 
guaranteed  to  them  on  the  faith  of  existing  treaties.  They  ac- 
cordingly claimed  the  intervention  of  the  Emperor  and  the 
Empire.  The  Electors  of  Mayence  and  Treves  had  permitted 
the  French  noblesse  to  organize  bodies  of  armed  troops  within 
their  estates.  After  the  arrest  of  the  King  at  Varennes,  the 
Emperor  Leopold  had  addressed  a  circular  to  all  his  brother 
Sovereigns,  dated  from  Padua  (July  6,)  in  which  he  invited  them 
to  form  an  alliance  for  restoring  the  King's  legitimate  author- 
ity in  France.  Accordingly,  an  alliance  was  concluded  at 
Vienna  a  few  days  after  between  Austria  and  Prussia^  the  object 
of  which  was  to  compel  France  to  maintain  her  treaties  with  the 
neighbouring  States.  The  two  monarchs,  who  met  at  Pilnitz 
(Aug.  27,)  declared  that  they  would  employ  the  most  efficacious 
means  for  leaving  the  King  of  France  at  perfect  liberty  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  monarchical  government.  But  after  Louis 
had  accepted  the  constitution  of  the  Assembly,  the  Emperor 
formally  announced  (Nov.  12,)  that  the  co-operation  of  the  con- 
tracting powers  was  in  consequence  suspended. 

In  a  moment  of  unreflecting  liberality,  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly had  formerly  declared,  that  none  of  its  members  could  be 
elected  for  the  first  Legislative  Assembly.  This  new  Assembly, 
which  met  Oct.  1,  1791,  was  composed  of  men  altogether  defi- 
cient in  experience,  and  hurried  on  by  the  headlong  fanaticism 
of  revolution.  It  was  divided  into  two  parties.  On  the  right 
hand  were  those  who  hoped  to  preserve  monarchy,  by  maintain- 
ing the  constitution  with  certain  improvements  and  modifications ; 
and  on  the  left,  those  who  proposed  that  they  should  proceed  in 
their  revolutionary  career.  This  latter  party,  in  which  the  depu- 
ties of  the  Girondists  had  the  ascendancy,  had  conceived  two 
methods  for  overturning  the  constitution,  viz.  1,  to  bring  the 
King  into  disrepute,  by  obliging  him  to  make  use  of  his  suspen- 


148  CHAP  PER  X. 

sive  veto  against  those  decrees  which  appeared  most  popular ; 
and  2,  to  involve  the  nation  in  war,  that  they  might  find  employ- 
ment for  the  army,  who  seemed  pleased  with  the  new  order  of 
things.  The  party  on  the  right,  who  formed  the  majority,  had 
not  the  courage  to  oppose  the  execution  of  this  plan.  The  As- 
sembly issued  severe  decrees  against  the  King's  brothers,  as 
well  as  against  the  emigrants  and  the  priests,  who  had  taken  no 
share  in  these  levelling  projects.  They  deprived  the  King  of 
his  body-guard,  and  subjected  him  to  every  species  of  annoyance 
and  humiliation. 

This  Assembly,  however,  was  by  no  means  in  the  enjoyment 
of  entire  liberty.  It  was  under  the  influence  of  those  popular 
societies,  known  by  the  name  of  Jacobins,  so  called  from  their 
meetmg  m  a  convent  in  Paris,  formerly  belonging  to  that  reli- 
gious order.  These  societies,  who  had  overspread  all  France, 
were  affiliated  with  each  other,  and  all  under  the  control  and 
direction  of  the  parent  society  in  the  metropolis.  It  Avas  there 
that  they  prepared  those  laws  which  they  compelled  the  National 
Assembly  to  pass,  and  concocted  their  plots  against  the  Royal 
authority.  They  had  an  immense  number  of  emissaries  in 
every  country,  who  propagated  their  doctrines,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  triumph  of  their  principles. 

In  order  to  provoke  a  declaration  of  war,  and  thereby  get  rid 
of  the  army,  the  deputies  on  the  left  never  ceased  to  inveigh  from 
the  public  tribunals  against  the  conduct  of  foreign  powers ;  and 
to  represent  the  King  as  secretly  leagued  with  them  in  their  de- 
signs. His  most  faithful  servants  had  been  the  object  of  their 
calumnies.  The  ministry  resigned  their  office,  and  the  King  re- 
constructed a  cabinet  composed  of  Jacobins  (March  17,  1792,) 
the  most  conspicuous  of  whom  were  Dumouriez,  who  became 
Minister  for  the  Foreign  department,  Clavieres  and  Duranthon, 
who  were  intrusted  with  the  Finance,  and  Roland,  who  was 
promoted  to  the  administration  of  the  Interior. 

The  Emperor  Leopold,  with  whom  they  were  on  terms  of 
negotiation,  demanded  redress  for  the  grievances  of  those  princes 
who  had  possessions  in  Alsace.  Instead  of  giving  him  satisfac- 
tion, the  new  French  Cabinet  induced  the  King  to  propose  to 
the  Assembly  (April  20,)  that  they  could  answer  his  demands 
in  no  other  way  than  by  a  declaration  of  war.  This  proposi- 
tion  passed  with  little  deliberation,  and  was  hailed  with  en- 
thusiasm. Seven  members  only  had  the  courage  to  oppose  it. 
The  Assembly  continued  to  issue  their  revolutionary  decrees, 
which  were  both  repugnant  to  the  conscience  of  the  King,  and 
dangerous  to  the  security  of  the  throne.  Louis,  who  had  been 
recently  offended  by  the  dismissal  of  his  guards,  declared  he 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  149 

could  no  longer  submit  to  the  insolence  of  these  new  ministers, 
three  of  whom  he  discarded  with  indignation.  Their  accom- 
plices, the  Jacobins,  and  Pethion  the  mayor  of  Paris,  then  or- 
ganized an  insurrection  of  the  armed  populace  of  the  Fauxhourgs 
or  suburbs.  The  mob  then  repaired  to  the  Tuileries  (June  20,^ 
to  force  the  King  to  sanction  the  decrees  of  the  Assembly,  and 
recall  the  patriot  ministers.  The  King  saved  his  own  life,  and 
that  of  his  Queen,  by  repelling  those  factious  demagogues  with 
lirmness  and  courage.  He  constantly  refused  to  grant  what 
they  demanded  of  him  by  violence  ;  while  the  National  Assem- 
bly displayed  the  most  shameful  pusillanimity.  They  even  car- 
ried their  cowardice  so  far^  as  to  replace  Pethion  and  Manuel  in 
their  functions,  whom  the  King  had  suspended  for  having  failed 
to  perform  their  duty. 

Pethion,  and  those  who  ruled  ^.t  their  pleasure  the  Sections 
of  Paris,  where  no  royalist  dared  to  appear,  then  demanded  the 
dethronement  of  the  King;  and  in  order  to  compel  the  Assem- 
bly to  pronounce  sentence  against  him,  the  conspirators  publicly 
organized  a  new  insurrection.  The  populace  rose  in  arms,  and 
attacked  the  Castle  of  the  Tuileries  (Aug.  10.)  The  King  re- 
fused the  assistance  of  those  faithful  citizens  who  had  flocked 
round  his  person.  Misled  by  unwise  or  perfidious  counsels,  he 
repaired  with  his  family  to  Paris ;  and  entering  the  National 
Assembly,  addressed  them  in  these  words  :  "  Gentlemen,  I  am 
come  here  to  avoid  the  commission  of  a  great  crime.  I  shall 
always  consider  myself  and  my  family  in  safety  when  I  am 
among  the  representatives  of  the  nation."  The  populace  having 
assailed  the  Castle,  the  faithful  Swiss  Guards  defended  it  with 
courage,  and  perished  in  the  performance  of  their  duty.  The 
greater  part  of  those  found  in  the  Tuileries  were  massacred 
by  the  rabble.  The  representatives  of  the  nation,  who  were, 
during  this  time,  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  alarm,  decreed,  in 
presence  of  the  Sovereign,  and  on  the  proposal  of  Vergniaud, 
that  the  King  should  be  suspended,  and  a  National  Convention 
assembled. 

Some  days  after,  Louis,  with  his  Queen,  the  Dauphin,  Ma- 
dame Royale,  and  Madame  Elizabeth,  the  King's  sister,  were 
imprisoned  in  the  Temple,  under  a  guard  of  the  municipality  of 
Paris,  composed  of  partisans  of  the  Revolution.  This  munici- 
pality, and  the  ministers  appointed  by  the  Assembly,  exercised 
a  most  tyrannical  authority.  The  prisons  were  crowded  with 
priests  and  nobles.  Danton,  the  Minister  of  Justice,  and  a  most 
violent  revolutionist,  entered  into  arrangements  with  the  Com- 
mune for  the  massacre  of  these  innocent  men.  The  cruel  work 
of  butchery  continued  for  three  days  without  remorse  (Sept.  2, 

VOL.  II.  13^ 


160  CHAPTER  X. 

3,)  and  \vithout  the  Legislative  Assembly  daring  to  interpose. 
A  few  days  after,  the  prisoners  who  had  been  sent  to  the  Tribu- 
nal at  Orleans,  were  conducted  to  Versailles,  and  put  to  death 
by  the  hands  of  relentless  murderers.  At  length  the  Legislative 
Assembly  dissolved,  (Sept.  21,)  to  make  way  for  the  National 
Convention. 

The  war  had  commenced  in  the  month  of  April  179L  Luck- 
ner,  Eochambaud,  and  La  Fayette,  commanded  the  French 
armies,  but  their  operations  were  without  success.  The  Aus- 
trians  had  merely  acted  on  the  defensive.  In  virtue  of  an  alliance 
concluded  at  Berlin  (Feb.  7,)  between  the  Emperor  and  the 
King  of  Prussia,  an  army  of  fifty  thousand  Prussians,  to  which 
were  added  six  thousand  Hessians  and  a  body  of  emigrants,  all 
under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  an  Austrian 
army,  commanded  by  Clairfait,  entered  France  by  way  of  the 
Ardennes.  Longwy  and  Verdun  opened  their  gates  to  the 
Prussians  (Aug.  13 ;)  but  their  progress  was  arrested  by  the 
manoeuvres  of  Dumouriez,  who  had  succeeded  La  Fayette  in 
the  command  of  the  army  ;  as  well  as  by  sickness  and  the  want 
of  provisions.  After  cannonading  Valmy  (Sept.  20,),  which  was 
commanded  by  General  Kellerman,  the  combined  army  retired 
towards  the  Rhine,  and  into  the  dutchy  of  Luxemburg. 

The  Girondists,  reinforced  by  all  the  enthusiasts  in  France, 
formed  the  National  Assembly  (Sept.  21,  1792.)  The  very  day 
of  their  meeting,  they  voted  the  abolition  of  royalty,  on  the  pro- 
position of  the  comedian  Collot  D'Herbois,  and  proclaimed  the 
Republic.  Like  the  Assemblies  which  had  preceded  it,  this  was 
divided  into  two  parties  ;  the  one- composed  of  the  Girondists 
and  their  friends,  who  wished  for  the  restoration  of  order  ;  the 
other  called  the  Mountain^  had  an  interest  in  continuing  the 
revolution.  Political  dominion  was  the  object  of  contest  which 
from  the  beginning  engaged  these  two  parties ;  but  they  assumed 
the  pretext  of  honest  design,  to  conceal  their  main  purpose  from 
the  eyes  of  the  vulgar.  The  deputies  of  the  Mountainists,  as 
they  could  not  charge  their  adversaries  with  the  reproach  of 
Royalism,  exhibited  them  to  the  people  as  Federalists,  ^re^Yo^ich. 
which  was  afterwards  fatal  to  the  party  ;  and  in  order  to  have  a 
rallying  word,  Tallien  decreed  (Sept.  5,)  that  the  Republic  was 
one  and  indivisible. 

To  detail  all  the  laws  and  acts  which  the  Convention  publish- 
ed during  the  three  years  which  it  oppressed  France,  would  be 
to  unfold  a  disgusting  catalogue  of  crimes  and  extravagances  ; 
we  must  be  content  with  merely  adverting  to  such  of  its  opera- 
tions as  were  distinguished  by  their  enormity,  or  produced  any 
durable  effect.     One  of  its  first  decrees  was,  to  banish  all  emi- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1S15.  151 

grants  for  ever ;  and  to  order  those  to  be- put  to  death  who  should 
return  to  their  native  country.  Soon  after,  they  made  a  tender 
of  their  assistance  to  all  subjects  who  might  be  inclined  to  revoll 
against  their  legitimate  sovereigns;  and  in  the  countries  which 
were  occupied  by  their  own  armies,  they  proclaimed  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  people,  and  the  abolition  of  the  established  authori- 
ties. The  moderate  party,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  less 
furious  party  of  the  Convention,  were  willing  to  spare  the  King's 
life.  This,  however,  w^as  one  reason  for  the  Mountainists  to 
put  him  to  death.  The  Convention  accordingly  decreed  (Dec. 
3,  1792,)  that  a  trial  should  be  instituted  against  Louis  Capet, 
as  they  called  him  ;  and  combining,  in  the  most  absurd  manner, 
the  functions  of  accusers,  judges,  and  legislators,  they  assumed 
the  right  of  pronouncing  as  to  his  culpability.  Twice  they  com- 
pelled hiin  to  appear  at  their  bar  (Dec.  11,  26,)  where  de  Seze, 
^lalesherbes,  and  Tronchet  undertook  his  defence.  The  de- 
meanour of  the  King  was  full  of  candour  and  dignity.  Of  seven 
hundred  and  twenty  voters,  six  hundred  and  eighty-three  de- 
clared him  guilty  (Jan.  15, 1793.)  Thirty-seven  refused  to  vote 
on  different  grounds,  some  of  which  were  honourable  ;  but  the 
Assembly  did  not  contain  a  single  man  who  dared  positively  to 
pronounce  the  innocence  of  their  victim.  Two  only  of  those  who 
refused  to  vote,  declared  they  did  not  think  themselves  entitled 
to  sit  as  judges  of  the  King. 

The  minority  in  vain  had  flattered  themselves  that  they  might 
rescue  the  King  from  death,  provided  they  referred  the  punish- 
ment to  the  nation  itself.  But  in  this  they  were  disappointed. 
Of  seven  hundred  and  eighteen  voters,  four  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  objected  to  the  appeal  to  the  people.  Two  hundred  and 
eighty-three  admitted  it ;  and  eleven  had  voted  from  interested 
motives,  which  could  not  be  sustained.  Nothing  now  remained 
but  to  pronounce  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  the  King. 
Of  seven  hundred  and  twenty-one  voters,  three  hundred  and 
sixty-one  were  for  an  unconditional  sentence  of  immediate  death, 
and  among  these  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  (Jan.  17.)  The  partisans 
of  Louis  interposed,  and  appealed  from  this  sentence  to  the  na- 
tion. In  vain  did  the  Girondists  support  this  petition.  Of  six 
hundred  and  ninety  voters,  three  hundred  and  eighty  decided 
that  his  execution  should  take  place  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Louis  heard  his  sentence  of  death  with  composure  and  Chris- 
tian resignation.  He  had  already  made  his  will,  a  m.onument 
at  once  of  his  piety  and  the  purity  of  his  heart.  He  died  the 
death  of  a  martyr  (Jan.  21,  1793.)  At  the  moment  when  the 
executioner's  axe  was  ready  to  strike,  the  Abbe  Edgeworth,  his 
confessor,  addressed  him  in  these  sublime  words  : — "  Son  of  St, 


152  CHAPTER  X. 

Louis,  ascend  to  Heaven  !"  The  whole  inhabitants  of  Paris,  who 
viewed  this  foul  deed  with  horror,  were  under  arms.  A  mourn- 
fai  silence  reigned  in  the  city. 

All  o-overmnents  agreed  in  condemning  the  conduct  of  the 
reo'icides  ;  but  the  voice  of  general  detestation  did  not  check  the 
career  of  the  sanguinary  faction.  The  crime  with  which  the 
Convention  had  stained  themselves  presaged  the  ruin  of  the 
Girondists,  though  they  retarded  their  downfall  by  a  struggle  of 
four  months.  An  insurrection  of  the  sections  of  Paris  (June  2,) 
organized  by  Hebert,  procureur  of  the  commune,  and  by  the 
deputies  Marat,  Danton,  and  Robespierre,  decided  the  victory. 
The  Girondists  were  proscribed  for  the  crime  of  federalism.  The 
victorious  party  honoured  themselves  with  the  title  of  Sans-cu- 
lottes,  and  commenced  what  has  been  called  the  Reign  of  Ter- 
ror. The  Convention  was  now  nothing  more  than  an  assembly 
of  executioners,  and  a  den  of  brigands.  To  hoodwink  and  de- 
ceive the  people,  they  submitted  for  their  approbation  the  plan 
of  a  constitution,  drawn  up  by  Herault  de  Sechelles  (June  24  ;) 
according  to  which  the  Primary  Assemblies  were  to  exercise  the 
sovereignty,  and  deliberate  on  all  legislative  measures.  After 
the  2d  of  June,  the  whole  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety,  which  was  formed  in  the  Convention. 
Danton,  the  chief  of  the  Cordeliers,  a  popular  assembly  more 
extravagant  than  the  Jacobins  themselves,  had  the  most  influ- 
ence for  a  time ;  but  he  was  soon  supplanted  by  Robespierre. 
The  Constitution  of  the  24th  of  June  had  been  adopted  in  the 
Primary  Assemblies  ;  but  Robespierre  decreed  that  it  should  be 
suspended  (Aug.  28 ;)  and  that  the  Republic  was  in  a  state  of 
revolution,  until  its  independence  was  acknowledged. 

Under  this  title  they  organized  a  government,  the  most  tyran- 
nical and  the  most  sanguinary  which  history  ever  recorded. 
Robespierre  was  at  the  head  of  it.  All  France  swarmed  with 
revolutionary  committees.  Revolutionary  armies  were  dispers- 
ed every  where,  dragging  the  wealthy  and  well-affected  to  pun- 
ishment. A  law  with  regard  to  suspected  persons  changed  all 
the  public  edifices  into  prisons,  and  filled  all  the  prisons  wuth 
victims  devoted  to  destruction.  To  remedy  the  fall  of  the  as- 
signats,  the  Convention  fixed  an  assessment,  called  the  maxi- 
mum, on  all  articles  of  consumption ;  a  measure  which  reduced 
the  country  to  a  state  of  famine.  The  Queen,  Maria  Antoinette, 
was  accused  before  this  revolutionary  tribunal,  and  brought  to 
the  scaffold  (Oct.  16.)  Many  of  the  Girondist  deputies  were 
arrested  on  the  2d  of  June,  and  met  with  the  same  fate.  The 
Duke  of  Orleans,  who  was  become  an  object  of  execration  to 
all  parties,  perished  there  in  his  turn  (Nov.  7.)     Nobody  pitied 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1815.  153 

his  fate.  Over  all  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom  the  blood  of 
the  innocent  flowed  in  torrents. 

The  revolutionists  did  not  stop  liere.  To  their  political 
crimes  they  added  acts  of  impiety.  They  began  by  abolishing 
the  Gregorian  calendar  and  the  Christian  era,  and  substituted 
in  its  place  the  era  of  the  Republic ;  to  commence  on  the  22d 
September  1793.  In  a  short  time,  Hebert  and  Chaumette,  two 
chiefs  of  the  commune,  got  the  Convention  to  decree  the  abo- 
lition of  the  Christian  religion  (Nov.  10.)  The  worship  of 
Reason  was  substituted  in  its  place ;  and  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Paris  was  profaned,  by  being  converted  into  a  temple 
of  atheism.  Gobel,  the  Constitutional  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  se- 
veral other  ecclesiastics,  publicly  apostatized  from  their  faith. 
Plunder  and  sacrilege  of  all  kinds  were  committed  in  the  Catho- 
lic churches. 

The  departments  in  the  west  of  France  had  remained  faithful 
to  the  King.  In  Poitou,  Maine,  Brittanj^  and  Normandy,  a 
civil  war  arose,  knovrn  by  the  name  of  the  Vendean  War,  which 
was  on  the  point  of  overturning  the  Republic.  The  Vendean 
insurgents  took  the  title  of  the  Catholic  army,  which  was  com- 
manded in  the  name  of  Louis  XVII.,  (who  still  remained  a  pri- 
soner in  the  Temple  after  his  father's  death,)  by  a  Council  which 
sat  at  Chatillon.  M.  d'Elbee  was  Commander-in-chief.  He 
had  under  him.  Artus  de  Bonchamp,  the  Marquis  de  Lescure, 
de  Larochejacquelin,  Cathelineau,  Charette,  and  Stofflet.  This 
insurrection  had  broken  out  on  account  of  a  le\^^  of  troops  which 
the  Republic  had  ordered. 

The  war  was  carried  on  with  violence  and  cruelty.  Among 
the  most  remarkable  of  its  events  that  happened  in  the  year 
1793,  were  the  battle  of  Saumur  (June  9,)  after  which  all  the 
towns  on  the  Loire,  except  Nantes,  declared  for  the  King ;  the 
battle  of  Chatillon,  Vv^here  the  Royalists  were  repeatedly  defeated 
by  the  army  of  Mayence,  which  the  Convention  had  sent  against 
them  ;  the  passage  of  the  Loire  (Oct.  17,  19,)  by  a  hundred 
thousand  of  the  Vendeans,  including  old  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren, who  were  eager  to  approach  the  coast,  where  they  expect- 
ed the  supplies  promised  by  England  to  arrive  ;  the  defeat  of  the 
army  of  Mayence  at  Chateau  Gontier  ;  the  taking  of  Mans  by 
the  Repubhcans,  and  their  victory  at  Savenay ;  the  taking  of 
Noirmoutier,  where  the  brave  d'Elbee  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy  (Jan.  2,  1794;)  and,  in  the  last  place,  the  defeat  of  Cha- 
rette at  Machecoult.  The  troops  of  the  Convention  were  com- 
manded in  succession  by  Biron,  Canclaux,  Westerraann,  Kleber, 
Beysser,  I'Echelle,  Marceau,  and  Rossignol.  The  deputy  Car- 
rier de  Nantes  covered  the  whole  country  v.^ith  slaughter,  and 
«vo-+ori  i^^c  -v,^^..,,^t^r  to  invent  new  methods  of  massacre. 


154  CHAPTER  X. 

Other  insurrections  arose  in  the  south  of  France,  after  the  re- 
volution of  the  2d  of  June.  Bourdeaux,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  and 
Toulon,  declared  themselves  against  the  Convention.  Bordeaiij 
was  speedily  subdued  (Aug.  25,  1793.)  General  Carteaux  took 
possession  of  Marseilles,  with  the  assistance  of  the  populace. 
Toulon  proclaimed  Louis  XVIL  (Aug.  29,)  and  threw  them^ 
selves  under  the  protection  of  Admirals  Hood  and  Langara,  who 
were  cruising  off  their  coast  with  the  English  and  Spanish  fleets 
Kellerman  had  orders  to  besiege  Lyons ;  a  task  which  was 
afterwards  intrusted  to  Doppet.  This  city  surrendered  after  a 
vigorous  resistance  (Oct.  9.)  It  became  the  scene  of  the  most 
atrocious  actions.  Its  finest  buildings  were  entirely  ruined  and 
demolished  by  order  of  the  Convention.  Carteaux  took  Toulon 
by  assault  (Dec.  24.)  It  was  during  the  siege  of  this  place,  that 
a  young  officer  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage,  and  after- 
wards by  his  enthusiasm  for  the  Revolution.  This  youth  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  native  of  Ajaccio  in  Corsica. 

The  very  same  day  on  which  the  Convention  met,  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Teschen  at  the  head  of  the  Austrian  army,  had  com- 
menced the  siege  of  Lille  ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  raise  it  in  about 
twenty  days.  The  Legislative  Assembly  had  declared  war 
against  the  King  of  Sardinia  (Sept.  10,  1792.)  General  Mon- 
tesquieu took  possession  of  Savoy,  and  Anselm  made  himself 
master  of  Nice.  Some  months  after,  the  Convention  declared 
these  provinces  to  be  annexed  to  France.  While  the  allies  were 
retiring  from  Champagne,  Custine  took  Mayence  by  a  cowp  de 
main  (Oct.  21,)  assisted,  as  it  afterwards  appeared,  by  treachery. 
Damouriez,  with  a  superior  force,  beat  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Teschen 
at  Gemappe  (Nov.  6,)  and  soon  achieved  the  conquest  of  the 
Belgic  provinces.  The  Convention  having  declared  war  against 
England  and  the  Stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands  (Feb.  1, 1793,) 
as  well  as  against  Spain,  a  powerful  coalition  was  formed  against 
them,  of  which  England  and  Russia  were  the  prime  supporters  ; 
the  one  by  her  ammunitions,  and  the  other  by  the  subsidies  which 
she  furnished.  They  were  joined  by  all  the  Christian  Sover- 
eigns in  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Denmark. 

Dumouriez  undertook  the  conquest  of  Holland,  and  penetra- 
ted as  far  as  Moerdyk  :  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  ob- 
ject in  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  Miranda  who  had  laid  siege 
to  Maestricht,  by  the  Austrian  army  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg.  Dumouriez  was  himself  defeated  at 
Nerwinden  (March  18,)  after  which  he  retired  towards  the  fron- 
tier of  France.  Being  determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  tyranny 
o!  the  Convention,  and  to  re-establish  the  constitution  of  1791, 
he  concluded  an  armistice  with  the  Austrians,  and  delivered  up 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  156 

to  them  the  commissioners  which  the  Convention  had  sent  to 
deprive  him  of  his  office  ;  but  his  army  having  refused  to  obey 
him,  he  escaped  to  Tournay,  where  General  Clairfait  then  was. 
The  young  Duke  of  Chartres  accompanied  him  in  his  flight. 

During  the  rest  of  the  campaign,  success  was  divided  between 
the  two  parties.  The  Austrians,  who  were  conquerors  at  Fa- 
mars  (May  24,)  took  Conde,  Valenciennes,  and  Quesnoy  (July.) 
The  Duke  of  York,  who  commanded  the  English  army,  was 
oeat  by  Houchard  at  Hondscote  (Sept.  8.)  Jourdan  compelled 
General  Clairfait,  by  means  of  the  battle  of  Wattignies,  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Maubeuge.  On  the  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Span- 
ish generals,  Eicardos  and  Ventura-Caro,  gained  several  advan- 
tages ;  the  former  having  taken  Bellegarde,  Collioure,  and  Port 
Vendre.  On  the  Rhine,  the  allies  had  the  best  of  the  campaign. 
After  an  obstinate  siege,  Mayence  surrendered  to  the  Prussians 
(July  22,)  who  beat  Moreau  at  Pirmasens  (Sept.  14,)  though 
they  failed  in  the  siege  of  Landau.  An  army  of  the  allies, 
80,000  strong,  commanded  by  Wurmser  and  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, forced  the  lines  at  Wissemburg  (Oct.  13,)  and  penetrated 
nearly  as  far  as  Strasburg ;  but  General  Pichegru,  who  had 
taken  the  command  of  the  French  army,  obliged  Wurmser  to 
repass  the  Rhine  (Dec.  30.)  The  Prussians  maintained  them- 
selves on  the  left  bank  of  that  river,  between  Oppenheim  and 
Bergen. 

In  France,  the  revolutionists  were  divided  into  three  parties. 
The  Committee  of  Public  Safety^  at  the  head  of  which  was 
Robespierre,  supported  by  the  club  of  Jacobins,  governed  with 
an  absolute  power.  Hebert,  Chaumette,  Anacharsis  Clootz,  a 
native  of  Prussia,  and  the  other  members  of  the  Commune  of 
Paris,  formed  a  second  party ;  more  violent  than  the  first,  but 
contemptible  from  the  character  of  the  individuals  who  composed 
it.  .The  third,  comprehended  Danton,  Desmoulins,  Herault  de 
Sechelles,  and  others,  who  stood  in  awe  of  Robespierre,  and 
were  terrified  by  the  extravagant  fury  of  these  bandits.  The 
faction  of  the  Commune  was  the  first  that  was  annihilated  by 
the  temporary  union  of  the  other  two  parties  (March  24,  1794.) 
After  that,  Robespierre  found  little  difficulty  in  sending  Danton 
and  his  friends  to  the  scaffold  (April  5 ;)  but  in  a  short  time  some 
of  the  members  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  the  re- 
mains of  the  Girondist  party,  conspired  against  him.  In  order 
to  please  the  people,  he  abolished  the  worship  of  Reason  (May 
7,)  and  caused  the  Convention  to  proclaim  the  existence  of  a 
Supreme  Being  (June  8 ;)  he  introduced  a  new  religion,  that  of 
Deism,  of  which  he  created  himself  high-priest. 

The  power  of  Robespierre  was  now  in  its  apogee,  and  his 


]5<5  CHAPTER  X. 

lownfall  approached.  As  the  revolutionary  tribunal  was  not 
sufhciently  expeditious  m  despatching  those  whom  he  had  mark- 
ed out  for  destruction,  he  passed  a  decree  (June  10,)  by  which 
eji  unlimited  authority  was  vested  in  that  tribunal.  This  open- 
ed the  eyes  of  his  enemies  in  the  Convention  ;  and,  not  doubt- 
ing rhat  they  were  doomed  to  death,  they  conspired  the  ruin  of 
the  tyrant.  TalUen  and  Billaud  Varennes  were  the  first  that 
attacked  him  before  the  tribunal.  Having  repeatedly  attempted 
to  defend  himseif,  he  was  prevented  by  the  voice  of  the  Assem- 
bly, crying,  "  Down  with  the  tyrant !"  At  length,  repulsed  and 
dispirited,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  arrested.  Having  found 
means,  however,  to  escape  from  the  guard,  he  saved  himself  in 
the  midst  of  the  Commune,  which  was  composed  of  those  who 
had  adhered  to  him  after  the  fall  of  Hebert.  Both  sides  took  to 
arms;  Robespierre  and  his  faction  were  outlawed,  but  they 
showed  little  courage.  Finding  themselves  undone,  they  en- 
deavoured to  escape  the  swords  of  the  enemy,  by  despatching 
themselves.  Robespierre  attempted  self-destruction,  but  he  only 
broke  his  jaw-bone  with  a  pistol  shot.  He  was  executed,  with 
twenty-one  of  his  accomplices  (July  28,  1794.)  Eighty-three 
others  met  the  same  fate  in  course  of  the  two  following  days ; 
from  that  time  the  reign  of  terror  was  at  an  end,  and  thousands 
of  innocent  persons  were  liberated  from  the  prisons.  His  do- 
minion, however,  was  not  yet  discontinued ;  and  the  career  of 
this  Convention,  from  its  beginnmg  to  its  dissolution,  was  mark- 
ed by  a  series  of  cruelties  and  oppressions. 

The  campaign  of  1794  was  triumphant  for  the  French  arms. 
Pichegru  commanded  the  army  of  the  North,  and  Jourdan  that 
of  the  Sambre  and  the  Meuse.  The  Duke  of  Coburg  had  at 
first  the  command  of  the  Austrian  arm}?^ ;  but  towards  the  end 
of  the  campaign,  he  transferred  it  to  Clairfait.  The  King  of 
Prussia,  become  disgusted  with  the  war,  had  threatened  to  with- 
draw his  grand  army  from  the  Rhine,  and  to  leave  only  his  con- 
tingent as  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  and  the  20,000  men  which 
he  was  bound  to  furnish  Austria,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance  of 
1792.  But  England  and  Holland  being  engaged,  by  a  conven- 
tion signed  at  the  Hague,  to  furnish  him  with  supplies,  he  pro- 
mised to  retain  62,400  men  under  arms  against  France.  They 
were  under  the  command  of  Field-Marshal  MellendorfT.  The 
taking  of  Charleroi  by  Jourdan,  and  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  which 
he  gained  over  the  Duke  of  Coburg  (June  26,)  decided  the  fate 
of  the  Netherlands.  After  some  movements  in  conjunction  with 
the  army  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  under  the  command  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Teschen, — movements  which  had  but  little  success,  from 
the  want  of  agreement  among  the  generals. — Clairfait,  at  the 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1815.  157 

^.ad  ofthe  Austrian  ai-my,  retired,  about  the  end  of  the  year  on 
the  n^ht  bank  of  the  Ehme,  followed  by  MellendorfT,  whom'the 
French  had  never  been  able  to  brinp-  imo  action. 


Tne  army  ot  the  Pyrenees,  under  the  command  of  Dugom- 
in rlf^f  a  splend,d  vetory  at  Ceret  over  General  La  xfnZ 
vApnl  30,)  and  retook  Bellegarde.  The  two  ffenerals  of  he 
army  were  slatn  at  Monte-Nero,  where,  after  a^attle  of  th  ee 
days,  the  Spaniards  were  repulsed  hy  Perignon  (Not.  27.)  The 
F  ench  took  F.guteres  (Feb.  4,)  and  Eosel  about  two  month' 

(W  1  ilTbp  f ,.  P^'"'  !"">  f ™'«rabia  and  St.  Sebastian 
(Aug  1,  11,)  beat  the  Spaniards  at  Pampeluna  (IVor.  8 )  and 
spread  terror  to  the  very  gates  of  Madrid.  After  tlie  red  c'ion 
0  Toulon,  the  English  fleet,  under  Admiral  How  ,  bein"  i  "i "d 
into  Corsica  by  Paoh,  took  possession  of  that  island  (June  18 ) 
which  submitted  to  Britain  as  an  independent  kingdom  The 
French  fleet  under  Admiral  Villaret  Joyeuse,  was°defTated  off 
Ushant  by  Admmxl  Howe  (June  1.)  Most  of  the  French  colo- 
nies had  already  fallen  into  the  power  of  the  English 

intiiguesof  the  party  opposed  to  the  House  of  Oranoe,  had 
made  himself  master,   almost  without  striking  a  blow    of  the 
United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands  (Jan.  !795,)  where  the 
Patriots  had  re-estabh^hed  the  ancient  constitution,  such  as  ft  had 
been  before  the  year  17S8;  the  office  of  Stadtholder  beii"  a.ain 
abolished,  as    he  Prince  of  Orange,  after  being  deprived  of  all 
his  functions,  had  fled  to  England.     France  conclu  le,  a  trea^v 
with  this  Republic  at  the  Hague  (May  16,)  where  ttindepen^ 
dence   of  the  latter  was  formally  acknowledged.     She  entered 
itnVoT/"  '"""?  against  En'gland;  paid%ne  hundred  ml- 
ions  of  florins  ;  and  ceded  a  part  of  hei-  territory      It  waTat 
this  time  (June  8  179.5,)  that  the  royal  Infant  Louil  XVII    onlv 
son  01   Louis  XVI.,  died  in  the  Temple,  in  consequence  of  "he 
bad  treatment  which    he  had  endur'ed'  incessantly   oi   n  ariy 
^ir,Vu     ■""  ""t'  ''■'^°  ^'-"l  «^^"™«<'  'he  title  of  Eegen^ 
throne      Th?;"p'-^  °'  '?^'  T^^^'^'^'l  '^^  "^  his  right  toX' 
SL  of  Louis  kvnr*  "'°  *^"  "^''^^^  at  Verona,^ook  the 
After  the  battles  of  Mans  and  Savenay,  and  th,.  taking  of  Noir- 
moutier  the  Vendeans  had  found  thenrselves  greatl y  evhausted 
But  at  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  they  formed  themselves 
name  o"f  ri".  '^Tr'  ■".^"^'''"y  and  N^-mandy,  un"e     he 

rette  nnd^  '^'T  ^,  '^""*  °^  Larochejacquelin,  Cha- 

^'  tsn^ie  (FeriT"]79^^  "r"* '''  P«.^<=\«'"h  the'co'nvention  al 
VOL  n.  ^*  Cormartm,  the  leader  of  the  Chouan.?, 


1.5S  CHAPTER  X. 

did  the  sfvme  at  Mabilais ;  but,  a  few  weeks  after,  the  Conven- 
tion caused  him  to  be  arrested  and  shot,  with  seve-n  other  chiefs. 
This  was  the  signal  for  a  new  insurrection.  The  English  gc- 
vernment  at  length  resolved  to  send  assistance  to  the  Royalists 
A  body  of  emigrants  and  French  prisoners  of  war  were  landed 
m  the  Bay  of  Quiberon  (June  18.)  Butth^  whole  of  the  expe- 
dition was  badly  managed,  and  had  a  most  disastrous  result. 
General  Hoche  attacked  the  troops  on  their  debarkation.  The 
greater  part  might  have  saved  themselves  on  board  the  vessel*  j 
but  the  Marquis  de  Sombreuil,  and  five  hundred  and  sixty  younv> 
men  of  the  best  families,  were  taken  and  shot  by  order  of  Ta^- 
lien  (June  21,)  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  General  Hoche,  who 
declared  that  he  had  promised  to  spare  their  lives. 

In  the  National  Convention,  two  parties  were  contending  for 
the  superiority ;  the  Thermidorians  or  Moderates,  and  the  Ter- 
rorists. The  inhabitants  of  Paris,  reduced  to  despair  by  the 
dearth  which  the  inaximum  had  caused,  and  instigated  by  the 
Jacobins,  had  several  times  revolted,  especially  on  the  days  of 
the  12th  Germinal  (April  1,)  and  the  1st  Prairial  (May  20.) 
The  moderate  party,  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  many  of 
the  deputies  proscribed  since  the  2d  June  1793,  gained  the  vic- 
tory ;  and  purged  the  Convention,  by  banishing  or  putting  to 
death  the  most  execrable  of  the  Terrorists.  They  even  concili- 
ated, in  some  respects,  the  opinion  of  the  public,  by  drawing  up 
a  new  constitution  (June  23,)  which  might  appear  wise  and  ju- 
dicious compared  with  the  maxims  which  had  been  disseminated 
for  several  years.  Its  fundamental  elements  were  a  Legislative 
Body,  composed  of  two  elective  chambers  ;  one  of  which  was 
to  have  the  originating  of  the  laws,  and  the  other,  composed  of 
men  of  judgment  and  experience,  was  to  be  invested  with  a 
veto.  The  executive  power  was  to  be  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a 
Council  of  five  persons,  clothed  with  an  authority  greater  than 
that  which  the  Constitution  of  1791  had  given  to  the  King. 
The  Convention  passed  several  other  laws,  Vv'hich  indicated  a 
desire  4;o  return  to  the  principles  of  morality.  They  also  resolved 
to  exchange  Madame  Royale,  the  only  remains  of  the  family  of 
Louis  XVI.,  for  the  deputies  delivered  up  by  Dumouriez.  But 
they  lost  again  the  affections  of  the  people,  by  their  laws  of  the 
5th  and  13th  Fructidor  of  the  year  Three,  (Aug.  22,  &  30,^ 
1795.)  Premoriished  by  the  fault  which  the  Constituent  As-* 
sembly  had  committed,  in  prohibiting  its  members  from  entering 
into  the  Legislative  Body,  and  wishing,  at  the  same  time,  to  es- 
cape punishment  for  the  many  crimes  they  had  committed,  they 
ord  lined  that  two-thirds  of  the  members  then  composing  the 
Convention,  should,  of  necessity,  become  a  part  of  the  new  Le- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1815.  159 

gislation ;  arid  that  if  the  Primary  Assemblies  did  not  re-appoint 
live  hundred  of  the  ex-conventional  deputies,  the  newly  elected 
members  should  themselves  complete  the  quota,  by  addino-  a 
sufficient  number  of  their  ancient  colleagues. 

The  New  Constitution  had  been  submitted  for  the  approba- 
tion of  the  people,  which  they  doubted  not  it  would  receive,  as  it 
w^as  to  deliver  France  from  the  revolutionary  faction.  The  Con- 
vention took  advantage  of  this  disposition  of  the  people,  to  com- 
pel the  Sections  likewise  to  accept  the  two  decrees,  by  declar- 
ing them  an  integral  part  of  the  Constitution.  But  this  attempt 
was  the  occasion  of  new  troubles.  The  Sections  of  Paris  wished 
to  vote  separately  on  the  Constitution,  and  on  the  decrees  w^hich, 
in  that  case,  would  have  beer  rejected  over  all  France;  the 
moderate  party  of  the  Convention,  if  we  can  honour  them  with 
that  name,  joined  wdth  the  Terrorists.  Perceiving  the  storm  to 
be  gathering,  they  now  sought  assistance  and  support  from  the 
troops  whose  camp  w^as  pitched  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They 
armed  a  large  body  of  men,  at  the  head  of  which  w^as  Bona- 
parte, who  gained  a  sanguinary  victory  over  the  Parisians,  on 
the  13th  Vendemiaire,  in  the  year  Three  (October  5th,  1795.) 
The  desire  to  restore  the  Bourbons  had  been  the  secret  motive 
w^ith  the  chiefs  of  the  insurrection. 

A  new  Legislative  Body  assembled,  which  might  be  regarded 
as  a  continuation  of  the  Convention  ;  so  long  at  least  as  the  five 
hundred  deputies  of  the  Convention  w^ere  not  excluded,  wdio  sat 
in  consequence  of  the  annual  renewals  of  one-third  of  its  mem- 
bers. The  Executive  Directory,  appointed  by  the  Council  of 
the  Ancients  from  a  list  presented  by  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred, consisted  of  Lareveillere-Lepeaux,  Rewbel,  Barras,  Le 
Tourneur,  and  Carn6t,  who  had  replaced  Sieyes, — this  member 
having  declined  to  make  one  of  the  Directory — the  whole  five 
being  Regicides.  The  forms  of  Terrorism  were  mitigated  in 
some  respects,  but  the  morals  of  the  administration  gained  no- 
thing by  the  change.  The  reign  of  the  Directory  w^as  an  era  of 
corruption  and  dissoluteness,  v/hose  effects  w^ere  long  felt.  An 
unbounded  avarice  seized  the  nation,  and  the  Directory  encour- 
aged and  fed  that  shameful  passion,  by  lending  itself  to  the 
most  infamous  traffic.  Men  coveted  the  nobility  of  riches, 
rather  than  that  of  honour  and  birth. 

The  Directory  had  to  struggle  against  two  inconveniences ; 
the^one  w^as  the  spirit  of  rebellion,  which  induced  the  Terrorists 
to  form  a  conspiracy  among  themselves, — such  as  that  of  Druet 
and  Babeuf  (May  10,  1796,)  and  that  wdiich  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Conspiracy  of  the  Camp  at  Grenoble  (Sept.  9.) 
The  other  inconvenience  was  still  more  serious,  namely,  the 


160  CHAPTER  X. 

embarrassed  state  of  the  finances.  The  quantity  of  assignats 
thrown  into  circulation,  amounted  to  18,933,500,000  francs.  To 
reduce  this  sum,  they  decreed  a  loan  of  600,000,000  in  specie. 
This  measure  proving  ineffectual,  the  assignats  were  replaced 
by  another  sort  of  paper-money,  viz.  rescriptioiis  ;  and  finally  by 
nnandates.  But  both  of  these  Avere  discredited ;  the  former  after 
being  issued,  and  the  latter  even  before  they  were  put  into  effec- 
tive circulation,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  found  necessary 
to  withdraw  them  altogether  from  circulation.  The  Slate  thus 
became  bankrupt  for  thirty-nine  thousand  millions  of  francs.  It 
then  became  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  a  system  of  regular 
imposts,  which  the  people  had  not  been  accustomed  to  pay. 

The  Executive  Directory  had  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to 
the  war  in  La  Vendee.  This  success  was  owing  to  the  firmness 
and  moderation  of  Geiieral  Hoche.  Stofiiet  was  betrayed,  and 
shot  at  Angers  (Feb.  2-5,  1796.)  Charette  v.'ho  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  Republicans,  met  with  the  same  fate  at  Nantes 
soon  after.  His  death  put  an  end  to  the  war  (March  29.)  The 
Count  d'Autichamp,  and  the  other  Vendean  Generals,  signed  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  Hoche.  George  Cadoudal,  the  leader  of 
the'Chouans,  fled  to  England. 

At  first,  from  the  accession  of  a  third  of  the  members  of  the 
two  legislative  councils,  the  moderate  party  gained  the  ascend- 
ancy. On  M.  Berthelemy's  being  appointed  to  the  Directory, 
there  arose  a  schism  between  L^reveillere-Lepeaux,  Revv'bel,  and 
Barras,  who  were  called  the  Triumvirs,  and  Carnot  and  Ber- 
thelemy,  Avho  were  inclined  for  peace,  and  for  putting  an  end  to 
the  measures  of  the  Revolution.  The  triumvirate  lost  the  ma- 
jority in  the  Council,  where  Pichegru  had  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  moderate  party,  who  hoped  to  restore  the  monarchy, 
Royalism,  assisted  by  the  liberty  of  the  press  which  France  then 
enjoyed,  had  made  such  progress  as  frightened  the  triumvirs. 
They  thought  themselves  sure  of  the  array,  so  easy  to  be  sedu- 
ced when  they  are  allowed  to  deliberate  ;  and  especially  of  Bo- 
naparte. They  then  performed  the  exploit,  which  is  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Revolution  of  the  ISth  Fructidor  (Sept.  4.) 
Sixty-five  deputies,  and  the  two  Directors,  Berthelemy  and  Car- 
not, were  condemned  to  transportation  ;  and  such  of  them  as 
were  apprehended,  were  banished  to  the  deserts  of  Sinamari  in 
Guiana.  The  last  named  deputies  of  the  two  Councils  were 
expelled ;  and  the  moderate  laws,  issued  three  months  before, 
were  superseded  by  revolutionary  measures.  The  authors,  ed- 
itors, and  printers  of  royalist  or  moderate  Journals,  were  also 
transported;  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  abolished,  and  contin- 
ued so  in  France  from  that  time  till  1814.     Merlin,  a  lawyer  of 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  161 

Douay,  was  appointed  to  the  place  of  one  of  the  exiled  Direc- 
tors, and  the  poet  Francois,  a  native  of  Neuchateaii  in  Lorrain,  to 
that  of  another. 

Here,  it  will  be  proper  to  take  a  retrospect  of  the  events  of  the 
war.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  was  the  first  that  set  the 
example  of  a  reconciliation  w^th  France,  which  was  si^ed  at 
Paris,  (Feb.  9,  1795.)  The  King  of  Prussia,  whose  finances 
were  exhausted,  entered  into  a  negotiation  Avith  Berthelemey, 
the  Republican  ambassador,  which  was  concluded  at  Basle  by 
Baron  Hardenberg,  (April  5.)  Prussia  not  only  abandoned  the 
coalition  ;  she  even  guaranteed  the  neutrality  of  the  North  of 
Germany,  according  to  a  line  of  demarcation  which  was  fixed 
by  a  special  convention,  (May  17.)  The  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  likewise  made  peace  at  Basle,  (Aug.  28th.) 

The  retreat  of  the  Prussians  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  scar- 
city which  prevailed  in  France  on  the  other,  had  retarded  the 
Qpening  of  the  campaign  of  1795.  Field  Marshal  Bender  hav- 
ing reduced  Luxemburg,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  and  a 
plentiful  harvest  having  once  more  restored  abundance,  the 
army  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  and 
:hatof  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  under  Pichegru,  passed  the  Rhine. 
The  former,  being  beat  at  Hochst  by  Clairfait,  (Oct.  11,)  repas- 
sed that  river  in  disorder ;  and  Mayence,  then  under  siege,  was 
relieved.  Pichegru,  who  had  taken  Manheim,  (Sept.  22,)  re- 
treated in  like  manner,  and  General  Wurmser  retook  that  city. 
An  armistice  was  concluded  on  the  last  daj^  of  the  year. 

In  Italy  the  French  were  expelled  from  Piedmont  and  the 
States  of  Genoa,  which  they  had  invaded  ;  but  the  victory  which 
Scherer  gained  over  de  Vins  at  Lovano  (Nov.  23,)  was  a  pre- 
lude to  greater  advantages,  which  they  gained  in  course  of  next 
year. 

In  Spain,  Moncey  gained  the  battle  of  Ormea,  and  occupied 
Bilboa.  But  the  peace  which  the  Chevalier  Yriarte  signed  at 
Basle,  (July  6,)  put  an  end  to  his  conquests.  The  King  of  Spain 
ceded  to  the  Republic  his  part  of  the  Island  of  St.  Domingo. 
Lord  Bridport  defeated  the  French  fleet  off  L'Orient,  (June  23, 
1795,)  which  intended  to  oppose  the  debarkation  of  the  emi- 
grants at  Quiberon.  The  coalition,  which  the  retirement  of 
Prussia  and  Spain  had  threatened  to  dissolve,  gained  fresh 
strength  by  several  new  alliances,  such  as  that  of  Vienna,  be- 
tween Austria  and  Great  Britain,  (May  20,)  and  the  Triple  Al- 
liance of  St.  Petersburg,  (Sept.  28.) 

The  campaign  of  1796,  was  glorious  for  the  French  arms  in 
Italy.  Na^leon  Bonaparte  was  there,  at  the  head  of  an  army 
destitute  of  every  thing  except  courage.     By  a  series  of  vic- 

VOL.  II.  14^ 


162  CHAPTER   X. 

taries  which  he  gamed  at  Montenotte,  Dego,  Millesimo,  Ceva, 
and  Mondovi,  over  the  x\ustrian  General  Beaulieux,  and  the 
Sardinian  General  Colli,  he  obliged  the  King  of  Sardinia  to 
sign  a  truce  at  Cherasco,  (April  28,)  by  which  he  surrendered 
UD  three  fortresses.  Bonaparte  passed  the  Po  at  Placentia ; 
granted  a  truce  on  very  disadvantageous  terms  to  the  Duke  of 
Parma;  and  forced  the  passage  of  the  Bridge  of  Lodi,  (May 
9.)  The  fate  of  Lombardy  was  decided.  Cremona  and  Piz- 
zighitone  opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror,  (May  14,)  who 
soon  made  his  entry  into  Milan.  The  Duke  of  Modena  obtain- 
ed a  suspension  of  arms.  The  King  of  Sardinia  agreed  to  sign 
a  peace  at  Paris,  by  which  he  surrendered  Savoy  and  the  dis- 
trict of  Nice.  The  terror  of  the  French  arms  was  so  great, 
that  the  King  of  Naples  promised  to  remain  neutral,  by  a  con- 
vention which  he  concluded  at  Brescia  (June  5.)  The  Pope 
also  obtained  neutrality,  by  the  armistice  of  Bologna,  (June  28,) 
but  on  conditions  exceedingly  severe.  Though  the  war  had 
ceased  in  Tuscany,  a  body  of  French  troops  occupied  Leghorn, 
(June  2S,)  to  seize  the  English  merchandise  in  that  port. 

The  Court  of  Vienna  was  resolved  to  make  every  effort  to 
save  Mantua,  the  only  place  which  remained  to  them  in  Italy. 
At  the  head  of  50,000  fresh  troops,  Wurmser  marched  from  the 
Tyrol,  broke  the  French  lines  on  the  Adige,  (July  31,)  and  com- 
pelled Bonaparte  to  raise  the  siege  of  Mantua.  The  latter 
General  encountered  the  Austrians,  and  beat  them  at  Castig- 
lione  :  without  however,  being  able  to  prevent  Wurmser  from 
throwing  fresh  supplies  into  Mantua.  This  place  was  invested 
a  second  time  ;  and  a  second  time  the  Austrian  army  marched 
to  its  relief.  While  Bonaparte  was  engaged  with  Davidovitch 
at  Roveredo,  (Sept.  4,)  and  Massena  pushing  on  as  far  as  Trent, 
Wurmser  marched  in  all  haste  towards  Mantua.  Bonaparte 
suddenly  directed  his  course  against  him,  vanquished  him  in 
several  battles,  and  compelled  him  to  throw  himself,  with  the 
wreck  of  his  army  into  the  fortress  (Sept.  15.)  After  this 
event,  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
signed  a  definitive  peace  at  Paris  ;  and  the  Republic  of  Genoa 
concluded  a  treaty,  (Oct.  9,)  by  which  it  retained  at  least  the 
appearance  of  independence.  Austria  tried  a  third  time  to 
relieve  Mantua.  Two  armies  under  the  command  of  Alvinzi 
and  Davidovitch  marched,  the  one  from  Friuli,  and  the  other 
from  the  Tyrol.  The  former  was  encountered  by  Bonaparte, 
who  defeated  them  in  a  sanguinary  action  at  Arcole,  (Nov.  17.) 
Immediately  he  directed  his  march  against  the  other,  and  beat 
them  at  Rivoli,  (Nov.  21.) 

While  matters  were  thus  passing  in  Italy,  the  anray  of  the 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  163 

Sambre  and  Meuse,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  had  several  en- 
gagements with  the  Archduke-Charles,  brother  of  the  Emperor, 
on  the  Sieg  and  the  Lahn.  Moreau,  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  passed  the  Rhine  at  Strasburg,  and  gained 
several  advantages  over  the  army  which  Wurmser  had  com- 
manded at  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  ;  he  concluded  truces 
with  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg,  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  and  the 
Circle  of  Swabia,  who  supplied  him  with  money  and  provisions, 
(July,)  and  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  the  Elector  of  which  w-as  also 
obliged  to  submit  to  very  rigorous  conditions,  (Sept.  7,)  to  obtain 
a  suspension  of  arms.  Jourdan,  on  his  side,  having  also  passed 
the  Rhine,  marched  through  Franconia,  as  far  as  the  Upper 
Palatinate.  The  Archduke-Charles,  who,  since  the  departure  of 
Wurmser  for  Italy,  had  been  at  the  head  of  all  the  Austrian 
armies  in  Germany,  retired  before  so  great  a  superiority  of  num- 
bers, and  drew  near  to  the  quarter  whence  he  expected  the  ar- 
rival of  reinforcements.  He  immediately  fell  on  the  undis- 
ciplined army  of  Jourdan,  defeated  them  at  Amberg,  (Aug.  24,) 
and  Wurtsburg,  (Sept.  3;)  and  put  them  so  completely  to  the 
rout,  that  they  were  obliged  to  repass  the  Rhine  (Sept.  19.)  This 
disaster  compelled  Moreau  to  make  his  retreat ;  in  eifecting 
which,  he  displayed  the  talents  of  a  great  general.  After  a 
number  of  engagements,  in  which  he  was  more  frequently  the 
conqueror  than  conquered,  he  brought  back  his  army  to  liunin- 
gen,  (Oct.  26,)  where  they  passed  the  Rhine.  That  fortress  and 
Kehl  were  the  only  points  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  Avhich 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  French. 

The  Cabinet  of  London,  finding  that  Spain  had  declared  war 
against  her  (Aug.  19,)  according  to  the  treaty  of  St.  Ilclefonso 
which  allied  her  strictly  with  France  ;  and  moreover,  seeing 
Ireland  threatened  with  an  invasion,  ordered  the  British  troops 
to  evacuate  the  island  of  Corsica,  (Oct.  21,)  of  which  the  French 
took  possession.  Lord  Malmesbury  was  sent  to  Lille  to  nego- 
tiate a  peace  (Oct.  24,)  which  he  was  not  able  to  obtain,  because 
the  conditions  were  not  agreeable  to  the  three  Directors  who 
formed  the  majority.  The  attempts  which  the  French  made  to 
land  in  Ireland  (Dec.  22,)  under  Admiral  Morard  de  Galles,  and 
General  Hoche,  proved  unsuccessful. 

In  1797,  the  Austrians  made  a  fourth  attempt  to  save  Man- 
tua. Alvinzi  arrived  with  80,000  men  ;  but  after  several  bloody 
engagements,  this  army  was  dispersed,  and  old  Wurmser  w^as 
compelled  to  surrender  Mantua  by  capitulation  (Feb.  2.)  Bo- 
naparte, w^ho  had  broken  his  truce  Avith  the  Pope,  invaded  the 
Ecclesiastical  States  ;  but  being  menaced  in  the  rear  by  a  nevy 
Austrian  army,  he  again  made  peace  with  his  Holiness  at  To- 


.6-1  CHAPTER    X. 

lentino  (Feb.  19.)  The  Pope,  besides  renouncing  Avignon  and 
the  Venaissin,  ceded  also  Ferrara,  Bologna  and  Komagiia.  The 
new  Austrian  army  in  Italy  was  commanded  by  the  Archduke- 
Charles  ;  but  not  being  able  to  cope  with  that  of  Bonaparte  in 
pitched  battle,  the  Archduke  retired  through  the  Tyrol  and  Carin- 
thia  into  Stiria,  where  he  was  followed  by  the  French  General. 
This  precipitate  march  threw  the  French  army  into  a  situation 
highly  perilous  ;  since,  besides  the  want  of  provisions,  they  were 
menaced  in  the  rear  by  an  insurrection  of  the  Tyrol,  and  the 
arms  of  the  Venetian  Eepublic.  Bonaparte  then  offered  peace, 
which  was  accepted  by  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  and  signed  at 
Leoben  (April  18,  1797,)  the  same  day  that  Hoche  passed  the 
Rhine  at  Neuwied  ;  and  two  days  after  Moreau  had  passed  that 
river  at  Strasburg. 

The  preliminaries  at  Leoben  were  honourable  for  Austria. 
She  renounced,  it  is  true,  Belgium  and  all  her  possessions  in 
Italy,  as  far  as  the  Oglio  ;  but  she  was  indemnified  by  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  Venetian  territory,  as  well  as  by  Istria  and 
Dalmatia ;  for  which  the  Republic  were  to  receive  Bologna, 
Ferrara  and  Romagna  ;  Peschiera  and  Mantua  were  to  be  sur- 
rendered to  the  Emperor.  France  recognised  the  principle,  thai 
the  integrality  of  the  Empire  was  to  be  the  basis  of  a  pacifica- 
tion with  the  Germanic  Body.  Immediately  after  the  peace  ol 
Leoben,  Bonaparte,  without  having  received  orders,  overturned 
the  Venetian  Republic,  and  caused  his  troops  to  occupy  that 
city  (May  16.)  He  united  the  provinces  of  Lombardy  which 
Austria  had  ceded,  into  a  Republic,  on  the  model  of  that  ot 
France  (June  29  ;)  and  this  new  State  was  called  the  Cisalpine 
Republic.  He  obliged  the  Genoese  to  change  their  government, 
and  to  constitute  themselves  into  the  Ligurian  Republic  (June  6.) 

The  negotiations  for  a  definitive  peace  w^ere  long  in  coming 
to  a  conclusion.  Bonaparte  regretted  having  promised  the 
restitution  of  Mantua ;  and  the  three  Jacobin  members  of  the 
Directory,  who  were  displeased  with  the  terms  on  which  the 
peace  with  Germany  was  to  be  founded,  began  to  intrigue  for 
the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  and  with  this  view, 
to  protract  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  until  the  Revolution  of 
the  18th  Fructidor  should  gain  their  party  the  assendancy.  The 
negotiations  with  Lord  Malmesbury  were  immediately  broken 
off;  and  Bonaparte  threatened  to  resume  hostilities,  unless 
Austria  would  accept  the  conditions  dictated  by  the  New  Di- 
rectory. Peace  was  at  length  concluded  at  Campo  Formio  near 
Udina,  (Oct.  17,)  by  Buonaparte,  and  Count  Louis  de  Cobenzl. 
The  two  parties  divided  between  them,  it  is  said,  the  whole  ter- 
ritory of  the  Republic  of  Venice ;  so  that  the  Adige  should  be 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  17S9 — 1S15.  165 

the  frontier  on  the  Continent  of  Italy,  while  the  Venetian  Is- 
lands, on  th-e  coast  of  Albania  and  Turkey,  should  belong  to 
France.  Austrian  Lombardy,  v/ith  Peschiera  and  Maniua,  the 
Modenois,  and  the  Venetian  territory  to  the  west  of  the  Adige. 
and  tlie  three  Legatines  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Romagna, 
were  to  form  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  A  Congress  for  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  the  Empire  was  to  be  opened  at  Eastadt.  By 
certain  secret  articles,  the  Emperor  consented  eventually  to  the 
'perpetual  and  complete  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Ehine  ; 
and  stipulated  for  himself  the  possession  of  Salzburg,  in  case  of 
a  partial  cession  ;  and  greater  advantages,  provided  the  v/hole 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  were  abandoned  to  France.  The  States 
of  Germany,  who  might  suffer  loss  by  the  partial  or  total  cession 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  were  to  receive  indemnification 
in  Germany,  as  was  expressed  in  the  treaty.  A  compensation 
was  to  be  allowed  to  the  Prince  of  Orange  ;  but  this  Avas  not 
to  take  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Batavian  Republic, 
nor  in  that  of  the  Austrian  possessions.  Prussia  was  to  pre- 
serve hei  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Plhine  ;  but  she  was 
to  claim  no  new  acquisitions  in  Germ.an3^ 

J?he  Directory  were  not  equally  satisfied  vrith  all  the  articles 
of  this  treaty;  but  they  dur:tl  not  disavow  the  negotiator,  who 
had  assisted  in  accomplishing  the  Revolution  of  the  ISth  Fruc- 
tidor.  The  French  government  were  displeased  v^^ith  the  in- 
crease of  power  granted  to  Austria,  and  especially  with  the 
dismemberment  of  Bavaria,  which  Rewbel,  who  piqued  himself 
on  his  political  abilities,  regarded  with  reason  as  contrary  to  the 
interests  of  France.  Moreover,  the  articles  relative  to  Prussia 
and  the  Prince  of  Orange  v/ere  in  direct  opposition  to  the  Con- 
vention of  Berlin,  (1794,)  which  was  the  basis  of  the  existing 
unanimity  between  Prussia  and  France.  By  that  Convention 
the  Bishopric  of  Munster  was  made  over  to  the  King,  by  way  of 
reimbursement  for  his  possessions  be^rond  the  Rhine ;  v/hile  the 
House  of  Orange  was  to  have  Wurtzburg  and  Bamberg.  These 
circumstances  obliged  the  Directory  to  conceal  from  the  Court  of 
Berlin  the  secret  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  ;  and 
this  constraint  greatly  embarrasied  them,  by  the  mistrust  which 
it  excited  on  the  part  of  Prussia. 

General  Bonaparte,  with  Trielhard  and  Bonnier,  members 
of  the  Convention,  were  appointed  to  negotiate  at  Rastadt  with 
the  deputation  of  the  Empire.  Bonaparte  made  only  a  short  stay 
there,  to  sign  a  secret  convention  with  Count  Louis  de  Cobenzl, 
(Dec,  1 ;)  according  to  which  Mayence  was  to  be  restored  to  the 
troops  of  the  French  Republic,  in  fulfilment  of  what  had  been 
resolved  on  at  Campo  Formio.     The  object  which  the  French 


166  CHAPTER  X. 

negotiators  proposed,  was  to  obtain  the  entire  cession  of  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  free  from  all  charges  ;  and  to  obtain  it 
without  being  obliged  to  purchase  it  at  the  price  Avhich  Bona- 
parte had  promised  to  Austria.  The  means  for  attaining  the 
object  were,  to  secure  the  consent  of  the  majority  of  the  deputa- 
tion, and  the  agreement  of  Prussia,  and  then  to  prevail  with 
the  latter  to  object  to  the  dismemberment  of  Bavaria — a  measure 
which  would  compel  France  to  reveal  the  secret  negotiations 
at  Campo  Formio.  The  first  proposition  on  which  these  min- 
isters demanded  the  cession  of  the  whole  left  bank  of  the 
Ehine,  became  the  subject  of  a  tedious  negotiation,  alternately- 
promoted  and  thwarted  by  a  thousand  intrigues.  At  length 
the  deputation  admitted  it  (March  179S,)  but  under  restrictions 
which  the  ministers  were  determined  to  reject.  The  latter  then 
proposed  as  a  second  basis,  the  idemnification  of  the  princes  in 
possession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  which  was  adopted 
without  much  difliculty  (^March  15.)  The  third  demand  re- 
ferred to  the  manner  of  carrying  ihe  fundamental  articles  into 
execution.  On  this  ground  the  French  advanced  a  multitud-e 
of  pretensions,  each  more  unjust  and  more  ridiculous  than  the 
other. 

Until  then  the  negotiations,  in  all  probability,  were  serious 
on  the  part  of  Austria  and  France  ;  as  the  former,  supported  by 
Russia,  hoped  to  obtain  the  consent  of  Prussia  to  the  dismem- 
berment of  Bavaria ;  while  France,  on  her  side,  vainly  antici- 
pated a  strict  alliance  with  the  Cabinet  of  Berlin,  which  would 
nave  enabled  the  Directory  to  have  dictated  its  own  conditions 
of  peace.  But,  towards  the  middle  of  the  year,  war  had  be- 
come inevitable,  in  consequence  of  the  numerous  aggressions 
Avhich  the  Executive  Directory  had  committed  in  different  coun- 
tries. To  them  war  had  become  necessary  to  occupy  their  ar- 
mies. The  continuation  of  the  Congress  at  Rastadt,  therefore, 
served  merely  to  gain  time  to  prepare  for  hostilities.  If  the 
Court  of  Vienna  had  flattered  themselves,  that  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  would  form  an  independent  State,they  were  undeceived 
by  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  France  which  that  Republic  was 
obliged  to  accept,  in  spite  of  the  determined  refusal  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ancients.  It  was,  in  reality,  a  treaty  of  subjection,  by 
which,  among  other  articles,  it  was  stipulated  that  there  should 
always  be  25,000  French  troops  in  the  Cisalpine  States,  for  the 
support  of  which  they  should  pay  eighteen  millions  per  annum. 

A  tumult  having  happened  at  Rome,  in  which  one  of  the 
French  generals  was  killed,  the  Directory  made  this  a  pretext 
for  invading  the  Ecclesiastical  States.  General  Berthier  pro- 
claimed the  Roman  Republic  (Feb.  15,  179S;)  and  Pope  Pius 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  167 

VI.  was  carried  captive  to  France  where  he  died,  (Aug.  29, 1799.1 

The  Directory,  from  no  just  motive,  excited  a  revolution  m 
Switzerland  ;  and  under  pretence  of  being  invited  by  one  of  th?*. 
parties,  they  sent  troops  into  that  country  (Jan.  26 ;)  overturned, 
the  existing  order  of  things  ;  and  under  the  title  of  the  Helvetic 
Republic,  they  established  a  government  entirely  subject  on 
ih':^ii  authority  (April  11.)  A  piece  of  imprudence,  committed 
or  the  French  ambassador  at  Vienna,  was  the  cause  of  a  popular 
'.•ornmotion  there  ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  quitted  his  situn- 
non.  This  event  made  a  great  noise.  It  gave  rise  to  the  cor- 
ferences  which  took  place  at  Seltz  in  Alsace  (April  13,)  between 
the  Ex-Director  Francois  and  Count  De  Cobenzl ;  in  which. 
France  and  Austria  tried,  for  the  last  time,  if  it  were  possible  to 
come  to  a  proper  understanding  regarding  their  mutual  interests. 
These  conferences  had  no  other  effect  than  to  convince  the  Court 
of  Vienna,  that  they  must  turn  the  current  of  their  politics  into 
a  new  channel. 

A  French  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Breueix,  sailed  from 
Toulon  (May  19,)  with  General  Bonaparte  and  40,000  men. 
When  they  arrived  off  Malta,  Bonaparte  got  possession  of  that 
island  by  means  of  a  capitulation,  signed  in  name  of  the  order  of 
St.  John  (June  12,)  by  some  of  the  knights  who  had  disclaimed 
all  submission  to  the  Grand  Master  a.nd  the  Assembly  of  the 
States.  From  Malta  the  French  fleet  sailed  with  a  fair  wind 
for  Egypt,  and  landed  at  Alexandria  (July  2,)  to  undertake  the 
conquest  of  that  country  ;  although  France  was  then  at  peace 
with  the  Porte.  The  English  fleet,  however,  under  Admiral 
Nelson,  which  had  gone  in  quest  of  the  French,  joined  them  off 
Alexandria,  and  defeated  them  in  an  action  which  was  fought  in 
the  bay  of  Aboukir  (Aug.  1,)  and  which  lasted  thirty-six  hours. 

Charles  Emanuel  IV.,  King  of  Sardinia,  insulted  in  every 
kind  of  way  by  the  French  generals,  and  by  his  neighbours  the 
Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  Republics,  resolved  to  shelter  himself 
from  these  annoyances  under  the  protection  of  the  Directory* 
He  had  concluded  an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  with 
France  (April  5,  1797  ;)  but  the  latter  having  demanded  a  new 
pledge  of  his  friendship,  he  concluded  a  convention  at  Milan,  by 
which  the  French  government  granted  him  their  protection  ;  on 
condition  that  he  would  surrender  to  them  the  citadel  of  his  capital. 

The  events  which  we  have  now  detailed  gave  rise  to  a  second 
coalition  against  France,  which  was  entered  into  by  Great  Britain, 
Russia,  Austria,  the  Porte,  and  the  Two  Sicilies.  The  two  first 
of  these  powers  promised  to  support  the  rest ;  Britain  furnishing 
supplies,  and  Russia  auxiliary  troops.  Before  taking  up  arms, 
the  Cabinet  of  Vienna  attempted  to  conciliate  that  of  Berlin, 


J6S  CHAPTER  X. 

With  the  view  of  compelling  France  to  moderate  some  of  her  claims 
Nep:oti.ations  were  accordingly  entered  into  at  Berlin,  at  fin^t  he 
:Meon  the  two  powers  alone,  and  afterwards  under  the  mediation 
ot  the  Emperor  Paul  of  Russia.  But  in  order  to  obtain  a  mutual 
••^v-operation,  it  was  necessary  to  begin  by  establishing  mutual 
ct-nfidence.  This  was  impossible,  as  each  of  the  Cabinets  had  its 
«.\Tn  secret,  which  it  would  not  communicate  to  the  other.  Prus* 
v-a  had  her  own  treaty  of  the  1st  of  August  1796;  and  Austria 
jier  secret  articles  of  Campo  Formio.  The  circumstance  which 
'letermined  the  Emperor  Paul  to  take  a  part  in  the  war  agamst 
France,  was  the  indignation  which  he  felt  at  the  spoliation  of 
the  Knights  of  Malta,  whom  he  had  taken  under  his  protection, 
and  afterwards  accepted  the  office  of  Grand  Master  of  the  Orde:^ 

This  coalition  was  formed  by  treaties  of  alliance  between  the 
several  parties  respectively.  Russia  agTeed  to  send  an  army  cf 
60,000  men,  under  Suwarow,  to  the  Danube,  and  to  furnish  Prus- 
sia with  45,000,  to  be  paid  by  Great  Britain. 

After  the  revolution  of  the  ISth  Fructidor,  the  Executive  Di- 
rectory of  the  French  Republic  had  to  struggle  against  the  gene- 
ral discontent,  as  vfeW  as  against  the  disordered  state  of  the 
finances,  and  the  intrigues  of  the  Jacobins,  whose  influence  they 
had  imprudently  augmented,  hoping,  by  their  means,  to  annihi- 
late the  party  of  the  opposition.  That  faction  v,rould  infallibly 
have  affected  a  counter-revolution  in  France,  had  not  the  Direc- 
tory, by  a  stretch  of  arbitrary  power,  annulled  the  elections  of 
1798.  The  want  of  funds,  which  was  always  growing  worse, 
had  retarded  the  renewal  of  the  war ;  but  v/hen  it  broke  out,  the 
Directory  adopted  a  measure  which  we  ought  not  to  pass  in  si- 
lence, as  it  has  exercised  a  lasting  influence  on  ail  the  States  oi 
Europe,  who  were  obliged  to  follow  the  example.  V/e  allude  to 
the  law  which  introduced  the  military  conscription  (Sept.  5, 1798,) 
and  which  was  the  work  of  General  Jourdan. 

The  Coalition  was  not  yet  consolidated,  and  Austria  had  not 
yet  finished  her  preparations  for  war,  when  the  King  of  the  Two 
"Sicilies,  instigated  by  a  party  who  wished  to  urge  the  Cabinet  of 
Vienna  to  greater  despatch,  commenced  hostilities,  by  expelling 
ihe  French  from  Rome  (Nov.  24.)  That  enterprise  failed  of 
success.  The  Neapolitan  troops,  who  were  commanded  by  a 
foreigner,  General  Baron  de  Mack,  showed  neither  discipline 
nor  courage.  After  this  first  repulse,  the  King  took  shelter  in 
Sicily.  His  capital  became  a  prey  to  the  most  frightful  anarchy. 
Mack,  to  save  his  life,  deserted  to  the  enemy.  The  Lazzaroni 
defended  Naples  against  the  French  army,  and  it  was  not  till 
after  a  battle  of  three  days,  that  Championnet,  vvho  was  at  their 
head,  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  the  city ;  after  which  h-j 


Bonaparle  crossing  the  Alps.     Vol.  2,   p.  174. 


Fall  of  Koiciuszko.     Vo).   2,   p.  194 


PERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1789—1815.  16^ 

proclaimed  the  Farthennpean  B-cpithlic  (Jan.  25.)  General  Jou- 
bert  took  possession  of  Turin  ;  and  when  the  new  campaign 
opened,  the  whole  of  Italy  was  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

The  Executive  Directory  made  these  hostile  preparations  of 
the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  against 
the  King  of  Sardinia  (Dec.  6,  179S,)  who  was  in  oUiance  with 
France.  General  Joubert  having  already  advanced  into  Pied- 
mont, Charles  Einanuel  IV.  signed  an  act,  drawn  up  by  General 
Clauzel,  by  which  he  renounced  the  exercise  of  all  power,  and 
commanded  his  subjects  to  obey  the  provisional  governmeni 
which  the  French  were  about  to  establish.  He  afterwards  re- 
tired into  Sardinia,  where  he  protested  against  the  violence  which 
he  had  experienced. 

The  Congress  of  Rastadt  had  continued  their  sittings.  On 
the  6th  December  1798,  the  French  plenipotentiaries  gave  in 
their  ultimatum  on  the  third  proposition  relative  to  the  mode  of 
carrying  into  execution  the  two  fundamental  articles  agreed  to  ; 
with  a  threat  to  quit  Rastadt  unless  it  was  accepted  within  six 
days.  The  majority  of  the  deputation,  who  were  not  initiated 
into  the  secrets  of  great  cabinets,  and  who  were  importuned  by 
a  crowd  of  princes,  nobles,  and  deputies  under  the  influence 
either  of  interest  or  terror,  accepted  this  ultimatum.;  against 
which  Austria,  Saxony,  and  Hanover  voted.  The  plenipoten- 
tiary of  the  Empire  ratified  it ;  probably  because  the  Court  of 
Vienna,  who  were  on  the  point  of  abrogating  every  thing  that 
had  passed  at  Rastadt,  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  enter  into 
any  discussion  on  that  subject.  This  finished  the  operations  of 
the  Congress.  From  that  moment,  the  French  plenipotentiaries 
did  nothing  but  complain  of  the  march  of  the  Russian  troops, 
who  in  effect  had  penetrated  inio  Galicia,  and  were  approaching 
the  Danube.  The  deputation,  whose  distinctive  character  was 
pusillanimity,  confirmed  these  complaints  in  presence  of  the 
Emperor  (Jan.  4,  1799,)  vrho,  however,  eluded  giving  any  posi- 
tive answer,  until  the  whole  of  his  measures  were  organized. 
A  French  army,  commanded  by  Jourdan,  passed  the  Rhine,  be- 
tween Strasburg  and  Basle.  The  Congress,  nevertheless,  con- 
tinued to  sit  until  the  7th  April,  when  it  was  dissolved  by  Count 
Metternich,  who  annulled  all  its  decisions. 

The  28th  of  April  was  a  day  memorable  in  the  annars  oi 
modern  history.  Some  of  the  Austrian  Hussars,  within  a  quar- 
'or  of  a  league  of  Rastadt,  assassinated  the  French  ministers 
/(lonnier,  Debry,  and  Roberjot,  who  were  on  their  return  to  Paris. 
i'hat  deed  was  not  authorized  by  the  Executive  Directory,  al- 
i.hough  it  was  attributed  to  them  because  they  had  artfully  turned 
it  to   their  advantage,  by  exciting  the  public  mind  which  had 

VOL.  II.  15 


170  CHAPTER  X. 

already  declared  itself  against  the  war  ;  neither  was  it  author 
ized  by  any  cabinet,  or  commander  of  the  army.  Its  real  au- 
thor has  never  been  officially  made  known. 

The  French  Republic  had  already  declared  war  against  the 
Emperor  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  (March  12,  1799,) 
without  any  apparent  motive.  But,  before  this  declaration  was 
made,  the  campaign  had  already  opened  in  Switzerland,  where 
General  Massena  had  dislodged  the  Austrians  from  the  country 
of  the  Grisons,  which  they  had  occupied  in  consequence  of  a 
treaty  with  the  Republicans,  concluded  at  Coire  (Oct.  7,  179S.) 
The  Archduke  Charles,  at  the  head  of  the  main  Austrian  army, 
acquitted  himself  gloriously.  He  defeated  Jourdan  in  several 
pitched  battles  at  Pullendorf  and  Stockach  (March  20,  25,)  and 
compelled  the  army  of  the  Danube,  as  it  was  called,  to  repass 
the  Rhine.  The  remains  ©f  Jourdan 's  army  were  then  united 
to  that  of  Massena. 

In  Italy,  while  General  Macdonald,  who  had  succeeded  Cham- 
pionnet  in  the  command,  was  covering  Rome  and  Naples,  Gen- 
eral Gauthier  occupied  Florence.  Sherer,  at  the  head  of  the 
army  of  Italy,  was  defeated  by  Kray  at  Legnago  (March  25,) 
Roco  (30,)  and  Verona  (April  5.)  It  was  at  this  time  that  Su- 
warow  arrived  in  Italy  with  the  Russians,  and  took  the  chief 
command  of  the  combined  army.  Moreau,  who  with  a  noble 
resignation  had  taken  on  himself  the  interim  command  of  the 
French  army  in  its  present  discouraging  circumstances,  was  de- 
feated at  Cassano  (April  27,)  and  retired  to  Alessandria.  It  was 
of  great  importance  for  Suwarow  to  prevent  Macdonald,  who 
had  arrived  at  Naples,  from  joining  Moreau.  But  the  two 
French  generals  manoeuvred  so  dexterously,  that  this  junction 
took  place  ;  although  Macdonald  had  been  attacked  by  Suwa- 
row near  the  Trebia  (June  17,)  where  he  sustained  a  considera- 
ble loss.  The  whole  of  Lombardy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Allies.  Mantua  likewise  capitulated.  Joubert,  who  had  been 
appointed  General  of  the  armj^  of  Italy,  had  scarcely  arrived 
when  he  offered  battle  to  Suwarow  near  Novi  (Aug.  15 ;)  but 
he  was  slain  near  the  commencement  of  the  action.  Moreau, 
who  had  continued  with  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  could  not  pre- 
vent the  general  rout.  Championnet,  who  succeeded  Joubert, 
was  not  more  fortunate.  Coni,  the  last  place  in  their  possession, 
having  been  taken  (Dec.  3,)  the  French  retired  within  the  Ap- 
penines. 

The  Archduke  Charles  having  marched  into  Switzerland, 
IMassena  took  up  a  strong  position  on  the  Aar  and  the  Reuss. 
The  hopes  which  they  had  entertained  of  bringing  over  Prussia 
to  the  coalition  having  entirely  failed,  it  was  agreed  between 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  17\ 

Great  Britain  and  Russia  (June  29.)  that  the  army  of  45,000 
men  which  the  latter  had  eventually  promised  to  place  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  King  of  Prussia  if  he  became  a  party  in  the  war, 
should  henceforth  be  employed  against  France  in  Switzerland. 
Accordingly  these  troops,  who  were  commanded  uy  Prince  Kor- 
sakoff, having  arrived  on  the  Limmat,  the  Archduke  joined  to 
them  30,000  Austrians  ;  while  with  the  rest  of  his  troops  he 
marched  towards  the  Rhine,  where  a  new  French  army  had 
occupied  Heidelberg  and  Manheim.  The  Archduke  compelled 
them  to  repass  the  river,  and  took  Manheim  b}^  assault  (Sept.  18.) 

After  the  battle  of  Novi,  Suwarow  quitted  Italy  with  the 
Russians  whose  number  Vv'as  novv'  reduced  to  24,000  men,  to 
march  on  the  Limmat,  and  take  the  command  of  the  allied  army 
in  Switzerland.  Massena,  who  was  anxious  to  prevent  this 
junction,  attacked  Korsakoff,  and  defeated  him  near  Zurich  (Sept. 
24;)  which  obliged  him  to  evacuate  Switzerland.  Suwarow, 
whose  march  across  the  Alps  had  now  become  very  dangerous, 
accomplished  it  nevei*theless  with  boldness  and  celerity;  and 
although  he  had  to  encounter  Leci  arbe  who  wished  to  intercept 
him,  and  afterwards  Massena  who  was  in  pursuit  of  him,  he 
crossed  the  small  cantons  of  the  Grisons,  and  effected  a  union 
with  the  remains  of  Korsakoff 's  army. 

The  Roman  and  Parthenopean  Republics  had  fallen  to  pieces 
after  the  departure  of  Macdonald.  Ancona,  where  he  had  left 
a  body  of  troops,  did  not  surrender  until  the  29th  of  November. 
The  combined  fleets  of  the  Turks  and  Russians,  about  the  end 
of  the  year  1793,  had  taken  possession  of  the  French  islands 
that  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  Venetians.  Corfu  held  out  till 
the  1st  of  March  1799.  The  Archduke  Charles  having  advanced 
on  Switzerland  after  the  defeat  of  Korsakoff,  Lecourbe,  who  had 
been  called  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Alsace,  passed  the 
Rhine;  but  he  was  soon  after  compelled  to  return  to  the 'left 
bank  of  that  river. 

In  virtue  of  a  convention  which  was  concluded  at  St.  Peters- 
burg (June  22,)  the  Emperor  Paul,  in  addition  to  the  105,000 
men  which  he  had  already  despatched,  engaged  to  furnish  17,500 
more.  These  with  12,000  English,  under  the  command  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  attempted  to  make  a  descent  on  Holland,  and 
landed  at  Helder.  This  expedition  proved  a  total  failure.  The 
Duke  of  York,  after  having  been  worsted  in  several  engage- 
ments with  General  Brune,  evacuated  the  country,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  capitulation  signed  at  Alkmaar  (Oct.  18,  1799.) 
These  disasters  were  but  feebly  compensated  by  the  taking  of 
Surinam  (Aug.  16,)  the  last  of  the  Dutch  colonies  v/hich  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English. 


172  CHAPTER  X. 

While  these  events  were  transacting-  in  Europe,  Bonaparte 
had  subdued  the  greater  part  of  Egypt ;  but  he  was  less  suc- 
cessful in  the  expedition  which  he  undertook  against  Syria. 
Being  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  Acre  (May  19,)  after  sus- 
tahiing  considerable  losses,  he  returned  to  Egypi  with  the  feeble 
remains  of  his  army.  Shortly  after  (July  15,)  a  Turkish  fleet 
appeared  off  Aboukir,  and  landed  a  body  of  troops,  who  took 
possession  of  that  fort.  Bonaparte  directed  his  march  against 
them,  beat  them,  and  almost  totally  annihilated  them  (July  25;) 
but  being  displeased  at  the  Directory,  who  had  left  him  without 
support,  and  having  heard  of  their  disorganization,  he  resolved 
to  return  to  Europe.  He  embarked  secretly  (Aug.  23,)  and 
landed  at  Frejus  on  the  coast  of  Provence  (Oct.  9,  1799.) 

At  the  time  of  his  arrival,  France  was  in  a  state  of  the  most 
violent  commotion.  The  Council  of  Five  Hundred  was  become 
more  and  more  Jacobinical,  in  consequence  of  new  elections. 
Sieyes,  Gohier,  Roger  Duces,  and  Moulins,  with  Barras,  Direc- 
tor of  the  Ancients,  formed  the  government.  The  revolutionary 
measures  which  were  adopted  by  the  Council,  seemed  a  pre- 
lude to  the  return  of  Terror.  Such  was  the  law  which  author- 
ized the  Directory  to  take  hostages  among  the  relations  of  the 
emigrants  (July  12 ;)  and  the  loan  of  a  hundred  millions,  which 
was  decreed  (Aug.  6.) 

In  the  west,  the  Chouans  had  organized  a  new  insurrection 
under  the  conduct  of  George  Cadoudal  and  the  Counts  de  Frot- 
te,  D'Autichamp,  and  de  Bourmont.  Disturbances  had  broken 
out  in  other  provinces  ;  the  government  had  fallen  into  contempt ; 
a  general  restlessness  had  taken  possession  of  the  public  mind. 
Barras  and  Sieyes  were  perfectly  conscious  that  this  state  of 
things  could  not  continue.  Each  of  them,  separately,  had  con- 
trived the  plan  of  a  new  revolution  ;  and  each  of  them  endeav- 
oured to  make  a  partisan  of  General  Bonaparte,  who  had  just 
arrived  in  Paris,  and  on  Avhom  the  hopes  of  France  seemed  at 
that  time  to  depend.  The  General  deceived  Barras,  and  entered 
into  a  conspiracy  with  Sieyes  and  the  more  powerful  mem- 
bers of  the  Council  of  Ancients.  On  the  ISth  Brumaire  (Nov. 
9,  1799,)  the  Council  nominated  Bonaparte  commandant  of  the 
troops  ;  abolished  the  Directory  ;  and  ordered  the  Legislative 
Assembly  to  be  transferred  to  St.  Cloud.  The  meeting  which 
took  place  next  day  was  a  scene  of  great  turbulence.  Bonaparte 
ineffectually  attempted  to  defend  himself  in  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  when  the  firmness  of  his  brother  Lucien  and  the  gren- 
adiers of  the  guard  alone  secured  his  safety.  The  Council  was 
dissolved,  and  the  constitution  of  the  year  Three  abolished  (Nov. 
11.)     A  provisional  government  was  established,  consisting  of 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  173 

Sieyes,  Roger  Ducos,  and  Bonaparte.  A  legislative  commission 
of  twenty-five  members  were  charged  to  draw  up  the  plan  of  a 
new  constitution. 

The  new  constitution  was  announced  on  the  22d  of  Frimaire, 
of  the  year  Eight  (13th  Dec.  1799.)  The  republican  forms  were 
preserved ;  and  the  government,  in  appearance,  was  intrusted  to 
a  Council  of  three  persons,  appointed  for  ten  years,  and  decorated 
with  the  title  of  Consuls,  viz.  Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  and  Le 
Brun  ;  but  in  reality  to  the  first  only,  on  Vvhom  they  conferred  a 
power  truly  monarchical.  The  other  constituted  bodies  were  a 
Conservative  Senate,  contrived  by  Sieyes,  to  be  the  guardian  of 
the  public  liberties  ;  a  Tribunal  of  one  hundred  members,  whose 
business  it  was  to  discuss  such  forms  of  law  as  the  government 
laid  before  them  ;  and  a  Legislative  Body  of  three  hundred 
members,  who  gave  their  vote  without  any  previous  debate. 
Bonaparte  seized  the  reins  of  government  with  a  firm  hand.  He 
abrogated  several  of  the  revolutionary  laws,  amalgamated  its 
different  parts  into  a  system,  and  by  degrees  organized  the  most 
complete  despotism.  He  consolidated  his  power  by  quashing 
the  insurrection  in  the  West.  By  his  orders,  Generals  Brune 
and  Hedouville  concluded  a  peace  (Jan.  IS,  ISOO.)  first  with  the 
Vendeans  at  Montfaugon,  and  afterwards  with  the  Chouans.  He 
gave  a  most  striking  example  of  perfidy,  by  causing  the  brave 
Frotte  to  be  shot  a  few  da^'s  after.  But  he  conciliated  the  af- 
fection of  his  subjects  by  the  restoration  of  religion,  which  he 
established  by  means  of  a  Concordat  with  the  Court  of  Rome, 
(July  15,  1801.) 

Bonaparte  was  no  sooner  placed  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment, than  he  proposed  to  make  peace  with  England,  by  means 
of  a  letter  (Dec.  26,  1799,)  not  written,  according  to  etiquette,  by 
one  of  his  ministers  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, but  in  his  own  hand,  and  addressed  to  King  George  III., 
whom  he  complimented  for  his  patriotic  virtues.  He  stated  the 
necessity  for  peace  ;  and  trusted,  that  two  nations  so  enlightened 
as  France  and  Great  Britain,  Avould  no  longer  be  actuated  by 
false  ideas  of  glory  and  greatness.  This  step,  made  in  so  un- 
usual a  form,  could  not  possibly  have  a  successful  result,  espe- 
cially as  Mr.  Pitt  was  determined  to  employ  all  the  resources  of 
England  to  overthrow  the  revolutionary  despotism  which  the 
First  Consul  was  endeavouring  to  establish  in  France.  That 
great  statesman  endeavoured,  by  the  treaties  of  subsidy  which 
we  have  already  mentioned,  to  repair  the  loss  which  the  coalition 
had  just  suffered  by  the  retirement  of  Paul  I.,  who  being  morti- 
fied with  the  bad  success  of  the  Russian  arms,  which  he  ascribed 

VOL.  II.  15^ 


174  CHAPTER  X. 

10  the  allies  themselves,  had  recalled  his  troops  at  the  beg-inning 
of  the  year  ISOO. 

General  Melas,  who  commanded  the  Austrians  in  Italy,  open- 
ed the  campaign  of  1800  in  the  most  splendid  manner.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  victory  which  he  gained  over  Massena  at  Voltri 
(April  10,)  the  latter  was  obliged  to  throw  himself  into  Genoa, 
where  he  sustained  a  siege  of  six  weeks  with  gTeat  courage. 
Melas  made  himself  master  of  Nice  (May  11,)  and  Souchet 
passed  the  Var  on  his  march  to  Provence.  But,  in  a  short  time, 
Bonaparte,  at  the  head  of  a  new  army  which  collected  at  Dijon, 
passed  the  Alps,  and  took  possession  of  Milan  (June  2;)  while 
Melas  was  not  yet  aware  that  his  army  was  in  existence.  For- 
tunately for  the  latter,  Massena  was  obliged  to  surrender  Genoa 
at  that  very  time,  (June  5,)  which  placed  the  corps  of  General 
Ott  at  his"  disposal.  He  had  found  it  difficult,  with  his  small 
garrison,  to  preserve  order  among  the  inhabitants,  of  whom 
15,000  are  said  to  have  perished  by  famine  or  disease  during 
the  blockade.  General  Ott  was  defeated  by  Berthier  at  j\Ionte- 
bello  (June  9.)  Melas  himself  engaged  General  Bonaparte  at 
Marengo  (June  14.)  Victory  was  already  within  his  grasp, 
when  the  arrival  of  the  brave  Desaix  with  his  division,  disap- 
pointed him  of  the  triumph.  The  defeat  had  a  most  discourag- 
ing effect  on  General  Melas,  and  cost  Austria  the  whole  of 
Lom hardy.  A  truce  which  was  concluded  at  Alessandria  (June 
16,)  put  Bonaparte  in  possession  of  that  town  ;  as  well  as  of 
Tortona,  Turin,  Placentia,  Coni,  Genoa,  &c.  The  Austrians 
retired  beyond  the  Mincio. 

Moreau,  at  the  head  of  a  French  army,  had  passed  the  Rhine 
(April  25,)  and  defeated  Kray  in  several  engagements.  The 
Austrians  then  retired  within  the  Upper  Palatinate.  Moreau 
had  already  made  himself  master  of  Munich,  when  he  received 
the  news  of  the  truce  at  Alessandria.  He  then  concluded  an 
armistice  at  Parsdorf  (July  15.)  The  Count  St.  Julien,  who 
had  been  sent  by  the  Emperor  Francis  II.  to  Paris,  having 
signed  the  preliminaries  of  peace  vrithout  sufficient  authority, 
the  Court  of  Vienna  refused  to  ratify  them,  as  they  had  engaged 
not  to  make  peace  without  the  consent  of  England.  Hostilities 
were  to  recommence  in  Germany  in  the  month  of  September  ; 
but  the  Archduke  John,  who  commanded  the  Austrian  army  in 
Bavaria,  having  requested  that  the  armistice  should  be  prolonged, 
General  Moreau  consented,  on  condition  that  Philipsburg,  Ulm, 
and  Ingolstadt,  should  be  given  up  to  him.  This  arrangement 
was  signed  at  Hohenlinden  (Sept.  20,)  and  France  immediately 
demolished  the  fortificc.tions  of  these  two  places.  Hostilities 
having  recommeuced  about  the  end  of  November,  General  'Mo- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  175 

reau  defeated  the  army  of  the  Archduke  John,  at  the  rncmorahle 
battle  of  Hohenlinden  (Dec.  3  ;)  after  which  he  marched  in  all 
haste  on  Vienna,  Austria  being  released  from  her  engagements 
by  the  Cabinet  of  London,  then  declared  that  she  was  determined 
to  make  peace,  whatever  might  be  the  resolutions  of  England ; 
on  which  a  new  armistice  was  concluded  at  Steyr  (Dec.  25.) 
Braunau  and  Wurtzburg  were  delivered  up  to  the  French. 

General  Brune,  who  commanded  in  Italy,  renewed  the  truce 
of  Alessandria  by  the  convention  of  Castiglione  (Sept.  29,)  and 
thus  gained  time  to  take  possession  of  Tuscany,  which  they  had 
forgot  to  include  in  the  truce.  Being  reinforced  by  the  army  of 
Macdonald,  who  had  arrived  in  Lombardy,  he  passed  the  Brenta; 
after  traversing,  by  a  perilous  march,  the  lofty  mountain  of  Splu- 
gen.  In  virtue  of  a  new  truce,  signed  at  Treviso,  the  French 
obtained  the  recovery  of  Peschiera,  the  forts  of  Verona,  Legnago, 
Fermo,  and  Ancona. 

Meantime,  negotiations  for  peace  had  been  entered  into  at 
Luneville,  between  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Count  Loais  de 
Cobenzl.  The  First  Consul  having  refused  to  ratify  the  armis- 
tice of  Treviso,  because  it  had  left  Mantua  in  the  hands  of  the 
Austrians,  the  Imperial  plenipotentiary  at  Luneville  signed  an 
additional  convention,  by  which  that  place  was  delivered  over  to 
the  French.  Peace  between  Austria  and  France  was  signed  a 
few  days  after  (Feb.  9 ;)  and  Francis  II.,  at  the  same  time,  made 
stipulations  for  the  Empire.  He  ceded  the  Belgic  provinces, 
the  county  of  Falkenstein  and  Frickthal.  In  Italy,  the  frontier 
line  between  Austria  and  the  Cisalpine  Republic  was  traced,  so 
that  the  Adige  should  separate  the  two  States,  and  the  cities  of 
Verona  and  Porto  Legnago  should  be  divided  between  them. 
The  other  conditions  were,  that  the  Grand  Duke  of  Modena 
should  have  Brisgau  in  exchange  for  his  dutcliy ;  that  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  should  renounce  his  grand  dutchy,  and  receive 
a  free  and  competent  indemnity  in  Germany  ;  that  the  Empire 
should  give  up  all  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine ;  that  the  hereditary 
princes,  who  lost  their  territories  in  consequence  of  these  ces- 
sions, should  receive  compensation  from  the  Empire  ;  and  lastly, 
that  the  Germanic  Body  should  ratify  the  peace  within  the  space 
of  thirty  days.  By  a  secret  article,  Saltzburg,  Berchtolsgaden, 
Passau,  the  bishopric  and  city  of  Augsburg,  Kempten,  and  twelve 
other  immediate  abbeys,  besides  nineteen  Imperial  cities  in 
Swabia,  including  Ulm  and  Augsburg,  were  secured  to  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  The  Empire  showed  great  anxiety 
to  ratify  this  peace,  which  was  the  precursor  of  its  annihilation 

The  English  had  compelled  General  Vaubois  to  surrender  the 
Isle  of  Malta.    After  the  flight  of  Bonaparte  from  Egypt,  Kleber 


\7Ci  CnAFTER  X.  ♦ 

had  taken  the  command  of  the  French  army,  which  was  then 
reduced  to  12,000  men.  A  convention  was  conckided  at  El 
Arisch  with  the  Grand  Vizier  who  had  arrived  from  Syria  at 
the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  by  which  the  French  General 
engaged  to  evacuate  the  country.  The  English  government 
having  refused  to  ratify  this  treaty,  unless  Kleber  would  surren- 
der himself  prisoner  of  war,  that  General  immediately  attacked 
the  Grand  Vizier,  and  defeated  him  at  El  Hanka  (March  20  ;) 
after  which  he  again  subdued  Cairo,  which  had  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt.  The  English  Government  were  willing  to  ratify 
the  convention  of  the  24th  January  ;  but  General  Menou  having 
succeeded  Kleber  who  had  fallen  by  the  dagger  of  a  Turkish 
fanatic,  was  determined  to  maintain  himself  in  Egypt,  in  spite 
of  an  evident  impossibility.  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  the  Eng- 
lish commander,  who  arrived  with  a  British  force,  effected  his 
landing  at  Aboukir  (March  8,  1801.)  Menou  was  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Rahmanieh,  near  Alexandria  (March  21,)  which 
cost  General  Abercromby  his  life.  But  the  French  soon  saw 
themselves  assailed  on  all  hands  by  the  Turks  and  the  English, 
who  had  been  recalled  from  the  East  Indies,  and  had  disem- 
barked on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  General  Belliard,  who 
had  the  command  at  Cairo,  concluded  a  capitulation  (June  27,) 
in  virtue  of  which  he  was  sent  back  to  France  with  the  troops 
under  his  orders.  Menou  found  himself  obliged  to  follow  his 
example,  and  capitulated  at  Alexandria  to  General  Hutchinson 
(Aug.  30,)  who  consented  to  the  safe  conveyance  of  the  French 
troops  to  their  native  country.  Thus  ended  an  expedition, 
which,  had  it  proved  successful,  must  have  become  fatal  to  the 
British  Empire  in  India,  and  given  a  new  direction  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  world. 

Various  treaties  were  concluded  between  the  peace  of  Lune- 
ville  and  that  of  Amiens,  which  put  an  entire  end  to  the  war. 
(1.)  General  Murat,  who  commanded  the  army  in  Italy,  having 
shown  some  disposition  to  carry  the  war  into  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  Ferdinand  IV.  concluded  an  armistice  at  Foligno  (Feb. 
18,)  which  he  afterwards  converted  into  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Flo- 
rence. He  gave  up  the  State  of  Presidii,  and  his  share  of  the 
island  of  Elba  and  of  the  principality  of  Pioijibino.  By  a  secret 
article,  he  agreed  that  16,000  French  troops  should  occupy  the 
peninsula  of  Otranto  and  part  of  Abruzzo,  until  the  conclusion 
of  peace  with  England  and  the  Porte.  (2.)  Portugal,  since  the 
year  1797,  had  wished  to  withdraw  from  the  first  coalition,  and 
even  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Executive  Directory  at  Paris 
(Aug.  10  ;)  but  the  English  squadron  of  Admiral  St.  Vincent 
having  entered  the  Tagus,  the  Queen  refused  to  ratify  that 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789— 1S15.  177 

treaty.  Portugal  thus  continued  at  war  with  France  until  1801. 
The  French  army,  which  was  already  in  Spain,  having  shown 
some  disposition  to  enter  Portugal,  peace  was  concluded  at  Ma- 
drid between  Lucien  Bonaparte  and  M.  Freire  (Sept.  29,)  the 
ministers  of  the  two  States  at  the  Court  of  Spain.  Portugal 
shut  her  ports  against  the  English,  and  regulated  the  frontiers 
of  Guiana,  so  as  to  prove  advantageous  to  France.  (3.)  In  Rus- 
sia Bonaparte  had  succeeded  to  a  certain  extent  in  conciliating 
the  good  will  of  the  Emperor  Paul.  Nevertheless,  at  the  death 
of  that  prince  (Oct.  8,  1801,)  there  existed  no  treaty  of  peace 
between  Russia  and  France.  A  treaty,  howeVer,  was  signed 
at  Paris  in  the  reign  of  Alexander,  by  Count  MarkoiTand  Tal- 
leyrand (Oct.  11,)  and  followed  by  a  very  important  special  con- 
vention by  which,  among  other  things,  it  was  agreed  :  That  the 
two  governments  should  form  a  mutual  agreement,  as  to  the 
principles  to  be  followed  with  respect  to  indemnifications  in 
Germany  ;  as  well  as  to  determine  respecting  those  in  Italy, 
and  to  maintain  a  just  equilibrium  between  the  Houses  of  Aus- 
tria and  Brandeburg  :  That  France  should  accepi  the  mediation 
of  Prussia,  for  the  pacification  with  the  Porte  :  That  the  inte- 
grality of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  should  be  maintained, 
according  to  the  treaty  of  the  2Sth  March,  1801 ;  and  that  the 
French  troops  should  evacuate  the  country  as  soon  as  the  fate 
of  Egypt  was  decided  :  That  a  friendly  disposition  should  be 
shown  to  the  interests  of  the  King  of  Sardinia ;  and  that  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg  should  be  com- 
pensated for  their  losses,  by  a  full  indemnity  in  Germany.  (4.) 
Immediatel}^-  after  General  Menon  had  signed  the  capitulation 
of  Alexandria,  the  preliminaries  of  peace  betw^een  France  and 
the  Porte  were  concluded  at  Paris  (Oct.  9  ;)  but  they  were  not 
confirmed  into  a  definitive  peace,  until  after  the  preliminaries 
were  signed  at  London  (June  25,  1802.)  The  free  navigation 
of  the  Black  Saa  was  secured  to  the  French  flag. 

When  Mr.  Pitt  had  quitted  the  English  ministry,  France  and 
England  came  to  terms  of  better  accommodation.  The  first  ad- 
vances were  made  on  the  side  of  the  latter  power.  The  preli- 
minaries were  signed  at  London,  between  Lord  Hawkesbury 
and  M.  Otio  ;  including  their  respective  allies  (Oct.  1,  1801.) 
Of  all  her  conquests,  Great  Britain  was  to  retain  only  the  Island 
of  Trinidad,  and  the  Dutch  possessions  in  Ceylon.  Malta  was 
to  be  restored  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  under  the  protection 
of  a  third  power  ;  and  Egypt  Avas  to  belong  to  the  Porte.  The 
French  troops  were  to  abandon  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the 
English  to  quit  Porto  Ferrajo.  France  was  to  acknowledge 
the  Repubh'c  of  the  Seven  Islands,  which  was  composed  of  Corfu 
and  the  sLk  other  islands  formerly  belonging  to  the  Venetians. 


178  CHAPTER  X. 

For  carrying  these  preliminaries  into  execution,  a  Congress 
was  opened  at  Amiens,  where  Joseph  Bonaparte  appeared  for 
France,  Lord  Cornwallis  for  England,  the  Chevalier  Azara  for 
Spain,  and  M.  Schimmelpenninck  for  the  Batavian  Republic. 
Some  unexpected  difficulties  arose  with  regard  to  Malta,  as  Great 
Britain  had  repented  of  having  given  it  up  in  the  preliminary- 
treaty.  They  found  means,  however,  to  remove  these  obstacles  ; 
and  the  peace  of  Amiens  was  finally  signed  after  a  negotiation 
of  six  months  (March  27,  1S02.) 

We  shall  only  take  notice  here  in  what  respects  these  articles 
differed  from  the  preliminaries.  With  regard  to  the  stipulation 
respecting  the  surrender  of  Malta  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John, 
several  modifications  were  added,  viz.  as  to  the  election  of  a  new 
Grand  ]\Iaster ;  the  suppression  of  the  French  and  English 
Langues,  or  class  of  Knights  ;  the  institution  of  a  Maltese  Langue; 
the  time  for  its  evacuation ;  and  the  future  appointment  of  the 
garrison.  Finally,  it  was  said  in  the  treaty,  that  the  indepen- 
dence of  that  island  and  its  present  arrangement,  were  placed 
under  the  guaranty  of  France,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Spain, 
Russia  and  Prussia.  It  may  be  mentioned,  that  Russia  and 
Prussia  declined  to  undertake  that  guaranty,  unless  certain 
modifications  were  added.  This  refusal  furnished  England  with 
a  pretext  for  refusing  to  part  with  that  island  ;  and  the  war,  as 
we  shall  soon  find,  was  recommenced  rather  than  give  up  that 
important  possession. 

One  article  of  the  treaty  of  Amiens  having  promised  the  Prince 
of  Orange  a  compensation  for  the  losses  he  had  sustained  in  the 
late  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces,  both  in  private  property 
and  expenses,  another  convention  was  signed  at  i\.miens  between 
France  and  the  Batavian  States,  importing  that  that  compensa- 
tion should  in  no  case  fall  to  the  charge  of  the  latter. 

There  is  one  essential  observation  which  we  must  make  on 
the  peace  of  Amiens.  Contrary  to  the  general  jpractice,  the  for- 
mer treaties  between  France  and  Great  Britain  were  not  renewed 
by  that  of  Amiens.  It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  the  cause  of 
this  silence.  At  the  time  when  the  peace  of  Utrecht  was  con- 
cluded. Great  Britain  had  an  interest  in  having  the  principle  of 
free  commerce  for  neutral  States  held  sacred  ;  and  she  had  con- 
sequently announced  it  in  the  treaty  of  navigation  and  commerce, 
which  was  concluded  in  1713.  All  the  following  treaties,  until 
that  of  1783  inclusive,  having  renewed  the  articles  of  Utrecht, 
the  silence  on  this  subject  at  Amiens  placed  Great  Britain,  in 
this  respect,  on  the  footing  of  a  common  right,  which,  according 
to  the  system  of  the  English,  would  not  have  been  favourable  to 
the  principle  of  a  free  trade, — a  doctrine  which  it  was  for  their 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1815.  179 

interest  to  suppress,  since  they  had  then  the  command  of  the  sea. 
We  have  now  brought  down  the  history  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, from  its  commencement  to  the  year  1S02,  when  the 
French  power  began  to  preponderate  in  Europe.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Republic  was  enormously  great.  The  Netherlands 
and  a  flourishing  portion  of  Germany,  as  well  as  Geneva,  Sa- 
voy, and  Piedmont,  were  incorporated  with  the  territories  which 
had  been  governed  by  Louis  XVI.  The  Dutch  and  the  Cisal- 
pine States,  including  the  Milanois,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
Venetian  territories,  the  dutchies  of  Mantua,  Modena  and  Par- 
ma, besides  some  of  the  Ecclesiastical  provinces,  had  bov/ed  their 
neck  to  the  yoke  of  the  First  Consul.  The  Swiss,  enslaved  by 
the  Directory,  had  not  been  able  to  recover  their  ancient  inde- 
pendence. Tuscany  and  the  Ligurian  Republic  durst  not  pre- 
sume to  dispute  the  will  of  the  conqueror  ;  wdiiie  Spain,  forget- 
ful of  her  ancient  dignity,  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  subservient 
and  degraded  alliance.  It  will  be  now  necessary,  according  to 
the  plan  of  this  work,  that  we  take  a  survey  of  the  more  remark- 
able events  which  happened  in  the  course  of  the  preceding  thir- 
teen years,  in  the  other  States  of  Europe. 

Portugal  had  been  a  co-partner  in  the  first  coalition  against 
France,  and  had  furnished  a  body  of  6000  troops  to  Spain,  and 
some  ships  of  war  to  England.  We  have  already  related  how 
Mary  I.  was  prevented  from  disengaging  herself  from  the  treaty 
of  1797.  The  Prince  of  Brazil,  who  had  assumed  the  regency 
(July  15,  1799)  in  consequence  of  the  infirm  state  of  his  mother's 
health,  took  a  more  decided  part  in  the  second  coalition,  by  sign- 
ing an  alliance  with  Russia  (Sept.  28.)  This  alliance  drew  him 
into  a  war  with  Spain.  The  Duke  of  Alcudia,  usually  st3ded 
the  Prince  of  Peace,  seized  several  cities  in  Portugal  without 
much  difficulty  ;  as  her  army  was  in  as  bad  condition  as  her  fi- 
nances. A  peace  was  speedily  concluded  at  Badajos  (.June  6, 
1801.)  Portugal  agreed  to  shut  her  ports  against  English  ves- 
sels ;  and  ceded  to  Spain  Olivenga,  and  the  places  situated  on 
the  Guadiana.  The  engagement  respectino"  English  vessels  was 
renewed  by  the  peace  of  Madrid  (Sept.  29,)  which  reconciled 
Portugal  with  France. 

In  Spain,  Charles  IV.  had  succeeded  his  father  Charles  III. 
(Dec.  13,  1788;)  Philip,  the  eldest  son,  having  been  declared 
incapable  of  reigning,  on  account  of  his  deficiency  of  intellect. 
That  prince,  who  had  no  pleasure  but  in  the  chase," gave  himself 
up  entirely  to  that  amusement.  He  was  the  jest  of  the  Queen 
and  her  favourites,  to  whom  he  abandoned  the  cares  of  govern- 
ment. In  1790  a  difference  which  had  arisen  with  England 
respecting  the  right  of  property  to  Nootka  Sound  in  North  A^neri- 


180  CHAPTER  X. 

ca,  was  on  the  point  of  interrupting  the  repose  of  this  indolent 
monarch.  But  matters  were  adjusted  by  a  convention  signed 
at  the  Escuriai  (Oct.  28,  1790,)  by  which  Spain  renounced  her 
rights  over  that  distant  possession.  The  chief  favourite  since 
1790,  had  been  Don  Manuel  Godoy,  created  Duke  of  Alcudia  ; 
a  weak  minister,  under  whom  every  thing  became  venal,  and 
the  Avhole  nation  corrupt.  The  revolutionary  principles  which 
had  taken  root  there  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  as  sufH- 
cient  care  had  not  been  taken  to  supplj^  the  place  of  these  fathers 
with  other  public  instructors  of  youth,  were  readily  propagated 
under  so  vicious  an  administration  ;  especially  after  the  publica- 
tion of  the  famous  Memoir  of  Jovellanos  (1795,)  on  the  improve- 
ments of  agriculture  and  the  Agrarian  Law ;  a  work  which  was 
composed  by  order  of  the  Council  of  Castille,  and  written  with 
clearness  and  simplicity.  The  author,  no  doubt,  deserved  credit 
for  the  purity  of  his  sentiments ;  but  in  his  enthusiasm  for  the 
objects  which  he  recommended,  he  overlooked  all  existing  laws  ; 
encouraged  the  spoliation  of  the  church,  the  crown,  and  the  com- 
munity ;  as  well  as  the  suppression  of  corporations,  and  condi- 
tional legacies,  or  liferents  ;  in  short,  a  total  and  radical  subver- 
sion of  the  institutions  of  the  country.  This  work  may  be  said 
to  have  produced  a  revolution  in  Spain  ;  for  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz 
did  no  more  than  carry  into  execution  the  schemes  of  Jovellanos. 

If  the  Prince  of  Peace  failed  in  conducting  the  administration 
of  the  interior,  he  v/as  not  more  successful  in  making  the  crown 
of  Spain  respected  abroad.  By  the  peace  of  Basle  (July  22, 
1795,)  Charles  IV.  renounced  the  Spanish  part  of  St.  Domingo. 
By  the  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  of  St.  Idlefonso  (Aug. 
19,  1796,)  Spain  identified  herself  with  the  French  system. 
The  war  with  Great  Britain  ruined  her  marine.  Admiral  Jer- 
vis  defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  (Feb.  14, 
1797,)  commanded  by  Admiral  Cordova.  It  was  in  this  engage- 
ment that  Captain  Nelson,  afterwards  so  famous,  established  his 
feme,  by  the  courage  and  conduct  which  he  displayed.  Admiral 
Hervey  conquered  the  important  island  of  Trinidad  (Feb.  18.) 
General  Stewart  without  much  difficulty  took  possession  of  Mi- 
norca (Nov.  7,  1798.)  The  alliance  of  Spain  with  France  was 
also  the  reason  v/hy  the  Emperor  Paul  declared  war  against 
her,  after  his  accession  to  the  coalition  (July  27,-1799.)  The 
Porte  followed  the  example  of  Russia  (Oct.  1,  1801.)  After  the 
peace  of  Luneville,  a  reconciliation  with  the  former  power  was 
signed  at  Paris  (October  4.)  The  war  which  Spain  was  obliged 
to  wage  with  Portugal,  procured  her  the  city  of  Olivenga,  which 
was  ceded  by  the  peace  of  Badajos  (June  9.) 

By  the  treaty  signed  at  St.  Ildefonso,  Spain  surrendered  Lou- 


Death  of  Prince  Powniatuirski  in  passing^  the 
Elster.      Vol.  2,   p    273 


Polytechnic  Scholars  joining  the  iJio.ue. 
Vol.  2,  p.  324. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  181 

isiana  to  Bonaparte  ;  and  eventually  the  State  of  Parma  (Octo- 
ber 1, 1800.)  She  also  surrendered  to  him  five  ships  of  the  line, 
besides  a  considerable  sum  of  money  which  she  paid  him  ;  and 
all  this  on  the  faith  of  his  promising  to  procure  the  Grand  Dutchy 
of  Tuscany,  with  the  title  of  Royalty,  to  the  King's  son-in-law, 
the  Infant  of  Parma.  These  stipulations  w^ere  more  clearly 
established  by  the  treaty  v/hich  Lucien  Bonaparte  and  the  Prince 
of  Peace  afterwards  signed  at  Madrid  (March  21,  ISOl.)  The 
peace  of  Amiens  cost  Spain  no  ether  sacrifice  than  the  Island  of 
Trinidad,  which  she  was  obliged  to  abandon  to  England ;  en- 
tirely on  the  decision  of  Bonaparte,  who  did  not  even  ask  the 
consent  of  Charles  IV.  Spain  had  lost  all  sort  of  respect  or 
consideration,  both  from  the  universal  and  contemptible  w^eak- 
ness  of  her  government,  and  because  she  had  voluntarily  placed 
herseif  under  dependence  to  France. 

From  the  very  commencement  of  this  period.  Great  Britain 
had  been  preserved  from  the  influence  of  the  revolutionary  prin- 
ciples, which  had  a  great  many  partisans  in  that  kingdom,  by 
the  firmness  of  her  Prime  Minister,  William  Pitt,  and  the  splen- 
did eloquence  of  Edmund  Burke,  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  Pitt  consolidated  the  system  of  finance,  by  extend- 
ing the  sinking  fund,  which  he  had  created  in  17S6.  He  gave 
vigour  to  the  government,  by  obtaining  the  suspension  of  the  Ha- 
heus  Corpus  Act ;  and  by  means  of  the  Alien  Bill  (Jan.  4, 1793,) 
which  allowed  the  magistrate  an  extensive  authority  in  the  sur- 
veillance of  foreigners.  The  greatest  number  of  malcontents 
appeared  in  Ireland,  and  these  consisted  chiefly  of  Catholics  ; 
although  an  act,  passed  in  1793,  had  rendered  the  Catholics 
eligible  to  almost  all  official  employments.  That  island  never- 
theless was  the  theatre  of  several  conspiracies,  the  design  of 
which  was  to  render  it  independent.  Their  leaders  acted  in 
unison  with  the  French,  who  made  attempts  at  difl^erent  times 
to  effect  a  landing  in  that  country.  Fifteen  thousand  troops,  ac- 
companied by  eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  embarked  for  that  pur- 
pose from  Brest  harbour  in  the  month  of  December.  But  this 
formidable  armament  had  scarcely  put  ^.o  sea,  when  they  wert; 
overtaken  by  a  storm.  Eight  of  these  vessels  reached  the  Irish 
coast,  and  appeared  off'  Bantray  Bay ;  but  they  were  forced  from 
that  station  by  another  tempest,  when  they  returned  to  France 
with  the  loss  of  two  ships  of  the  line,  some  frigates  having  nar- 
rowly escaped  falling  in  with  two  squadrons  of  the  English 
navy. 

At  length,  as  a  remedy  for  this  political  mischief,  the  union  of 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  effected,  so  that  both  kingdoms  ^ 
should  have  one  and  the  same  Parliament ;  and  George  III.  as- 

VOL.  u.  16 


192  CHAPTER   X. 

sumecl  the  title  of  King  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  (July  2,  1800.) 

Great  Britain  was  the  moving  principle  of  the  two  first  coali* 
tions  against  France,  although  she  fought  rather  with  money 
than  with  troops.  She  succeeded  in  ruining  the  marine  and 
the  commerce  of  both  France  and  Spain  ;  and  obtained  the  com- 
plete command  of  the  sea.  A  short  time  before  the  death  of 
Paul  I.,  she  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  powers  of  the  North. 
The  resentment  of  that  Prince  against  the  Cabinet  of  London, 
for  refusing  to  put  him  in  possession  of  Malta,  which  the  English 
troops  had  seized,  was  the  true  cause  of  hostilities  ;  although  a 
litigated  question  of  public  right  was  made  the  pretext.  The 
point  at  issue  was,  whether  the  convoy  granted  to  the  merchant 
ships  of  neutral  states  by  their  sovereign,  protected  them  from 
being  searched  by  those  of  the  belligerent  powers,  or  not.  Den- 
mark, with  whom  the  discussion  first  arose,  maintained  the  affir- 
mative, and  England  the  negative ;  although  it  was  not  till  the 
end  of  the  year  1799  that  she  maintained  this  doctrine.  At 
that  time  there  had  been  some  misunderstanding  between  Ad- 
miral Keith,  the  commander  of  the  British  forces  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  Captain  Van  Dockum,  who  was  convoying  a  fleet 
of  Danish  merchantmen.  In  the  month  of  July  following,  the 
Danish  frigate  La  Freya,  which  had  attempted  to  defend  her 
convoy  against  a  search  of  the  English  cruisers,  was  taken  and 
carried  into  the  Downs. 

These  acts  of  violence  gave  rise  to  a  very  warm  discussion 
between  the  Courts  of  London  and  Copenhagen.  The  former 
having  sent  a  fleet  to  the  Sound,  commanded  by  Admiral  Dick- 
son, Denmark  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  tempest,  but  in  a  man- 
ner very  honourable.  By  a  convention  which  was  signed  at 
Copenhagen  (Aug.  29,  ISOO,)  the  decision  of  the  question  was 
remitted  for  further  discussion.  The  English  Government  re- 
leased the  Freya,  and  the  King  of  Denmark  promised  to  suspend 
the  convoj's. 

This  accommodation  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
Emperor  Paul.  That  prince,  who  entertained  lofty  ideas,  but 
who  yielded  too  often  to  his  passions,  had  determined  to  revive 
the  principles  of  the  Armed  Neutrality,  according  to  the  treaty 
of  1780,  and  to  compel  England  to  acknowledge  them.  He  in- 
vited Denmark  and  Sweden,  in  so  very  peremptory  a  manner,  to 
join  with  him  for  this  purpose,  that  these  States  could  not  refuse 
their  consent  without  coming  to  an  open  rupture  with  him.  This 
agreement  with  the  courts  of  Copenhagen,  Sweden  and  Berlin, 
was  finally  settled  by  the  conventions  signed  at  St.  Petersburg 
(Dec.  16,  and  18.)    As  Great  Britain  could  not  find  a  more  con- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  17S9— 1815.  183 

venient  occasion  than  that  of  her  maritime  preponderance,  foi 
deciding-  those  questions  on  which  she  had  maintained  silence 
in  17S0,  war  was  declared  ;  and  hostilities  commenced  in  course 
of  a  few  months.  A  body  of  Danish  troops  occupied  Hamburg 
and  Lubec.  The  Prussians  took  possession  of  Bremen  and 
Hanover  (April  3.)  An  English  fleet,  consisting  of  seventeen 
sail  of  the  line,  commanded  by  Admirals  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and 
Lord  Nelson,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Sound  without  sustain- 
ing- much  injury  (March  30.)  A  squadron  under  Lord  Nelson 
engaged  the  Danish  fleet  before  Copenhagen  (April  3,)  which 
was  commanded  by  Admiral  Olfart  Fischer.  The  action  was 
spirited  on  both  sides,  and  added  a  new  wreath  to  tbe  fame  of 
Nelson  ;  and  although  the  Danes  were  obliged  to  yield  to  the 
superiority  of  British  valour,  they  acquitted  themselves  bravely 
and  honourably.  Within  seven  days  after,  an  armistice  was 
concluded. 

Admiral  Parker  continued  his  route  by  the  Baltic  and  arrived 
before  Carlscrona  (April  19,)  where  he  was  on  the  eve  of  com- 
mencing hostilities  against  Sweden,  w^hen  he  was  apprised  of 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Paul.  That  event  dissolved  the  League 
of  the  North,  and  put  an  end  to  the  war.  By  a  convention 
which  the  Emperor  Alexander  concluded  at  St.  Petersburg 
(June  17,)  the  principles  of  maritime  law  which  the  English  had 
professed  were  recognised.  The  other  powers  of  the  North  ac- 
ceded to  this  convention.  The  Danes  evacuated  Hamburg  and 
Lubec ;  but  Prussia  continued  in  possession  of  Hanover  until 
the  conclusion  of  the  peace  between  France  and  England. 

With  regard  to  Holland,  the  twenty  years  which  elapsed  be- 
tween 1795  and  1814  formed  an  era  of  calamities  and  disasters. 
The  Patriots,  who  comprehended  the  middle  class  of  the  Dutch 
community,  had  gained  the  ascendancy  on  the  entrance  of  the 
French  army ;  one  consequence  of  which  was,  the  abolition  of 
the  Stadtholdership.  But  that  party  became  sensible  of  their 
error,  when  they  saw  the  ruin  of  their  country.  The  indepen- 
dence of  their  Republic  was  acknowledged  by  the  treaty  of  the 
Hague  (May  16,  1795,)  which,  by  giving  it  France  for  an  ally, 
subjected  it  in  effect  to  that  power;  and  reduced  it  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  province, — the  more  neglected,  as  it  was  not  entirely 
united.  The  constitution  which  the  Batavian  Republic  (the 
title  which  it  assumed)  had  adopted,  vacillated  between  two  op- 
posite systems,  the  adherents  of  which  could  come  to  no  agree- 
ment ; — namely,  that  of  a  United  and  that  of  a  Federal  republic. 
While  these  matters  were  under  debate,  the  English,  who  had 
joined  the  Stadtholder's  party,  stripped  the  Republic  of  its  colo- 
nies ;  destroyed  its  marine,  particularly  in  the  action  which  Ad- 


184  CHAPTER  X. 

miral  Duncan  fought  with  De  Winter  near  Caiiiperdown  (Oct, 
11,  1797  ;)  and  annihilated  her  commerce  and  her  navigation 
by  blockading  her  coasts, — not  excepting  even  her  fisheries. 

The  overthrow  of  the  ancient  Helvetic  Confederacy,  is  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  high  crimes  with  which  history  has  to  re- 
proach the  Executive  Directory  of  France.  The  constitution 
drawn  up  by  MM.  Ochs  and  La  Harpe  after  the  model  of  that 
of  France,  which  excluded  the  federative  system,  was  published 
by  the  French  party  (May  30,  179S,)  in  spite  of  the  modifica- 
tions which  the  more  judicious  patriots  had  attempted  to  intro- 
duce ;  and  supported  by  the  French  army  under  General  Schau- 
enburg.  To  compel  the  smaller  cantons  to  submit  to  this  yoke, 
it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  fire  and  sword.  The 
Grisons  found  means,  however,  to  evade  it  by  receiving  an  Aus- 
trian army  among  them,  in  virtue  of  a  convention  which  was 
concluded  at  Coire  (Oct.  17  ;)  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  unfor- 
tunate campaign  of  1799,  that  they  were  compelled  to  renounce 
their  independence.  France  appropriated  to  herself  the  Swiss 
part  of  the  bishopric  of  Basle,  and  the  cities  of  Mulhouse  and 
Geneva.  The  terms  of  subjection  on  which  the  Helvetic  Re- 
public was  to  stand  in  future  with  France,  were  determined  by 
an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  concluded  at  Paris  (Aug. 
19.)  Switzerland  henceforth  renounced  that  neutrality  which 
for  centuries  she  had  regarded  as  the  pledge  and  safeguard  of 
her  liberties. 

The  animosity  which  reigned  between  the  Unionists  and  the 
Federalists,  caused  several  revolutions  in  the  government  of 
that  Republic.  But  as  these  intrigues  were  carried  on,  on  a 
small  scale,  and  have  left  few  traces  behind,  it  is  unnecessary 
here  to  enter  into  any  detail.  If  the  Revolution  in  Switzerland 
did  not  produce  a  single  man  remarkable  for  great  talents,  or  of 
a  commanding  character,  the  religious  spirit  of  the  country,  the 
instruction  of  the  people,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  at 
least  preserved  them  from  those  crimes  and  excesses  which 
stained  the  Revolutionists  in  France. 

At  the  peace  of  Amiens  all  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  part 
of  the  Venetian  territory  which  was  united  to  Austria,  had 
yielded  to  the  dominion  of  France.  The  King  of  the  Two  Si- 
cilies alone  had  still  maintained  a  sort  of  independence.  In 
no  country  had  the  revolutionary  principles  of  the  eighteenth 
century  found  more  abettors  among  the  higher  classes  than  in 
Piedmont.  The  King  of  Sardinia  was  the  first  sovereign  whose 
throne  was  undermined  by  their  influence.  Scarcely  had  Vic- 
lor  Amadeus  III.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1773,  joined  the 
league  against  France  (July  25,  1792,)  when  the  Republicaa 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  \/1S9 1815.  IS5 

armies  attacked,  and  made  an  easy  conquest  of  Savoy  and  Nice. 
Great  Britain  granted  liim,  by  the  treaty  of  London  (April  25, 
1793,)  subsidies  for  carrying  on  the  war  with  vigour.  We 
have  related  above  the  disasters  whicl  .le  met  with  in  the  war 
against  France.  The  peace  of  Paris  cost  him  the  sacritice  of 
two  provinces.  In  vain  did  his  son  Charles  Emanuel  IV.  hope 
to  save  the  remainder  of  his  estates,  by  becoming  an  r\W  of  the 
French  Directory  at  the  treaty  of  Turin,  (April  5,  1797.)  His 
political  influence  was  lost ;  they  knew  they  could  command  any 
thing  from  that  ally.  Their  first  request  was  the  surrender  of 
the  city  of  Turin,  by  the  convention  of  Milan  (June  28,  1798.) 
The  Directory  afterwards  declared  war  against  that  prince  with- 
out any  grounds;  and  he  could  not  obtain  permission  to  retire 
to  Sardinia,  except  by  sig-ning  a  kind  of  abdication  (Dec,  9  ;) 
against  which  he  afterwards  protested.  Piedmont  was  thus 
governed  entirely  according  to  the  pleasure  of  France ;  and 
immediately  after  the  peace  of  Amiens,  it  was  definitively  an- 
nexed to  her  territories. 

Austrian  Lombardy  (with  the  exception  of  Mantua,)  the 
dutchy  of  Modena,  the  three  Legatines  ceded  by  Pius  VI.,  and 
a  part  of  the  Venetian  territory,  formed  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
which  Bonaparte  declared  independent,  by  the  preliminaries  of 
Leoben  (June  29,  1797.)  He  soon  after  "(Oct.  22,)  added  to  it 
the  Valteline,  Chiavenna,  and  Bormio,  which  he  had  taken  from 
the  Grisons;  and  at  a  later  period  (Sept.  7,  ISOO,)  he  added  a 
part  of  Piedmont,  viz.  the  Novarese,  and  the  country  beyond  the 
Sesia.  Mantua  was  likewise  annexed  to  this  Republic  at  the 
peace  of  Luneville.  Its  connexions  with  France  had  been  de- 
termined by  the  alliance  of  1798,  which  were  more  servile  than 
those  in  which  the  Batavian  Republic,  and  afterwards  that  of 
Switzerland,  were  placed.  In  this  pretended  Republic,  France 
exercised  an  absolute  power;  she  changed  its  constitution  at 
pleasure,  appointed  and  deposed  its  highest  functionaries  as  suit- 
ed her  convenience.  The  victories  of  Suwarow  put  an  end  for 
some  time  to  the  existence  of  that  State  ;  but  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  matters  were  replaced  on  their  ancient  footing. 

The  Republic  of  Genoa,  distracted  by  innovations  at  home, 
and  threatened  from  abroad  by  England  and  France,  hesitated 
for  some  time  as  to  the  system  v/hich  they  should  adopt.  But 
after  the  French  had  become  masters  of  the  Bocchetla,  the 
Senate  consented,  by  a  treaty  conj:luded  at  Paris  (Oct.  9,  1796,) 
to  give  them  a  sum  o(  money,  and  shut  their  ports  against  the 
English.  After  the  preliminaries  of  Leoben,  this  Repubhc  ac- 
cepted a  democratic  constitution  from  the  hand  of  Bonaparte, 
according  to  the  treaty  of  Montebello  (June  6,  1797.)     It  paid 

VOL.  n.  16^ 


186  CHAPTER  X. 

large  sums  of  money,  and  was  gratified  by  the  Imperial  fiefs 
which  Bonaparte  added  to  its  territory.  It  then  took  the  name 
of  the  Ligurian  Republic  (June  14.)  We  have  already  men- 
tioned how  the  Grand  Dake  of  Tuscany  was  unjustly  deprived 
of  his  estates,  which  Bonaparte  made  over  by  the  treaty  of  St. 
Ildefonso  to  the  hereditary  Prince  of  Parma,  son-in-law  to 
Charles  IV.  of  Spain.  This  young  prince  was  proclaimed  King 
of  Etruria,  (Aug.  2,  1801,)  and  acknowledged  by  all  the  Euro- 
pean powers ;  but  during  his  brief  reign,  he  was  more  a  vassal 
of  Bonaparte  than  an  independent  sovereign. 

Pius  VI.  had  protested  against  the  spoliation  of  the  Church, 
which  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  France  had  committed,  by 
the  union  of  Avignon  and  the  County  of  Venaissin  to  the  Re- 
public, (Nov.  3,  1791 ;)  and  from  that  time  he  was  treated  as  an 
enemy.  The  truce  of  Bologna,  (June  23, 1796,)  cost  him  twenty- 
one  millions  of  francs,  and  many  of  the  finest  specimens  of  art. 
He  consented  that  such  statues  and  pictures  as  might  be  selected 
by  commissioners  appointed  for  that  purpose,  should  be  conveyed 
to  the  French  capital.  Finding  it  impossible  to  obtain  an  equi- 
table peace,  he  set  on  foot  an  army  of  4-5,000  men,  which  he 
placed  under  the  command  of  General  Colli,  a  native  of  Austria  ; 
but  Bonaparte,  notwithstanding,  compelled  his  Holiness  to  con- 
clude a  peace  at  Tolentino,  (Feb.  19, 1797,)  which  cost  him  fif- 
teen millions  more,  and  the  three  Legatines  of  Bologna,  Fer- 
rara,  and  Romagna.  He  renounced  at  the  same  time  Avignon 
and  the  County  of  Venaissin.  In  consequence  of  a  tumult 
which  took  place  at  Rome,  in  which  the  French  General  Duphot 
was  killed,  a  French  army  under  General  Berthier,  entered  that 
city  (Feb.  11, 1798,)  and  proclaimed  the  Roman  Republic ;  which, 
as  we  have  noticed,  enjoyed  but  an  ephemeral  existence.  The 
government  was  vested  in  five  con suls^- thirty-two  senators,  and 
seventy-two  tribunes,  called  the  Representatives  of  the  people. 
Pius  VI.  was  carried  captive  to  France,  and  died  at  Valence 
(Aug.  29,  1799.)  The  Conclave  assembled  at  Venice,  and 
elected  Cardinal  Chiaramonte  in  his  place,  (March  13,  1800,) 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Pius  VIL,  and  within  a  short  time 
after  made  his  public  entry  into  Rome.  Bonaparte,  then  elected 
First  Consul,  allowed  him  to  enjoy  the  rest  of  his  estates  in 
peace. 

Towards  the  end  of  1792,  a  French  fleet,  commanded  by  Ad- 
miral La  Touche,  appeared  off  the  port  of  Naples,  and  obliged 
the  King  to  acknowledge  that  first  of  all  sovereigns,  the  French 
Republic.  This  did  not  prevent  him  from  entering  into  the  coa- 
lition, (July  12,  1793,)  by  a  treat}''  of  alliance  with  England, 
which  was  concluded  at  Naples.     After  the  success  of  Bona- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — 1S15.  is? 

parte  in  Lombardy,  Ferdinand  IV.  averted  the  storm  \^.-hich 
threatened  him,  by  signing  first  a  suspension  of  arms  at  Brescia 
(June  5  179S,)  and  the  peace  of  Paris  a  few  months  after, 
which  he  obtained  on  honourable  conditions.  We  have  already 
mentioned,  that  he  was  one  of  the  first  sovereigns  who  entered 
into  the  second  coalition  against  France ;  and  that  the  precip- 
itancy w^th  which  he  then  commenced  hostilities,  proved  pre- 
judicial to  the  success  of  the  war,  as  well  as  disastrous  to  him- 
self. He  did  not  regain  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
till  after  the  retreat  of  Macdonald  in  1799 ;  and  he  purchased 
peace  (March  28,  1800)  at  the  expense  of  receiving  into  his 
Liiigdom  16,000  French  troops,  who  remained  there  until  the 
conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  Alexander  and  Bonaparte. 

The  combined  fleets  of  Turkey  and  Russia  had  subdued  the 
islands  that  formerly  belonged  to  the  Venetians,  viz.  Corfu, 
Zante,  Cephalonia,  St.  Maura,  Ithaca,  Paxo,  and  Cerigo.  Ac- 
cording to  a  convention  concluded  at  Constantinople  between 
Kussia  and  the  Porte  (March  21,  ISOO.)  these  islands  were  to 
form  an  independent  State,  although  subject  to  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, under  the  name  of  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands 
This  Republic,  was  acknowledged  in  subsequent  treaties  by 
France  and  Great  Britain. 

By  the  peace  of  Basle,  Germany  had  been  divided  into  two 
parts  ;  the  North,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Prussia ;  and  the 
South,  where  Austria  had  the  predominancy,  in  consequence  ot 
her  armies,  and  by  the  favour  of  the  ecclesiastical  Princes ;  for 
the  secular  States  abandoned  her  as  often  as  they  could  do  so  with 
impunity.  By  a  convention  which  Prussia  concluded  at  Basle 
with  France  (May  17,  179-5,)  the  neutralit}^  of  the  North  of 
Germany  was  recognised,  on  conditions  which  the  Princes  situ- 
ated beyond  the  line  of  demarcation  were  anxious  to  fulfil. 
Prussia  afterwards  concluded  arrangements  with  these  States 
for  establishing  an  army  of  observation.  This  defection  created 
no  small  animosity  between  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  Vienna, 
which  the  French  dexterously  turned  to  their  own  advantage  ; 
especially  during  the  sitting  of  the  Congress  at  Rastadt.  In 
vain  did  the  Emperor  Paul,  Avho  had  determined  to  make  war 
against  the  Republic,  attempt  to  restore  harmony  between  these 
two  leading  States.  He  was  equally  unsuccessful  in  his  pro- 
ject of  drawing  Prussia  into  the  coalilion.  Although  Frederic 
II.  had  been  ^deceived  by  France,  who,  after  having  promised 
him,  in  a  secret  convention  concluded  at  Berlin  (August  5, 
1796,)  a  compensation  proportioned  to  the  loss  which  he  had 
sustained  by  ceding  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  entered  into  en- 
gagements directly  opposite,  by  the  secret  articles  in  the  treaty 


188  CHAPTER  X. 

of  Campo  Formio.  Nevertheless  Frederic  William  III.,  who 
succeeded  his  father  (Nov.  16,  1797,)  remained  faithful  to  a 
neutrality  which  the  state  of  the  Prussian  finances  appeared  to 
render  necessary. 

The  revolutionary  doctrines  which  were  transplanted  into 
Germany  by  the  French  emissaries,  had  fallen  on  a  soil  well 
prepared,  and  in  which  they  speedily  struck  root.  By  the  peace 
of  Luneville,  all  the  provinces  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  were  incorporated  with  France  ;  and  the  moment  was 
approaching-  which  was  to  witness  the  downfall  of  the  German 
Empire.  While  the  French  nation,  seized  with  a  strange  ma- 
nia, were  overturning  law  and  order  from  their  very  founda- 
tions, and  abandoning  themselves  to  excesses  which  appear 
almost  incredible  in  a  civilized  country,  in  the  North  another 
nation,  sunk  into  anarchy  and  oppressed  by  their  neighbours, 
were  making  a  noble  effort  to  restore  the  authority  of  the  laws, 
and  to  extricate  themselves  from  the  bondage  of  a  foreign  yoke. 

The  Poles  had  flattered  themselves,  that  while  the  forces  of 
Kussia  were  occupied  against  the  Swedes  and  the  Turks,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,  they  would  be  left  at  liberty  to  alter 
their  constitution,  and  give  a  new  vigour  to  the  government  of 
their  Republic.  An  extraordinary  Diet  was  assembled  at  War- 
saw (17SS,)  which  formed  itself  into  a  Confederation,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  inconveniences  of  the  Liherum  Veto,  and  of  the 
unanimity  required  in  ordinary  diets.  The  Empress  of  Russia 
having  made  some  attempts  at  that  Diet  to  engage  the  Poles  to 
enter  into  an  alliance  against  the  Porte,  she  was  thwarted  in  hor 
intentions  by  the  King  of  Prussia,  who,  in  consequence  of  his 
engagements  with  England,  used  every  effort  to  instigate  the 
Poles  against  Russia.  He  encouraged  them,  by  offering  them 
his  alliance,  to  attempt  a  reform  in  their  government,  which 
Russia  had  recently  guaranteed.  A  Committee  of  Legisla- 
tion, appointed  by  the  Diet  was  commissioned  to  draw  up  the 
plan  of  a  constitution,  which  would  give  new  energy  to  the  Re- 
public. 

This  resolution  of  the  Diet  could  not  but  displease  the  Em- 
press of  Russia,  who  remonstrated  against  it  as  a  direct  infrac- 
tion of  the  articles  agreed  between  her  and  the  Republic  in 
1775.  The  Poles,  who  thus  foresaw  that  the  changes  which 
they  had  in  view  would  embroil  them  with  that  princess,  ought 
to  have  considered,  in  the  first  place,  hoAV  to  put  themselves  into 
a  good  state  of  defence.  But  instead  of  providing  for  the  melio- 
ration of  their  finances,  and  putting  the  army  of  the  Republic  on 
a  respectable  footing,  the  Diet  spent  a  considerable  time  in  dis- 
cussing the  new  pJan  of  the  constitution  which  had  been  submit 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789— 1S15.  189 

ted  to  them.  The  assurance  of  protection  from  Prussia,  which 
had  been  officially  ratified  to  them,  rendered  the  Poles  too  con- 
fident ;  and  the  treaty  of  alliance  which  the  King  of  Prussia  had 
in  effect  concluded  with  the  Republic  (March  29,  1790,)  began 
to  lull  them  into  a  profound  security.  Stanislaus  Augustus, 
after  having  long  hesitated  as  to  the  party  he  ought  to  espouse, 
at  length  voluntarily  joined  that  party  in  the  Diet  who  wished 
to  extricate  Poland  from  that  state  of  degradation  into  which  she 
had  fallen.  The  new  constitution  was  accordingly  decreed  by 
acclamation  (May  3,  1791.) 

However  imperfect  that  constitution  might  appear,  it  was  in 
unison  with  the  state  of  civilization  to  which  Poland  had  arriv 
ed.  It  corrected  several  of  the  errors  and  defects  of  former  ]av/s  ; 
and  though  truly  republican,  it  was  free  from  those  extravagant 
notions  which  the  French  Revolution  had  brought  into  fashion. 
The  throne  was  rendered  hereditary  in  favour  of  the  Electoral 
House  of  Saxony  ;  they  abolished  the  law  of  unanimity,  and  the 
absurdity  of  the  Liherum  Veto  ;  the  Diet  was  declared  perma- 
nent, and  the  Legislative  body  divided  into  two  Chambers.  One 
of  these  Chambers,  composed  of  Deputies  whose  functions  were 
to  continue  for  two  years,  was  charged  with  discussing  and 
framing  the  laws  ;  and  the  other,  consisting  of  a  Senate  in  which 
the  King  presided,  were  to  sanction  them,  and  to  exercise  the 
Veto  ;  the  executive  power  was  intrusted  to  the  King,  and  a 
Council  of  Superintendence  consisting  of  seven  members  or  re- 
sponsible ministers.  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns  were  allow- 
ed the  privilege  of  electing  their  own  Deputies  and  Judges,  and 
the  burgesses  had  the  way  laid  open  to  them  for  attaining  the 
honours  of  nobility.  The  latter  were  maintained  in  all  the 
plenitude  of  their  rights  and  prerogatives ;  the  peasantry,  who 
had  been  in  a  state  of  servitude,  were  placed  under  the  imme- 
diate protection  of  the  laws  and  the  government ;  the  constitu- 
tion sanctioned  before-hand  the  compacts  which  the  landed  pro- 
prietors might  enter  into  with  their  tenantry  for  meliorating 
their  condition. 

The  efforts  which  the  Poles  had  made  to  secure  their  inde- 
pendence, excited  the  resentment  of  Russia.  The  Empress  had 
no  sooner  made  peace  with  the  Porte,  than  she  engaged  her  par- 
tisans in  Poland  to  form  a  confederacy  for.  the  purpose  of  over- 
turning the  innovations  of  the  Diet  at  Warsaw,  and  restoring 
the  ancient  constitution  of  the  Republic.  This  confederation, 
which  was  signed  at  Targowica  (May  14,  1792,)was  headed  by 
the  Counts  Felix  Potochi,  Rzewuski,  and  Branicki.  In  support 
of  this  confederacy,  the  Empress  sent  an  army  into  Poland,  to 
wage  war  against  the  partisans  of  the  new^  order  of  things.  The 


190  CHAPTER    X. 

Poles  had  never  till  then  thought  seriously  oi  adoptn"ig' vigorous 
measures.  The  Diet  decreed,  that  an  army  of  the  line  should 
immediately  take  the  field  ;  and  that  a  levy  should  be  made  of 
several  corps  of  light  troops.  A  loan  of  thirty-three  millions  of 
florins  passed  without  the  least  opposition ;  but  the  Prussian 
minister  having  been  called  upon  to  give  some  explanation  as  to 
the  subsidies  which  the  King  his  master  had  promised  to  the 
Republic  by  the  treaty  of  alliance  of  1790,  he  made  an  evasive 
answer,  which  discouraged  the  whole  patriotic  party. 

The  refusal  of  the  Polish  Diet  to  accede  to  a  mercantile 
scheme,  by  which  Dantzic  and  Thorn  were  to  be  abandoned  to 
the  King  of  Prussia,  had  disaffected  that  monarch  towards  Po- 
land. It  was  not  difficult,  therefore,  for  the  Empress  of  Russia 
to  obtain  his  consent  to  a  dismemberment  of  that  kingdom. 
The  aversion  which  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  entertained  for 
every  thing  that  resembled  the  French  Revolution,  with  which, 
however,  the  events  of  Poland  where  the  King  and  the  nation 
were  acting  in  concert  had  nothing  in  common  except  appear- 
ances, had  a  powerful  effect  upon  the  Court  of  Berlin ;  and 
proved  the  cause  of  their  breaking  those  engagements  which 
they  had  contracted  with  that  Republic.  It  was  then  that  the 
Poles  fully  comprehended  the  danger  of  their  situation.  Their 
first  ardour  cooled,  and  the  whole  Diet  were  thrown  into  a  state 
of  the  utmost  consternation. 

Abandoned  to  her  own  resources,  and  convulsed  by  intestine 
divisions,  Poland  then  saw  her  utter  inability  to  oppose  an  ene- 
my so  powerful  as  the  Russians.  The  campaign  of  1792  turned 
out  entirely  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Patriotic  party.  After 
a  successful  career,  the  Russians  advanced  on  Warsaw ;  when 
Stanislaus,  who  was  easily  intimidated,  acceded  to  the  confede- 
racy of  Targowica,  by  renouncing  the  constitution  of  the  3d  May, 
and  the  acts  of  the  revolutionary  Diet  of  Warsaw.  That  prince 
even  subscribed  (Aug,  25,  1792)  to  all  the  conditions  which  the 
Empress  thought  proper  to  dictate  to  him.  A  suspension  of 
arms  was  agreed  to,  which  stipulated  for  the  reduction  of  the 
Polish  army.  In  consequence  of  the  arrangements  entered  into 
Detween  Russia  and  Prussia,  by  the  convention  of  St.  Peters- 
burg (Jan.  23,  1793,)  the  Prussian  troops  entered  Poland,  and 
spread  over  the  country  after  the  example  of  the  Russians. 
Proclamations  were  issued  by  the  Courts  of  Berlin  and  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, by  which  they  declared  the  districts  of  Poland  which 
their  troops  had  occupied,  incorporated  with  their  own  domin- 
ions. The  adoption  of  the  constitution  of  1791,  and  the  propa- 
gation of  the  democratic  principles  of  the  French,  were  the 
causes  ol  trns  new  dismemberment  of  Poland. 


prR:<i.^  IX.     A.  D.  1789— ISlo.  191 

Prussia  took  possession  of  the  larger  part  of  Great  Poland,  in- 
cluding the  cities  of  l>antzic  and  Thorn  ;  the  town  of  Czensto- 
chowa  in  Little  Poland  was  also  adjudged  to  her,  with  its  fron- 
tier extending  to  the  rivers  Pilica,  Sterniewka,  Jezowka,  and 
Bzura.  The  left  bank  of  these  rivers  was  assigned  to  Prussia, 
and  the  right  reserved  to  Poland.  The  portion  awarded  to  the 
former,  contained  one  thousand  and  sixty-one  German  square 
miles,  and  one  million  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  Rus- 
sia got  nearly  the  half  of  Lithuania,  including  the  Palatinates  of 
Podolia,  Polotsk,  and  Minsk,  a  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Wilna, 
with  the  half  of  Novogrodek,  Brzesc,  and  Volh}' nia  ;  in  all,  four 
thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-three  German  square  miles  and 
containing  three  millions  of  inhabitants. 

The  Poles  were  obliged  to  yield  up,  by  treaties,  those  pro- 
vinces which  the  two  powers  had  seized.  The  treaty  between 
Poland  and  Russia  was  signed  at  the  Diet  of  Grodno  (July  13, 
1793.)  But  that  with  the  King  of  Prussia  met  with  the  most 
decided  opposition  ;  and  it  was  necessary  to  use  threats  of  com- 
pulsion before  it  w^as  consummated.  On  this  occasion,  these 
SViQ  powers  rencvnced  anew  the  rights  and  pretensions  which 
*hey  might  stiK  h;ive  against  the  Republic  under  any  denomina- 
tion whatsoever.  They  agreed  to  acknovvdedge,  and  if  it  should 
t)e  required,  also  to  guarantee  the  constitution  which  should  be 
"established  by  ^he  Diet  with  the  free  consent  of  the  Polish  nation. 

After  these  treaties,  came  a  treaty  of  alliance  and  union  be- 
tween Russia  and  Poland  (October  16,  1793,)  the  third  article 
of  which  guaranteed  their  mutual  assistance  in  case  of  attack; 
the  direction  of  the  war  was  reserved  to  Russia,  as  well  as  the 
privilege  of  5  ending  her  troops  into  Poland,  and  forming  maga- 
zines there,  -vhen  she  might  judge  it  necessary  ;  while  Poland 
agreed  to  cr  ter  into  no  connexion  with  foreign  pov/ers,  and  to 
make  no  c^  inge  in  her  constitution,  except  with  the  approbation 
of  Russia  The  portion  that  was  left  to  the  Republic,  either 
in  Poland  or  Lithuania,  contained  three  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  thrrf  square  miles,  with  somewhat  more  than  three  mil- 
lions cf  inhabitants.  This  State  was  divided  into  eighteen 
palat.ir.^i'Les,  ten  of  which  were  in  Poland,  and  eight  in  Lithua- 
nia. To  each  of  these  palatinates  Avere  assigned  two  senators, 
1  palatine,  a  castellain,  and  six  deputies  to  sit  in  the  Diet. 

These  diflferent  treaties,  and  the  grievances  of  which  the 
Poles  had  just  cause  to  complain,  threw  the  public  mind  into  a 
state  of  agitation,  which  in  the  following  year  broke  out  into  a 
general  insurrection.  A  secret  association  was  formed  at  War- 
saw ;  it  found  numerous  partisans  in  the  army,  which  was  to 
nave  been  disbanded  according  to  the  aiTangements  with  Rus- 


192  CHAPTER  X. 

sia.  The  conspirators  chose  Thaddeus  Kosciuszko  for  theii 
chief,  in  this  projected  insurrection  against  Russia.  That  gen- 
eral had  distinguished  himself  in  the  American  war  under 
Washington  ;  he  had  very  recently  signalized  his  bravery  in  the 
campaign  of  1792  ;  and  after  the  unfortunate  issue  of  that  war, 
he  had  retired  into  Saxony  with  a  few  other  patriots,  who  were 
ready  to  exert  their  energy  in  the  cause  of  freedom.  The  in- 
surgents reckoned  with  confidence  on  the  assistance  of  Austria, 
who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  last  dismemberment  of  Poland , 
they  flattered  themselves  that  Turkey  and  Sweden  would  not 
remain  mere  spectators  of  the  efforts  w^hich  they  were  making 
to  regain  their  liberty  and  their  independence. 

Kosciuszko  had  washed  that  they  should  postpone  the  execu- 
tion of  their  plan,  in  order  to  gain  more  time  for  preparation  ; 
especially  as  a  suspicion  was  excited  among  the  Russians.  He 
even  retired  into  Italy,  where  he  remained  until  one  of  his  ac- 
complices, who  had  been  ordered,  as  a  propagator  of  sedition,  to 
banish  himself  from  the  Polish  territories,  informed  him  that 
his  countrymen  wished  him  to  appear  among  them  without  de- 
lay, as  a  better  opportunity  might  not  soon  arise.  Madalinski, 
who  commanded  a  brigade  of  cavalry  under  the  new  govern- 
ment, when  summoned  to  disband  them,  refused  ;  and  throwing 
olT  the  mask,  gave  the  signal  for  insurrection.  He  suddenly 
quitted  his  station,  crossed  the  Vistula,  and  after  having  dis- 
persed some  detachments  of  Prussians,  whom  he  encountered 
in  his  route,  he  marched  directly  to  Cracow,  Avhere  he  erected 
the  standard  of  revolt.  The  inhabitants  took  arms,  expelled 
the  Russian  troops  wdio  were  quartered  in  that  city,  and  pro- 
claimed Kosciuszko  their  General.  A  sort  of  dictatorship  was 
conferred  upon  him  (March  24,  1794,)  which  was  to  continue  so 
long  as  their  country  was  in  danger.  He  took  an  oath  of  fidel- 
ity to  the  nation,  and  of  adherence  to  the  principles  stated  in 
the  act  of  insurrection,  by  which  war  was  declared  against  the 
invaders  of  their  rights  and  liberties. 

The  Russians  and  Prussians  immediately  despatched  their 
troops  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  insurrection.  The  defeat  of 
a  body  of  Russians  near  Raslavice,  by  Kosciuszko,  inspired  the 
insurgents  with  new  courage.  The  inhabitants  of  Warsaw 
rose  in  like  manner  against  the  Russians,  who  had  a  garrison 
there  of  10,000  men,  under  the  command  of  General  Igelstrom. 
It  was  on  the  night  of  the  17th  April  that  the  tocsin  of  revolt 
was  sounded  in  the  capital ;  the  insurgents  seizeft  the  arsenal, 
and  distributed  arms  and  ammunition  among  the  people.  A 
brisk  cannonade  took  place  between  the  Russians  and  the  Poles. 
The  combat  continued  for  two  successive  days,  in  which  several 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1789—1816.  193 

thousands  of  the  Russians  perished,  while  4500  were  made  pri- 
soners. Igelslroin  escaped  from  the  city  with  about  3000  men. 
The  same  insurrection  broke  out  at  AVilna,  from  whence  it  ex- 
tended ever  all  Lithuania.  Several  Polish  regiments  who  had 
entered  into  the  service  of  Russia,  changed  sides,  and  enlisted 
under  the  banners  of  the  insurgents. 

In  spite  of  their  first  success,  it  was  soon  perceived  that 
Poland  was  deficient  in  the  necessary  resources  for  an  enter- 
prise of  such  a  nature  as  that  in  which  they  were  engaged. 
The  great  body  of  the  citizens  were  neither  sufficiently  numer- 
ous nor  sufficiently  wealthy,  to  serve  as  a  centre  for  the  revolu- 
tion which  they  had  undertaken;  and  the  servitude  in  which 
the  peasantry  were  kept,  was  but  ill  calculated  to  inspire  them 
with  enthusiasm  for  a  cause  in  which  their  masters  only  were 
to  be  the  gainers.  Besides,  the  patriots  were  divided  in  opin- 
ion ;  and  the  King,  although  he  appeared  to  approve  their  ef- 
forts, inspired  so  much  mistrust  by  his  weakness  and  timidity, 
that  he  was  even  accused  of  secretly  abetting  the  interests  of 
Russia.  Lastly,  the  nobles  who  alone  ought  to  have  shown 
courage  and  energy,  were  found  but  little  disposed  to  give  any 
effectual  support  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  Every  contribution 
appeared  to  them  an  encroachment  on  their  prerogatives  ;  and 
they  were  as  much  averse  to  a  levy  e?i  masse  as  to  the  raising 
of  recruits,  which  deprived  them  of  their  tenantry.  They  were, 
moreover,  afraid  of  losing  those  rights  and  privileges  which  they 
exclusively  enjoyed. 

Under  these  considerations,  Kosciuszko  was  convinced  that  it 
was  impossible  for  him  to  organize  an  armed  force  equal  to  that 
of  the  Russians  and  the  Prussians,  who  were  acting  in  concert 
to  defeat  the  measures  of  the  insurgents.  After  some  inferior 
operations,  an  important  engagement  took  place  on  the  confines 
of  the  Palatinates  of  Siradia  and  Cujavia  (June  8,  ]794,)  where 
he  sustained  a  defeat ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  King  of 
Prussia  made  himself  master  of  Cracow.  That  prince,  supported 
by  a  body  of  Russian  troops,  undertook,  in  person,  the  siege  of 
Warsaw.  The  main  forces  of  the  insurgents  were  assembled 
under  the  walls  of  that  city.  They  amounted  to  about  22,000 
combatants,  while  the  enemy  had  more  than  50,000.  The  siege 
of  Warsaw  continued  nearly  two  months,  when  a  general  msur 
rection,  which  had  spread  from  Great  Poland  into  Western  Prus 
sia,  obliged  the  King  to  retire,  that  he  might  arrest  the  progress 
of  the  insurrection  in  his  own  dominions. 

The  joy  of  the  insurgents,  on  account  of  this  incident,  was 
but  of  short  duration.  The  Court  of  Vienna,  which  till  then 
had  maintained  a  strict  neutrality,  resolved  also  to  despatch  an 

VOL.  n  17 


194  CHAPTER  X. 

army  into  Poland.  This  army  was  divided  into  two  columns, 
one  of  which  marched  on  Brzesci,  and  the  other  on  Dowbno. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  under  the  command  of  Suw-a- 
row,  advanced  into  Lithuania,  and  pursued  a  body  of  the  msur- 
gents,  who  were  commanded  by  Sirakowski.  Kosciuszko.  who 
now  saw  the  great  superiority  of  the  enemy,  made  a  last  effort 
to  prevent  the  junction  of  the  army  of  Suwarow  with  that  of 
Baron  de  Fersen,  the  Russian  General.  Directing  his  march 
towards  the  latter,  he  fought  a  bloody  battle  with  him  near 
Matchevjtz  (Oct.  10,  1794.)  The  action  continued  from  sunrise- 
till  beyond  mid-day.  Six  thousand  of  the  Polish  army  perished 
on  the  field,  and  the  rest  were  made  prisoners.  Kosciuszko  was 
himself  dangerously  wounded,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conqueror.  He  had  endeavoured  to  escape  by  the  swiftness  of 
his  horse,  but  was  overtaken  b}'  some  of  the  Cossacs ;  one  of 
v/hom,  without  knowing  him,  run  him  through  the  back  with 
his  lance.  Falling  senseless  from  his  horse,  he  was  carried  to 
a  monastery  ;  when  it  was  intimated,  by  one  of  his  officers,  that 
he  was  the  Commander-in-cbief.  Surgical  aid  was  immediately 
administered  to  him,  and  he  was  soon  after  conveyed  to  St. 
Petersburg. 

This  di.^aster  quite  dejected  the  courage  of  the  Poles.  Their 
Generals,  Dombrowski  and  Madalinski,  who  were  carrjdng  on 
the  war  in  Prussia  and  Great  Poland,  abandoned  these  provinces, 
and  marched  with  their  troops  to  the  relief  of  Warsaw.  Suwa- 
row likewise  directed  his  march  towards  that  capital,  and  was 
there  joined  by  a  considerable  body  of  Prussians,  under  Dorfel- 
den  and  Fersen,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  commenced  the 
blockade  of  that  city  (Nov.  4.)  The  Russians,  who  amounted 
to  22,000  men,  prepared  for  an  attack  of  the  entrenchments  of 
Praga,  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Warsaw.  The  Poles,  who  had  a 
body  of  between  eight  and  ten  thousand  men,  made  a  courage- 
ous defence ;  but  nothing  could  withstand  the  ardour  and  im- 
petuosity of  the  Russians,  who  were  burning  with  rage  to  avenge 
the  blood  of  their  countrymen  who  were  massacred  at  Warsaw. 

Three  batteries  had  been  erected  in  the  night ;  and  the  two 
first  divisions,  though  harassed  by  a  vigorous  fire  in  every  direc- 
tion except  the  rear,  bravely  surmounted  every  obstacle.  In  the 
apace  of  four  hours,  they  carried  the  triple  entrenchment  of  Pra- 
ga by  main  force.  Rushing  into  the  place,  they  pursued  their 
adversaries  through  the  streets,  put  the  greater  part  of  them  to 
the  sword,  and  drove  one  thousand  into  the  Vistula.  In  this 
scene  of  action,  a  regiment  of  Jews  made  an  obstinate  defence, 
and  at  length  were  totally  extirpated.  Thirteen  thousand  of  the 
Poles,  it  IS  said,  were  left  deg-d  on  the  spot ;  two  thousand  were 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789 — .815,  195 

drowned  in  the  Vistula,  and  between  fourteen  and  fifteen  thou 
sand  were  made  prisoners.  Tiie  suburb  of  Praga  was  pillaged 
and  razed  to  the  foundation.  Terror  seized  the  inhabitants  of 
Warsaw,  and  they  determined  to  capitulate.  Suwarow  made 
his  triumphant  entry  into  that  capital,  and  was  prp?ented  with 
the  keys  of  the  city  (Nov.  9.)  The  Polish  trorps  laid  down 
their  arms  ;  the  insurrection  was  quelled;  and  the  greater  part 
of  those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  it,  were  ari'csted 
by  the  Russians.  The  King  of  Poland  retired  to  Grodno  ;  and 
the  final  dismemberment  of  that  country  was  agreed  upon  by  the 
three  allied  powers. 

The  Court  of  Berlin  having  signified  their  intention  of  retain- 
ing Cracow  and  the  neighbouring  country,  of  which  their  troops 
had  just  taken  possession,  Austria,  who  was  also  desirous  of  pro- 
curing that  part  of  Poland,  took  advantage  of  the  discontent 
which  the  conduct  of  Prussia  during  the  campaign  of  1794,  and 
her  retreat  from  the  ensuing  coalition,  had  excited  in  the  Em- 
press of  Russia,  and  entered  intq^  a  separate  negotiation  with  the 
Court  of  St.  Petersburg.  They  arranged  privately  between 
themselves,  as  to  the  shares  which  were  to  fall  to  each.  An  act, 
in  form  of  a  declaration,  Vv^as  signed  at  St.  Petersburg,  between 
these  two  courts  (Jan.  3,  1795,)  purporting,  that  the  Cabinet  of 
Berlin  should  be  invited  to  accede  to  the  stipulations  therein 
contained;  in  consideration  of  the  offer  which  the  two  courts 
made  to  acquiesce  in  the  reunion  of  the  remainder  of  Poland 
with  the  Prussian  monarchy,  and  the  engagement  which  they 
entered  into  to  guarantee  that  acquisition. 

A  negotiation  was  afterwards  set  on  foot  with  the  Court  of 
Berlin,  which  was  protracted  to  a  great  length  ;  as  that  Court, 
who  were  ignorant  of  the  engagement  which  Catherine  had  come 
under  to  secure  Cracow  to  Austria,  had  always  entertained  the 
hope  of  being  able  to  retain  it  themselves.  It  was  only  when 
the  act  of  the  3d  January  was  communicated  to  them,  that  th&y 
agreed  to  a  special  convention  with  the  Court  of  Vienna,  which 
was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  (Oct.  24,  1795.)  The  city  of  Cra 
cow  was  abandoned  to  Austria,  who,  on  her  side,  resigned  in 
favour  of  the  King  of  Prussia  a  portion  of  the  territory  which  the 
declaration  of  the  3d  January  preceding  had  secured  to  her.  It 
was  settled,  that  the  limits  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow  should 
be  regulated  between  these  two  powers,  under  the  mediation  of 
the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg.  Stanislaus  had  then  no  other  al- 
ternative left,  than  to  resign  his  crown  into  the  hands  of  the  Em- 
press of  Russia.  The  act  of  his  abdication  was  dated  at  Grodno 
(Nov.  25,  1795.) 

It  was  by  these  difilieut  conventions,  that  Russia  obtained  all 


196  CHAPTER  X. 

that  remained  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,  as  far  as  the  Niemen 
and  the  confines  of  Brzesci  and  Novogrodek.  She  likewise 
obtained  the  greater  part  of  Samogitia,  with  the  whole  of  Cour- 
land  and  Semigallia.  She  had  besides,  in  Little  Poland,  that 
part  of  the  territory  of  Chelm  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Bug,  and  the  remainder  of  Volhynia;  in  all,  containing  about 
two"  thousand  square  miles,  with  one  million  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants. 

To  Austria  were  assigned,  in  addition  to  the  principal  part  of 
Cracow,  the  whole  Palatinates  of  Sendomir  and  Lublin,  with 
part  of  the  district  of  Chehn,  and  the  Palatinates  of  Brzesci, 
Podolachia,  and  Masovia,  which  lay  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bug ; 
comprising  in  all,  about  eight  hundred  and  thirty-four  thousand 
German  square  miles,  with  about  one  million  of  inhabitants. 

To  Prussia,  was  assigned  part  of  the  Palatinates  of  Masovia 
and  Podolachia,  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bug  ;  in  Lithu- 
ania, she  had  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Troki  and  of  Samogitia 
which  lies  on  this  side  of  the  Niemen,  as  well  as  the  small  dis- 
trict in  Little  Poland,  making  part  of  the  Palatinate  of  Cracow; 
the  whole  consisting  of  about  one  thousand  German  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  one  million.  Finally,  by  a  subse- 
quent convention  which  was  concluded  at  St.  Petersburg  (Jan. 
26,  1797,)  the  three  co-participant  Courts  arranged  among  them- 
selves as  to  the  manner  of  discharging  the  debts  of  the  Ki-ng 
and  the  Republic  of  Poland.  They  agreed  by  this  same  con- 
vention to  allow  the  dethroned  monarch  an  annuity  of  200,000 
ducats. 

At  the  commencem.ent  of  this  period,  it  was  not  yet  perceived 
of  what  importance  it  was  for  Russia  to  get  possession  of  the 
Crimea ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  agriculture  and  industry  of 
that  country  had  begun  to  prosper  under  a  wise  administration, 
that  they  began  to  apprehend  it  might  one  day  have  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  balance  of  trade.  The  Empress  Catherine, 
who  had  been  flattered  in  her  youth  by  the  eulogies  of  the  phi- 
losophers, so  as  to  become  a  disciple  of  their  new  doctrines, 
was  the  first  to  perceive  this  danger.  She  then  declared  her- 
self a  most  implacable  enemy  to  the  French  Revolution,  and 
would  gladly  have  armed  all  Europe  to  exterminate  the  Repub- 
lic. Nevertheless,  she  did  not  take  up  arms  herself,  and  only 
joined  the  first  coalition  in  an  indirect  manner,  and  by  conclud- 
ing treaties  purely  defensive,  such  as  that  of  Drontningholm 
wiUi  Sweden  (Oct.  19,  1791,)  and  that  of  St.  Petersburg  with 
the  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  (July  12,  1782,)  and  that 
which  was  concluded  (Aug.  7,)  in  the  same  city  with  Prussia. 
Nevertheless,  when  Frederic  had  retired  from  the  list,  she  re- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789— 1815.  197 

solved  to  send  into  the  field  the  sixty  thousand  men  which  Eng- 
land was  to  take  into  pay.  The  treaty  was  on  the  eve  of  being 
signed,  when  the  Empress  was  suddenly  cut  ofTbj^  death 
(Nov.  17,  1796.) 

Paul,  her  successor,  refused  to  sanction  that  treaty.  We  have 
already  noticed  the  active  hand  which  that  monarch  took  in  the 
war  of  1799  against  France ;  and  we  have  already  mentioned 
liie  unsuccessful  attempt  which  he  made  to  revive  the  principles 
of  the  armed  neutrality.  This  Emperor,  who  wanted  stead- 
iness and  consistency,  published  at  hi«  coronation  (April  5, 1797,) 
a  fundamental  law  regarding  the  order  of  succession  to  the 
throne.  This  law,  intended  to  prevent  those  revolutions  v/hich 
the  unsettled  state  of  the  throne  had  produced  in  Russia,  es- 
tablished a  mixed  lineal  succession,  agreeably  to  the  order  of 
primogeniture  ;  admitting  females  only  in  case  of  the  total 
extinction  of  the  male  descendants  of  the  male  line  of  Paul ; 
and  defining  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness,  the  order  in 
which  females  and  their  descendants  should  succeed  to  the 
throne.  But  being  weak  and  narrow-minded,  and  incapable  of 
discharging  his  imperial  functions,  he  entailed  upon  himself  the 
hatred  of  both  the  nobility  and  the  people.  He  met  with  a 
violent  death,  having  been  mxUrdered  by  a  party  of  daring  con- 
spirators (March  24,  1801.) 

Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  unfortunate  father,  lost  no  time 
in  restoring  peace  to  his  dominions,  by  entering  into  an  arrange-  ' 
ment  with  Great  Britain  (June  17,)  by  which  he  abandoned  the 
principles  of  free  trade  for  neutral  vessels  ;  admitting  that  even 
a  convoy  should  not  protect  these  from  being  subjected  to  a 
search  or  visitation,  when  ordered  by  the  Captain  of  a  vessel 
belonging  to  the  public  navy  of  a  belligerent  state.  He  like- 
wise concluded  peace  with  France  and  Spain  (Oct.  4,  8.) 

Sweden  had  extricated  herself  without  loss  from  the  war 
which  Gustavus  III.  had  imprudently  commenced.  That 
Prince  had  succeeded  in  extending  the  royal  prerogative,  and 
making  the  Diet  adopt  the  fundamental  act  of  union  and  secu- 
rity (March  29,  1792,)  vesting  in  himself  the  right  of  making 
war  and  peace,  which  according  to  the  former  order  of  things, 
he  could  only  exercise  with  the  concurrence  of  the  States.  Be- 
ing endowed  with  an  ardent  and  heroic  character,  he  had  pro- 
posed to  march  at  the  head  of  the  armies  vvhich  Louis  XVI. 
had  set  on  foot ;  but  he  fell  the  victim  of  a  conspiracy  formed 
by  the  discontented  nobles,  leaving  his  son  a  minor. 

The  Regency  of  the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  during  the  minor- 
ity of  Gustavus  IV.,  was  infested  by  jealousies  and  intrigues  ; 
while  the  finances,  which  were  under  bad  management,  fell 

VOL.  n.  17  =^ 


19S  CHAPTER  XI. 

graiJuall}"  into  a  state  of  disorder.  The  policy  of  the  Regent 
was  decidedly  for  the  maintenance  of  peace.  The  young  King 
himself  assumed  the  reins  of  government  (November  1,  1796.^ 
Although  he  had  e  itered  into  the  league  of  the  North,  formed 
by  Paul  I.,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  maritime  rights  of  neu- 
tral States,  he  acceded  shortly  after  to  the  opposite  system,  to 
which  Alexander  I.  had  declared  himself  favourable. 

Christian  VII.  had  reigned  in  Denmark  since  1766  ;  but  for 
the  last  twenty  years,  the  Prince  Royal  and  Count  Bernstorff 
bad  been  at  the  head  of  his  councils.  Under  their  administra- 
tion, the  kingdom  flourished  in  profound  peace  which  had  not 
for  an  instant  been  interrupted,  except  in  1800,  by  the  vexatious 
treatment  which  the  Danish  ships  had  met  with  on  the  part  of 
England.  Denmark  was  the  first  of  the  European  powers  that 
abolished  the  African  slave  trade  (May  16,  1796.) 


CHAPTER  XI. 

PERIOD  IX. 


The  Military  Preponderance  of  France  under  the  sioay  of  Na 
poleon  Bonaparte,     a.  d.  1802 — 1810. 

In  the  period  on  which  we  are  now  entering,  and  which  com- 
prehends eight  years,  we  shall  find  Napoleon  Bonaparte  devot- 
ing his  unremitting  efforts  to  a  threefold  project,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  secure  for  himself  the  empire  of  the  world.  The 
first  of  these  was  to  render  the  monarchical  government  heredi- 
tary in  his  family,  preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  a  universal 
dominion  ;  the  next  was  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  France  ; 
and  the  last  to  surround  that  country,  not  with  a  multitude  of 
Republics  as  the  Directory  had  done,  but  with  a  number  of 
petty  monarchies,  the  existence  of  which  should  be  so  am.alga- 
mated  with  his  own  dynasty,  that  they  must  stand  or  fall  with 
it.  We  shall  find  him  keeping  these  projects  incessantly  in 
view,  so  that  every  step  which  he  took  towards  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  one,  was  calculated  at  the  same  time  to  advance  the 
other  two. 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  1801,  a  council,  composed  of  450 
deputies  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  was  assembled  at  Lyons,  in 
order  to  deliberate  as  to  the  changes  to  be  made  in  the  constitu- 
tion, which  was  assimilated  more  and  more  to  the  monarchical 
form.     In  the  mean  time,  the  Presidency  of  the  Republic  was 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810.  199 

conferred  on  Bonaparte  (Januar}^  26,  1802,)  under  the  title  i)f 
the  Italian  Republic. 

INotwiihstanding  the  easy  triumph  which  the  constitution  ot 
the  3^ear  Eight  had  gained,  by  dissolving  the  Legislative  Body 
of  France,  dissension  was  not  long  in  breaking  out  among  its 
members-;  and  an  opposition  was  formed  which,  condemned  to 
silence,  had  no  other  means  of  manifesting  itself,  than  by  secret- 
ly thwarting  the  views  of  the  government.  There  was,  however, 
another  opposition  which  appeared  among  the  members  of  the 
tribunate,  and  which  greatl}^  irritated  Bonaparte,  by  openl;/  at- 
tacking his  projects  of  legislation.  The  period  had  now  arrived, 
wnen  one-fifth  part  of  the  members  of  these  two  bodies  were  to 
retire.  But  the  new  convention,  in  settling  this  partial  altera- 
tion, were  divided  as  to  the  mode  of  proceeding;  or  rather  it 
was  the  general  opinion,  that  ihe  ex-members  should  be  deter- 
mined by  lot.  This  temporary  vacancy  furnished  Bonaparte 
v/ith  a  pretext  for  getting  rid  of  all  those  whose  presence  had 
laid  him  under  any  sort  of  restraint.  A  decree  of  the  Conser- 
vative Senate,  of  the  22d  Ventose,  in  the  year  Ten  (March  13, 
1802,)  turned  out  twenty  of  the  tribunes,  and  sixty  of  the  le- 
gislators ;  and  supplied  their  places  with  memibers  taken  from 
the  lists  formed  by  the  Electoral  Colleges  of  the  Departments. 
Having  thus  discovered  what  advantages  might  accrue  to  him 
from  an  institution  which  Sieyes  had  contrived  for  balancing 
the  authority  of  the  government,  from  that  moment  he  convert- 
ed the  Senate  into  an  instrument  for  sanctioning  his  own  mea- 
sures. 

A  notification  from  the  French  ambassador  in  Switzerland 
announced  that  the  Valais  j^hould  henceforth  form  an  Independ- 
ent Republic  (April  3.)  The  inhabitants  had  not  requested  this 
favour;  it  was  granted  to  them  because  Bonaparte  wished  to 
get  possession  of  the  Simplon,  preparatory  to  the  union  of  that 
country  with  France.  The  second  decree  of  the  New  Consti- 
tution of  the  6th  Floreal  (April  26,)  granted  a  general  am.nesty 
to  all  emigrants  who  should  return  within  the  space  of  three 
months,  and  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  All  their  property  that 
rem.ained  unsold  was  restored  to  them.,  except  the  forests.  About 
a  thousand  individuals  were  excepted  from  this  act  of  justice, 
which  strengthened  the  authority  of  Bonaparte  by  conciliating 
the  public  opinion  in  his  favour. 

Immediately  after  this,  Bonaparte  submitted  to  the  Tribunate 
and  the  Legislative  Body  a  plan  for  the  institution  of  a  Legion 
of  Honour  (May  10.)  This  Legion  was  to  be  composed  of  fif- 
teen cohorts  of  Dignitaries  for  life.  The  First  Consul  was  the 
Chief  of  the  Legion  ;  each  cohort  was  to  be  composed  of  seven 


200  CHAPTER  XI. 

Ovan J  Oificers,  twenty  Commandants,  thirty  Officers,  and  three 
hunired  Legionaries.  The  object  of  Bonaparte  evidently  was 
10  estabh"sli  a  new  aristocracy.  But  the  minds  of  the  Council 
were  ^o  little  prepared  for  this  proposition,  and  so  contrary  was 
il  10  the  republican  ideas  with  which  they  were  still  imbued,  thai 
it  passed  but  by  a  ver}^  small  majority,  and  the  First  Consul 
liiOLio-lit  proper  to  delay  carrying  it  into  execut]on. 

For  some  time  the  First  Consul  had  been  in  negotiation  with 
Pope  Pius  VII.  on  the  affairs  of  religion.  He  had  adjusted  a 
Concordat  with  his  Holiness,  subjecting  public  worship  to  the 
superintendence  of  ten  prelates  of  the  highest  rank,  and  fifty 
bishops.  This  famous  Concordat  was  signed  at  Paris  (July  15,'! 
and  ratified  at  Rome  (Aug.  15,)  1801.  It  was  afterwards  sub- 
mitted for  the  acceptance  of  the  French  nation,  and  adopted  by 
a  very  great  majority.  The  Sabbath  and  the  four  grand  festi- 
vals were  restored ;  and  from  this  date  the  government  ceased 
to  follow  the  decennary  system.  This  was  the  first  abandon- 
ment of  the  Republican  calendar.  Bonaparte  hoped  to  attach 
to  himself  the  sacerdotal  party,  the  order  most  disposed  for  pas- 
sive obedience  ;  and  in  this  manner  to  balance  the  clergy  against 
the  Royalists,  and  the  Pope  against  the  interests  of  the  Coali- 
tion. The  Concordat  was  ratified  with  great  pomp  in  the  church 
of  Notre  Dame  by  the  Senate,  the  Legislative  Body,  the  Tri- 
bune, and  the  public  functionaries.  The  First  Consul  appeared 
in  the  ancient  court  carriage,  with  all  the  circumstances  and  eti- 
quette of  royalty. 

Another  law  of  the  Constitution  of  the  30th  of  Floreal  (May 
20,)  sanctioned  the  Slave  Trade  in  the  colonies  restored  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  and  in  the  French  colonies  sit- 
uated beyond  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  By  this  law,  however, 
slavery  was  not  restored  in  St.  Domingo.  That  colony  was  un- 
der the  dominion  of  the  Negroes,  who,  after  having  massacred 
the  Whites,  and  committed  barbarities  which  surpass  even  those 
of  the  French  Revolution,  had  succeeded  in  establishing  their 
independence.  After  the  preliminaries  signed  at  London,  Bo- 
naparte had  sent  an  expedition  to  that  Island,  having  on  board 
40,000  men,  commanded  by  his  brother-in-law  General  Le  Clerc. 
On  their  arrival  at  St.  Domingo,  the  French  took  possession  of 
the  town  of  Cape  Francois,  which  was  the  seat  of  government, 
as  well  as  of  several  other  places.  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  ori- 
ginally a  slave,  and  raised  to  be  the  Chief  of  the  Blacks,  sub- 
mitted to  the  French  :  but  General  Le  Clerc,  having  afterwards 
arrested  him,  had  him  conveyed  to  France  where  he  died.  This 
circumstance  excited  the  Blacks  to  a  new  revolt  under  the  com- 
mand of  Christophe,  the  relative  and  friend  of  Toussaint ;  and 


°ERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1S02— ISIO.  201 

after  a  bloody  war,   France   lost  this  valuable  colony,  togethei 
with  a  numerous  army  and  many  commercial  advantages. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Amiens,  the  Tribunate, 
purged  of  its  Republican  members,  signified  a  wish  that  some 
pledge  of  national  gratitude  should  be  offered  to  General  Bona- 
parte. The  Conservative  Senate  then  nominated  him  First 
Consul  for  ten  years.  When  this  decree  of  the  Senate  was  an- 
nounced to  him,  he  could  not  conceal  his  chagrin  ;  and  that  he 
might  not  be  compelled  to  accept  a  favour  which  he  disdained, 
he  demanded  that  the  decision  of  the  Senate  should  be  submitted 
for  the  sanction  of  the  people.  The  two  other  Consuls  Vv'ere  re- 
solved to  consult  the  nation  (and  this  was  the  only  occasion  in 
which  they  ever  acted  on  their  own  authorit}^)  not  as  to  the  de- 
cree of  the  Senate,  but  on  the  question  whether  Bonaparte 
should  be  elected  Consul  for  life.  Out  of  3,577,379,  of  which 
the  primary  Assembly  was  composed,  3,568,885  voted  in  the 
affirmative,  and  only  8,494  in  the  negative.  Agreeable  to  this 
expression  of  the  public  voice,  the  Senate  proclaimed  Bonaparte 
First  Consul  for  life  (August  2,  1SC2.) 

Two  days  after,  the  third  decree  of  the  Senate  of  the  16tb 
Thermidor,  brought  the  government  still  nearer  the  monarchical 
form,  by  granting  to  the  First  Consul  great  influence  over  th*^ 
Electoral  Assemblies,  with  the  power  of  ratifying  treaties,  grant 
ing  pardons,  nominating  senators  without  presentation,  appoint 
ing  the  Presidents  of  the  Electoral  Assemblies,  adding  to  th^'* 
number  of  their  members,  and  even  proclaiming  his  own  sue 
cessor.  The  Tribunate,  which  still  appeared  somew^hat  formi 
dable,  was  reduced  to  fifty  members. 

Such,  in  the  space  of  two  years,  was  the  progress  of  arbitrary 
power.  In  the  course  of  1802,  the  union  of  three  difTerent 
countries  to  France  was  either  accomplished,  or  in  a  state  of 
preparation.  The  first  was  that  of  the  Island  of  Elba,  of  which 
the  Kings  of  Naples  and  Sardinia  had  resigned  their  rights  ; 
the  second  was  that  of  Piedmont,  which  France  had  occupied 
since  9th  December  1798  ;  and  lastly,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Parma,  his  estates  were  taken  possession  of  by  France, 
as  having  devolved  to  her  in  virtue  of  the  treat}-  of  Madrid  (Mar. 
21,  1801,)  although  they  w^ere  not  annexed  to  that  country  till 
1808.  These  acquisitions  w^ere  made,  on  the  political  principle 
avowed  by  Bonaparte,  which  allowed  every  thing  lo  be  done 
that  treaties  did  not  expressly  forbid. 

The  Peace  of  Campo  Formic  and  Luneville  had  recognised  the 
right  of  Switzerland  to  form  a  constitution  for  herself;  and  Aloys 
Reding  happening  to  be  in  Paris  about  the  end  of  1801,  had  ob- 
tainec}  the  consent  of  the  First  Consul  for  the  re-establishment 


202  CHAPTER    XI. 

of  democracy  in  the  petty  cantons.  From  that  time  two  parties 
rose  who  had  long  been  kept  down  by  force ;  and  Switzerland 
experienced  a  series  of  revolutions,  in  which  the  Unionists  or 
aristocratic  party,  and  the  Federalists  or  democratic,  alternatel} 
had  the  ascendancy.  At  length  a  new  Constitution,  more  aris- 
Xocratic  in  its  principles,  was  submitted  for  the  approbation  of  the 
people.  It  was  accepted  by  72,453  citizens,  and  rejected  by 
92,423;  but  as  167,172  individuals,  who  had  a  right  to  vote, 
had  disdained  to  exercise  that  privilege,  the  Helvetic  Senate 
thought  proper  to  reckon  all  the  absentees  among  the  acceptors  ; 
and  the  new  constitution  was  introduced  (July  3,)  as  having 
been  sanctioned  by  a  majority  of  the  people.  Bonaparte  had 
given  the  Swiss  to  understand,  that  he  relied  on  their  willing- 
ness to  be  united  to  France  ;  but,  as  the  Helvetic  government 
made  a  pretence  of  not  comprehending  that  invitation,  he  with- 
drew his  troops  from  Sv/itzerland  (July  20.)  This  was  the  sig- 
nal for  a  civil  war.  The  democratic  cantons,  who  Vv^ere  assem- 
bled at  Schweitz,  restored  the  ancient  confederation,  to  which 
most  of  the  old  cantons  acceded.  The  central  government, 
having  no  other  support  than  the  new  cantons,  and  seeing  them- 
selves attacked  even  in  their  own  territories,  importuned  the 
assistance  of  the  First  Consul.  A  French  army,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Ney,  entered  Smtzerland,  and  re-established  the  gov- 
ernment which  was  recommended  by  the  First  Consul.  Bona- 
parte constituted  himself  an  arbiter  between  the  two  parties,  and 
summoned  a  Helvetic  Council  at  Paris  (Feb.  19,  1S03,)  and 
proclaimed  the  constitution  of  Switzerland,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Act  of  Mediation.  Switzerland  thus  became  a  federative 
Kepublic,  composed  of  nineteen  sovereign  cantons.  The  con- 
stitution of  each  was  more  or  less  democratic;  but  the  equality 
of  the  citizens  formed  the  basis  of  them  all.  Once  a  year,  a 
Diet  was  to  assemble  in  one  of  the  six  principal  cities  in  Swit- 
zerland in  rotation.  In  these  the  Landamman,  or  chief  magis- 
trate of  the  district,  was  to  preside,  The  first  Landamman,  M. 
Louis  d'Affry,  was  nominated  by  Bonaparte. 

Bonaparte  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  negotiations  for 
indemnifying  those  princes  who  had  lost  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
their  possessions,  by  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
He,  in  concert  with  the  Emperor  Alexander,  was  the  principal 
arbiter  in  this  important  affair. 

Without  here  entering  into  the  details  of  these  negotiations, 
we  shall  merely  observe,  that  the  main  obstacle  which  had  im- 
peded the  negotiations  of  Ratisbon  being  removed  by  the  treaties 
which  France  concluded  on  this  occasion,  the  deputation  came 
to  a  final  conclusion,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Recess  (or  Re- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  203 

solutions)  of  the  'Deputation  (Feb.  25,  1803,)  by  which  the  .ir 
rangomer.t  regarding-  indemnities  and  territorial  exchanges  was 
brought  to  a  determination. 

The  war  between  France  and  Great  Britain  was  renewed  i\\ 
1803  Public  opinion  in  England  had  declared  agains-t  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  v/hich  was  by  no  means  favourable  to  her, 
considering  the  sacrifices  which  she  had  made.  The  British 
ministry  repented  having  agreed  to  the  surrender  of  Malta  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  delayed  the  restoration  of  Malta 
under  pretext  that  the  guarantees  had  not  been  granted  without 
restriction.  The  arbitrary  and  violent  acts  which  Bonaparte 
had  committed  since  the  peace ;  and  above  all,  the  annexation 
of  Piedmont  to  France,  furnished  a  second  motive  for  not  evacu- 
ating an  island  so  important  from  its  position.  After  a  very 
spirited  negotiation,  Great  Britain  offered  to  restore  Malta  to 
its  own  inhabitants,  and  to  acknowledge  it  as  an  independent 
State  ;  only  for  the  term  of  ten  years,  however,  and  on  condition 
that  the  King  of  Naples  would  cede  Lampedosa.  The  French 
troops  were  to  evacuate  the  Batavian  and  Swiss  Republics.  On 
these  terms  England  would  recognise  the  Italian  and  LigTirian 
Republics,  and  the  King  of  Etruria.  His  Majesty  of  Sardinia 
was  to  receive  an  adequate  territorial  provision  in  Italy.  The 
first  Consul  having  rejected  this  ultimatum,  war  was  declared 
(May  18,  1803,)  and  all  the  English  who  were  travelling  or  re- 
siding in  France,  arrested  and  detained  as  hostages. 

Charles  IV.  King  of  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  had 
ceded  Louisiana  to  France.  When  this  news  arrived  in  Amer- 
ica, it  spread  consternation  in  the  Republic  of  the  United  States. 
President  Jefferson  felt  great  reluctance  in  consenting  to  oppose, 
by  a  military  force,  the  entry  of  the  French  into  a  country  which 
would  give  them  the  command  of  the  Mississippi.  To  prevent 
this,  and  from  other  motives,  he  directed  the  American  minister 
in  Paris  to  enter  into  a  negotiation  with  the  French  government 
for  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  which  was  effected  at  Paris  (Sept. 
30,  1803.) 

A  French  army,  which  was  assembled  in  the  Batavian  Re- 
public under  the  command  of  General  Mortier,  was  despatched 
immediately  after  the  declaration  of  war,  to  occupy  the  Electo- 
rate of  Hanover,  the  patrimonial  dominions  of  the  King  of  Great 
Britain.  The  Government  of  that  country  concluded  a  capitu- 
lation at  Suhlingen  (June  3,)  in  virtue  of  which  the  native  troops 
retired  beyond  the  Elbe,  while  the  French  army  were  to  occupy 
the  country  and  its  fortresses,  and  be  maintained  by  the  inhabi- 
tants. They  likewise  took  possession  of  Cuxhaven  and  Retze- 
bulel,  belonging  to  the  city  of  Hamburg.     The  German  Empire, 


204  CHAPTEK    XI. 

x^hich  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  its  interests  regulated  hy 
two  foreign  powers,  did  not  even  protest  against  this  violation  of 
ifs  Ten^ciy.  Bonaparte,  deceived  in  his  expectation  of  rendering 
the  Cabinet  of  London  compliant,  annulled  the  capitulation  oi 
duhlingen,  and  ordered  Mortier  to  attack  Count  VValmoden,  who 
comipxinded  the  Hanoverian  army.  The  latter,  however,  laid 
acwn  their  arms,  in  consequence  of  a  convention  which  was 
signed  at  Artlenberg  (July  5.)  After  these  proceedings,  the 
mouth**  of  the  Elbe  and  Weser  were  immediately  blockaded  by 
an  English  squadron,  which  prevented  the  invaders  from  bene- 
fiting by  the  naviga.ion  of  those  rivers. 

England  had  generously  offered  to  acknowledge  the  neutrality 
of  HoTiand,  provided  she  could  get  the  French  troops  to  evacu- 
ate her  territory.  This  measure,  however,  proved  disastrous  in 
its  result  for  the  Republic.  Bonaparte  laid  them  under  obliga- 
tion to  maintain  a  body  of  34,000  men,  both  French  and  Bala- 
vians ;  and  to  faraish  five  ships  of  war  and  five  frigates,  with  a 
number  of  transports  and  sloops  of  war,  for  conveying  to  Eng- 
land 61,000  men  and  4000  horses.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace 
v\'ilh  the  Emperor  of  Russia  (Oct.  8,  1801,)  Bonaparte  had 
Vv'ithdrav/n  his  troops  from  the  kingdom  of  Naples  ;  but,  by  a 
forced  interpretation  of  the  treaty  of  Florence,  he  pretended  that 
he  had  a  right  to  send  them  back  whenever  he  should  happen 
to  be  at  war  Vv^ith  England.  Ferdinand  IV.  was  obliged  to  suc- 
cumb ;  and  in  consequence  of  an  arrangement  with  General  St. 
Cyr  (June  25,  1803,)  the  French  again  took  possession  of 
Abruzzi. 

The  loss  of  Trinidad,  and  the  selling  of  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States  of  America,  had  created  no  small  coolness  between 
the  Court  of  Madrid  and  Bonaparte.  Already  had  he  brought 
an  armv  near  to  Bayonne,  which,  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Augereau,  threatened  Spain.  She,  however,  succeeded  in 
evading  the  ttorm.  As  it  was  of  much  importance  for  her  to 
avoid  war  with  England,  and  on  the  other  hand,  as  Bonaparte 
had  more  need  of  money  than  of  ships,  especially  considering 
the  nature  of  the  attack  w^hich  he  meditated  upon  England,  it 
was  agreed  by  a  secret  treaty  signed  at  Madrid  (Oct.  30,)  that 
Charles  IV.  should  substitute  money,  instead  of  the  succours 
which  the  nature  of  his  former  engagement  bound  him  to  fur- 
nish. The  amount  of  this  subsidy  is  not  officially  known.  The 
hopes  which  this  Monarch  had  entertained  of  escaping  from  the 
war  w^ere  sadly  disappointed.  He  was  dragged  into  it  towards 
the  end  of  the  following  year. 

Portugal  likewise  purchased  her  neutrality,  by  a  convention 
which  was  signed  between  General  Lannes,  JSonaparte's  minis 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1S02— 1810.  206 

ter  at  Lisbon,  and  Don  Manuel  Pinto ;  the  contents  of  which 
are  not  known  with  certainty. 

From  the  breaking  of  the  peace  of  Amiens  to  the  second  war 
with  Austria,  Bonaparte  had  employed  himself  about  a  project 
for  effecting-  a  landing  in  England,  for  which  he  had  made  im- 
mense preparations.  All  the  ship-carpenters  throughout  France 
were  put  in  requisition  for  the  equipment  of  a  flotilla  intended 
to  convey  the  armies  of  the  Republic  to  the  English  shores.  A 
multitudinous  army,  called  the  Arviy  of  England,  w^as  assem- 
bled on  the  coasts,  extensive  camps  were  formed,  and  convoys 
prepared  for  protecting  the  transportation  of  these  invaders.  In 
England,  under  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Pitt,  vigorous  measures  of 
defence  were  adopted,  by  setting  on  foot  a  regular  army  of 
180,000  men.  The  English  Admirals  frequently  harassed  the 
French  shipping,  and  bombarded  the  towns  situated  upon  the 
coasts.  Bat  from  this  there  did  not  happen  any  result  of  im- 
portance. 

St.  Lucia,  St.  Peter,  Miquelon,  and  Tobago,  as  also  the 
Dutch  colonies  of  Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1803. 
General  Rqchambeau,  who  had  succeeded  Le  Clerc,  concluded 
a  capitulation  at  St.  Domingo,  with  Dessalines  the  Black  Chief, 
for  the  evacuation  of  Cape  Francois  ;  but  as  the  English  Ad- 
miral Duckworth  blockaded  it  by  sea,  he  was  obliged  to  sur- 
render with  his  whole  army,  which  was  transported  to  Eng- 
land. Dessalines,  thus  relieved  from  the  French,  proclaimed 
the  independence  of  St.  Domingo,  or  the  island  of  Hayti,  of 
which  he  assumed  the  government,  under  the  title  of  Governor- 
General,  for  life. 

Meantime,  the  plan  of  Bonaparte  for  disengaging  himself 
from  those  political  restraints  which  fettered  his  ambition,  was 
growing  to  maturity.  Three  parties  divided  France — the  Roy- 
alists, the  Systematic  Republicans,  and  the  Jacobins.  Of  the 
two  first,  the  one  had  always  entertained  hopes  that  Bonaparte 
would  recall  the  Bourbons  ;  and  the  other,  that  the  moment  was 
approaching  when  true  liberty  would  take  the  place  of  despotism. 
General  ]\Ioreau  was  regarded  as  the  head  of  this  party,  if  his 
character  had  at  all  made  him  a  proper  person  to  play  an  active 
game  in  public  affairs.  Bonaparte,  who  desired  neither  King 
nor  Republic,  was  convinced  that  he  could  only  arrive  at  his  pur- 
pose by  attaching  to  himself  the  Jacobin  party.  In  order  to  in- 
spire them  with  confidence,  he  felt  that  it  was  necessary  to  give 
them  a  pledge ;  this  was,  to  be  continually  at  variance  with  the 
other  two  parties,  which  they  equally  detested. 

Bonaparte  resolved  to  ruin  Moreau,  whom   he  mistrusted. 

VOL.  n.  IS 


206  CHAPTER  XI. 

Pichegru,  Georges,  Cadoudal,  and  other  Eoyalist  Chiefs,  se- 
cretly entered  France,  believing  that  the  time  was  now  come 
for  re-establishing  royalty,  and  that  Moreau  would  place  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  enterprise.  Pichegru  twice  saw  his  old 
friend  Moreau,  who  refused  to  take  any  part  in  a  plot  against 
the  Government ;  but  he  was  reluctant  to  betray  this  excellent 
man,  whom  Bonaparte  hated,  and  who  had  been  excepted  by 
name  from  the  general  amnesty.  His  silence  was  sufficient  to 
entangle  him  in  a  pretended  conspiracy,  with  which  the  tribu- 
nals resounded. 

Pichegru  kept  himself  secreted  in  Paris  for  some  days,  but 
through  the  treachery  of  a  friend  lie  was  at  length  discovered 
arrested,  and  committed  to  prison,  where  he  was  found  dead,  on 
the  morning  of  April  7th.,  a  black  handkerchief  being  twisted 
around  his  neck,  and  tightened  by  the  twisting  of  a  stick.  No 
proof  appeared  against  Moreau  of  taking  any -part  in  the  con- 
spiracy ;  but  his  own  confession,  that  he  had  seen  Pichegru 
twice,  was  deemed  sufficient  by  his  judges  to  justify  his  con- 
demnation, for  a  high,  although  not  capital  crime  ;  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  two  years  imprisonment,  which,  by  the  intercession  of 
his  friends  was  commuted  for  the  same  period  of  exile.  This 
distinguished  General  made  choice  of  America,  as  his  place  of 
exile. 

At  this  time  another  occurrence  took  place,  Avhich  must  ever 
form  the  darkest  chapter  in  the  history  of  Bonaparte — the  arrest, 
condemnation,  and  execution  of  the  Duke  d'Enghien.  This 
prince  was  living  in  retirement  in  the  castle  of  Ettenheim,  in 
the  Datchy  of  Baden,  a  neutral  territory.  On  the  evening  of 
the  14th  of  March,  a  troop  of  French  soldiers  passed  the  fron- 
tier, surrounded  the  castle,  and  seized  the  prince,  and  all  his  at- 
tendants. He  was  immediately  conveyed  to  Strasburgh,  and 
from  thence  after  a  confinement  of  three  days  to  Paris,  where  he 
was  kept  for  a  few  hours  in  the  Temple,  and  then  removed  to 
die  neighbouring  castle  of  Vincennes.  On  the  night  of  the 
20lh  he  was  charged  by  a  military  court,  of  which  General  Hul- 
lin  was  president,  with  having  fought  against  France,  being  in 
the  pay  of  England,  plotting  against  the  internal  and  external 
safety  of  the  Republic,  and  ha^dng  conspired  against  the  life  of 
the  chief  Consul.  The  court  pronounced  him  guilt}'- ;  the  de- 
cision was  immediately  despatched  to  Bonaparte,  and  the  sen- 
*ence  "  condemned  to  death,"  which  was  written  on  the  back  of 
it.  carried  into  execution  at  six  o'clock  the  following  morning. 
The  charges  alleged  against  him  were  unsupported  by  any 
evidence;  but  he  persevered  in  declaring,  that  he  would  ever 
.sustain  the  rights  of  his  family,  and  that  as  a  Conde,  he  could 
i«ver  enter  France,  but  with  arms  in  his  hand. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  207 

This  last  act  paved  the  way  for  Bonaparte  to  ascend  the 
throne.  France  had  scarcely  recovered  from  the  stupor  in  which 
she  had  been  plunged  by  the  judicial  murder  of  a  Bourbon, 
when  the  Conservative  Senate,  who  had  perceived  that  the  best 
way  to  please  Bonaparte  was  not  to  wait  till  he  should  make  his 
wishes  known  to  them,  presented  an  address,  inviting  him  to 
complete  the  institutions  necessary  for  tranquilHzing  the  State 
(March  27.)  At  this  signal  of  flattery,  many  of  the  Orders  of 
the  State  were  eager  to  express  their  desire  that  the  power 
which  was  vested  in  Bonaparte,  should  be  conferred  on  him  by 
a  hereditary  title.  One  month  was  allowed  to  elapse,  for  pre- 
paring the  public  mind  for  the  result.  It  was  then  that  the  First 
Consul,  in  replying  to  the  address  of  the  Senate,  desired  these 
Orders  to  explain  themselves  more  clearly.  The  Tribunate 
took  the  merit  of  anticipating  this  explanation,  by  voting  the  re- 
establishment  of  hereditary  monarchy  in  favour  of  Bonaparte 
and  his  family  (April  80.)  The  Senate,  not  wishing  to  be  be- 
hind in  complaisance,  acceded  to  the  desire  ;  and  a  decree  of 
that  Body  declared  Bonaparte  Emperor  of  the  French  (May 
18;)  conferring  on  him  the  Imperial  dignitjr,  to  be  hereditary 
in  himself,  and  his  lawful  or  adopted  sons,  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  daughters  ;  and  failing  the  males,  to  his  brothers  Joseph  and 
Louis,  and  their  male  descendants. 

The  same  decree  of  the  Senate  made  several  important 
changes  in  the  constitution,  with  the  view  of  rendering  it  per- 
fectly monarchical.  Bonaparte  accepted  the  dignity  which 
had  been  conferred  on  him.  He  only  asked,  that  the  nation 
should  be  consulted  upon  the  question  of  hereditary  right. 
Wishing  to  legalize  this  attempt  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  ;  he 
invited  the  sovereign  Pontiff  to  Paris  to  crown  him.  This  ce- 
remony took  place  in  the  Church  of  Notre-Dame  (Dec.  2,  1804 ;) 
and  contrary  to  the  general  custom,  Bonaparte  put  the  crown 
on 'his  own  head,  after  which  he  placed  it  upon  that  of  his 
spouse.  Some  weeks  afterwards,  in  opening  the  Session  ol 
the  Legislative  Body,  he  solemnly  declared,  that,  as  he  was  satis- 
fied with  his  grandeur,  he  would  make  no  more  additions  to 
the  Empire. 

The  base  transaction  of  21st  March  was  followed  up  by  an 
exchange  of  very  violent  letters, between  the  Russian  ambassador 
at  Paris,  and  the  minister  of  Bonaparte.  In  addition  to  the  indig- 
nation which  that  event  had  excited  in  Alexander,  and  which 
the  prevailing  tone  of  the  notes  of  the  French  minister  were  not 
calculated  to  diminish ;  there  was  a  dissatisfaction,  on  account 
of  the  non-execution  of  many  of  the  conditions  agreed  to  in  the 
treaty  of  10th  October  1801.     Alexander  demanded,  that  tho 


*20S  CHAPTER  XI. 

French  troops  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  kingdom  of  Naples  ; 
that  Bonaparte  should  concert  with  him  as  to  the  principles  upon 
which  the  affairs  of  Italy  were  to  be  regulated ;  that  without  de- 
lay he  should  indemnify  the  King  of  Sardinia,  and  evacuate 
Hanover  (July  27,  1804.)  To  these,  Bonaparte  only  replied  by 
recriminations,  when  the  two  Courts  recalled  their  respective 
ambassadors.  The  Emperor  had  not  waited  for  this  opportunity 
to  employ  means  for  setting  bounds  to  the  ambition  of  Bona- 
parte. By  the  declarations  interchanged  betwixt  the  Courts  of 
St.  Petersburg  and  Berlin  (May  3,  and  24,)  it  was  agreed,  that 
they  should  not  allow  the  French  troops  in  Germany  to  go  be- 
yond the  frontier  of  Hanover  ;  and  that  should  this  happen,  each 
of  these  two  Courts  should  employ  40,000  men  to  repel  such  an 
attempt.  The  Prussian  declaration  added,  moreover,  that  there 
should  be  no  dispute  as  to  the  countries  situated  to  the  west  of 
the  Weser.  Not  content  with  having  thus  provided  for  the  se- 
curity of  the  North  of  Germany,  the  Emperor  Alexander  imme- 
diately concerted  measures  with  Austria,  with  the  view  of 
opposing  a  barrier  to  the  usurpations  of  Fran2e.  Declarations, 
in  the  shape  of  a  convention,  were  exchanged  between  these  two 
Courts  before  the  end  of  the  year ;  and  they  agreed  to  set  on  foot 
an  army  of  350,000  men. 

.  The  maritime  war,  like  that  of  1S03,  was  limited  to  threats, 
and  immense  preparations  on  the  part  of  Bonaparte,  and  on  the 
part  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  to  attempt  preventing  the  union  of 
the  French  fleet,  or  for  burning  their  shipping  in  their  own  ports. 
The  English  took  possession  of  the  Dutch  colony  of  Surinam 
(May  4;)  and  towards  the  end  of  the  year  commenced  hostilities 
.against  Spain. 

The  first  six  months  of  the  year  1805  were  marked  by  new  ag- 
grandizements on  the  part  of  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  1.  A  decree  of 
the  Estates  of  the  Italian  Republic  assembled  at  Paris  (Mar.  18,) 
proclaimed  Napoleon  Bonaparte  King  of  Italy ;  and  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  he  should  remit  that  crown  to  one  of  his  legitimate  or 
adopted  sons,  so  soon  as  the  foreign  troops  should  have  evacuated 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  (where  there  were  no  foreigners  except 
the  French  troops,)  the  Seven  Islands  and  Malta;  and  that 
henceforth  the  crowns  of  France  and  Italy  should  never  be  united 
in  the  same  person.  Bonaparte  repaired  to  Milan  (May  26,) 
where  he  was  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  of  the  Emperors  of 
Germany,  whew  were  kings  of  Italy.  Eugene  Beauharnais,  the 
son  of  the  Empress  Josephine,  w^as  appointed  his  viceroy.  2.  He 
conferred  the  principality  of  Piombino,  under  the  title  of  a  here- 
ditary fief  of  the  French  empire,  on  Eliza  Bacciochi  his  sister, 
and  her  male  descendants  (May  25.)  This  completed  the  spolia- 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802— ISIO.  20» 

lion  of  the  House  of  Buoncompagni,  to  whom  that  title  and  es- 
tate belonged,  together  with  the  greater  pan  of  the  Isle  of  Elba. 
3.  The  Senate  and  people  of  the  Ligurian  Republic  demanded 
Yoluntarily,  as  is  said,  to  be  united  to  the  French  Empire.  Their 
request  was  agreed  to  (June  5;)  and  the  territor^^  of  that  Repub- 
lic was  divided  into  three  departments.  4.  The  Republic  of 
Lucca  demanded  from  Bonaparte  a  new  constitution,  and  a  prince 
of  his  f&mily.  By  a  constitutional  statute  (June  23,)  that  Repub- 
lic was  erected  into  a  principality,  under  the  protection  of  France  ; 
and  conferred  as  a  hereditary  right  on  Felix  Bacciochi,  and  his 
wife  Eliza  Bonaparte.  5.  The  States  of  Parma  seemed  destined 
to  be  given  up  by  way  of  compensation  to  the  King  of  Sardinia; 
together  with  the  territory  of  Genoa  ;  but  Bonaparte,  finding 
himself  involved  Avith  the  Emperor  Alexander,  caused  them  to 
be  organized  according  to  the  system  of  France.        ' 

It  was  impossible  for  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  not  to  unite 
against  a  conqueror  who  seemed  to  apply  to  politics  that  maxim 
of  the  civil  law,  which  makes  every  thing  allowable  that  the 
laws  do  not  forbid.  We  have  already  seen  that  Russia  and 
Austria  had  concerted  measures  for  setting  bounds  to  these  usur- 
pations. But  it  was  William  Pitt,  who  was  restored  to  the 
British  ministry  in  the  month  of  May  1804,  that  conceived  the 
plan  of  the  third  coalition.  Disdaining  the  petty  resources  which 
the  preceding  ministry  had  employed  for  harassing  France,  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  grand  European  League,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rescuing  from  the  dominion  of  Bonaparte  the  countries 
which  France  had  subdued  since  1792,  and  for  reducing  that 
kingdom  within  its  ancient  limits.  With  regard  to  the  territories 
which  vrere  to  be  taken  from.  France,  he  proposed  arrangements, 
by  means  of  which  they  might  form  a  barrier  against  her  future 
projects  of  aggrandizement ;  and  finally,  to  introduce  into  Europe 
a  general  system  of  public  right.  In  fact,  the  plan  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
which  was  communicated  to  the  Russian  government  (June  19, 
1805,)  was  the  same  as  that  which,  ten  years  afterwards,  was 
executed  by  the  Grand  Alliance.  If  this  plan  failed  in  1805,  it 
was  only  because  they  calculated  on  the  participation  of  Prussia, 
as  an  indispensable  condition;  which  they  did  not  give  up  v/hen 
that  power  had  declared  her  resolution  to  preserve  her  neutrality. 

By  the  treaty  of  April  11th,  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain, 
it  was  agreed  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  should  make  another 
attempt  for  arranging  matters  with  Bonaparte,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  war.  M.  de  Novosilzoff,  one  of  the  Russian  ministers,  was 
sent  to  Paris.  On  his  arrival  at  Berlin,  he  received  the  pass- 
ports which  the  cabinet  of  Prussia  had  procured  for  him  at  t-cris  ; 
but  at  the  same  time,  he  received  an  order  from  St.  Pettx-^bur^ 

VOL.  II  18^ 


210  CHAPTER  XI. 

noi  to  continue  his  journey.  The  annexation  of  the  Ligurian 
Republic  to  France,  at  the  moment  when  they  were  making  cu;.-:- 
ciliatory  overtures  lo  Bonaparte,  appeared  too  serious  an  outrage 
for  the  Emperor  to  prosecute  farther  negotiations.  War  was 
consequently  resolved  on. 

The  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England  had  been  car- 
ried on  for  some  time  with  extraordinary  vigour.  Every  thing 
seemed  to  announce,  that  Bonaparte  meant  lo  attempt  that  peril- 
ous enterprise.  Pan  of  his  troops  had  already  embarked  (Aug 
27,;  when  all  of  a  sudden  the  camp  at  Boulogne  was  broken  up. 
and  the  army  directed  to  move  towards  the  Rhine,  which  it  pass- 
ed within  a  month  after.  Austria  had  set  on  foot  three  armies. 
The  Archduke  Charles  commanded  that  of  Italy,  where  it  was 
expected  a  decisive  blow  was  to  be  struck ;  the  second  army, 
under  the  command  of  the  Archduke  John,  was  stationed  in  the 
Tyrol,  to  maintain  a  communication  with  the  third  army  on  the 
Inn,  which  was  commanded  nominally  by  the  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand the  Emperor's  cousin,  but  in  reality  by  General  Mack. 
The  first  Russian  army  under  the  command  of  General  Kutusoff 
had  arrived  in  Gallicia,  and  was  continuing  its  march  in  aF 
haste.  It  was  followed  by  another  under  Michelson.  The  Rus 
sian  troops  in  Dalmatia  were  to  attempt  a  landing  in  Italy. 

The  army  of  Mack  passed  the  Inn  (Sept.  8.)  They  had 
reckoned  on  the  co-operation  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  ;  but  that 
prince,  who  was  always  distrustful  of  Austria,  abandoned  the 
cause  of  the  allies,  and  retired  with  his  troops  into  Franconia. 
The  Electors  of  Wurtemberg  and  Baden  were  desirous  of  con- 
cluding treaties  of  alliance  with  Bonaparte,  after  he  had  passed 
the  Rhine  ;  these  treaties  were  signed  at  Ludwigsburg  and  Et- 
tingen  (Oct.  4,  and  10.)  The  plan  of  Bonaparte  was  to  cut  off 
the  army  of  Mack  who  had  entered  into  Swabia,  from  that  of 
Kutusoff  which  was  marching  through  Austria.  In  this  he  suc- 
ceeded, by  presuming  to  violate  the  Prussian  territory.  Mar- 
mont  who  had  come  by  way  of  Mayence,  and  Bernadotte  who 
had  conducted  the  army  into  Franconia,  where  they  were  joined 
by  the  Bavarians,  traversed  the  country  of  Anspac-h,  and  came 
thus  on  the  rear  of  the  Austrian  army  (Oct.  6.)  From  that  date 
s.carcely  a  day  passed  without  a  battle  favourable  to  the  French. 
Several  divisions  of  the  Austrians  were  obliged  to  lay  down 
their  arms.  Mack,  who  had  thrown  himself  into  Ulm,  lost  all 
resolution,  and  signed  a  capitulation  (Oct.  17,)  by  which  he  pro- 
mised to  surrender  if  assistance  did  not  arrive  within  eight  days. 
He  did  not,  however,  wait  for  this  delay.  By  a  second  capitulation 
two  days  after,  he  surrendered  on  the  spot  with  25,000  men. 

The  army  of  Mack  was  totally  destroyed,  except  6000  caval- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1S02— ISIO.  211 

ry,  ^'iiii  wliicli  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  had  opened  himself  j^ 
pass-age  througti  Franconia  ;  and  20;000  others  with  which  Kien- 
mayer  had  retired  to  Braunau,  where  he  was  met  by  the  van- 
guard of  Kutusoff.  These  two  generals  continued  their  retreat 
The  Russian  army  repassed  the  DanuLe  near  Grein  (Nov.  9;.' 
and  directed  their  march  .towards  ihe  Morau-  A  few  days  aftr^ 
{i\ov.  13,)  Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
ihe  French.  They  passed  the  Danube  near  that  city,  and  par- 
sued  the  Russians.  In  the  meantime  General  Buxhowden  with 
ihe  second  Russian  army,  having  joined  Kutusotf  at  Ohnutz,  on 
the  same  day  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  arrived  in  the  camp, 
they  conceived  themselves  strong  enough  to  encounter  the  ene- 
my, and  immediately  discontinued  their  retreat.  The  battle  of" 
A.usterlitz,  which  Bonaparte  fought  (Dec.  2,)  with  the  combi- 
ned army  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  decided  the  campaign 
in  his  favour. 

Meantime  Bonaparte  found  himself  in  a  position  which  might 
become  dangerous.  When  the  Archduke  Charles  had  perceived 
that  the  French  had  concentrated  their  forces  on  the  Danube,  he 
sent  supplies  to  General  Mack,  and  commenced  his  retreat  from 
Italy,  that  he  m.ight  be  nearer  the  centre  of  hostilities.  This 
retreat  he  could  not  effect,  except  by  hazarding  several  engage- 
ments with  Massena,  who  continued  the  pursuit.  When  near 
Cilley  he  formed  a  junction  with  the  Archduke  John,  who  had 
retreated  from  the  Tyrol  (Nov.  27.)  The  united  armies  of  these 
two  princes  amounted  to  S0,000  men,  with  whom  they  marched 
towards  Vienna;  while  the  Hungarians  rose  en  masse  to  defend 
their  sovereign.  The  next  day  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  the 
Russian  army  received  a  reinforcement  of  12,000  men.  An 
army  composed  of  Prussians,  Saxons,  and  Hessians  were  on  the 
point  of  penetrating  into  Franconia  ;  and  some  corps  oT  Prus- 
sians, Russians,  Svredes,  Hanoverians,  and  English,  had  joined 
a  second  army  in  the  north  of  Germany,  ready  to  invade  Bel- 
gium. Moreover,  the  English  and  the  Russians  were  preparing 
to  effect  a  landing  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

It  was  in  this  critical  moment  that  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna 
signed  an  armistice  at  Austerlitz,  by  which  they  engaged  to  send 
back  the  Russian  army,  and  to  quell  the  insurrection  in  Hun- 
gary. Within  twenty  days  after,  peace  was  signed  at  Presburg 
between  Austria  and  France  (Dec.  26.)  The  former  acknow- 
ledged all  the  claims  of  Bonaparte,  and  ceded  to  him,  to  form  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  the  ancient  states  of  Venice,  with 
Dalmatia  and  Albania  ;  and  to  liis  allies,  the  Elector  of  Baden 
and  the  new  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  the  Tyrol  and 
all  her  hereditary  possessions  in  Sv/abia. 


*il2  CHAPTER  XI. 

The  violation  of  the  Prussian  territory  in  Fran'^or^ia,  had  ex 
cited  the  most  lively  indignation  at  Berlin.  The  King  resolved, 
sword  in  hand,  to  avenge  this  outrage  against  his  royal  dig^nity. 
The  Prussian  troops  occupied  Hanover,  which  the  French  had 
yust  evacuated  ;  and  that  country  was  restored  to  its  legitimate 
fcYe^eign.  A  Lo'dy  of  Russians,  for  whom  they  had  till  then 
•vainly  demanded  a  passage  through  Silesia,  obtained  permission 
to  traverse  that  province  to  join  the  army  of  Kutusoff.  The 
Emperor  Alexander  had  himself  arrived  at  Berlin  (Oct.  25,)  as 
well  as  the  Archduke  Anthony,  Grand-Master  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  A  convention  was  concluded  at  Potsdam  (Nov.  3,) 
between  Alexander  and  Frederic  III.  of  Prussia.  This  latter 
prince  joined  the  coalition,  with  the  reservation  of  a  preliminaiy 
attempt  to  obtain  the  assent  of  Bonaparte  to  conditions  extremely 
equitable.  In  case  these  were  rejected,  Frederic  promised  to 
take  the  field  v/ith  180,000  men,  who  in  fact,  were  put  in  a  con- 
dition to  march  at  the  earliest  notice.  Count  Haugwitz,  who 
had  been  sent  to  Vienna  as  the  bearer  of  overtures  of  peace  to 
Bonaparte,  accompanied  with  an  energetic  declaration,  took  it 
into  his  head  that  it  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  Prus- 
sia were  he  to  press  the  object  of  his  commission;  he  resolved, 
therefore,  to  wait  the  course  of  events.  After  the  truce  of  Aus- 
terlitz,  he  took  it  upon  him  to  change  the  system  of  his  govern- 
ment. Without  having  any  sort  of  authority,  he  concluded  an 
alliance  with  Bonaparte  at  Vienna  (Dec.  15,)  for  the  guarantee 
of  their  respective  states,  and  for  those  of  Bavaria  and  the  Porte. 
Prussia  was  to  cede  the  principality  of  Anspach  to  Bavaria ; 
that  of  Neufchatel  to  France  ;  and  that  of  Cleves  to  a  prince  of 
the  Empire,  whom  Bonaparte  might  name.  In  return  Prussia 
was  to  get  possession  of  the  Electorate  of  Hanover. 

When  Count  Haugwitz  arrived  at  Berlin  with  the  treaty, 
Frederic  at  first  was  inclined  to  reject  it ;  but  the  minister  having 
represented  to  him  the  danger  to  which  this  w^ould  expose  him 
in  the  present  state  of  affairs,  the  King  rc'^jctantly  consented  to 
ratify  the  treaty  ;  provided  a  clause  was  ad  '^d,  that  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  provinces  mutually  ceded  should  only  be  announced 
as  provisional,  until  the  King  of  England  should  give  his  assent, 
by  a  future  treat}^  to  the  cession  of  Hanover.  It  was  in  this 
manner  that  Prussia,  in  effect,  got  possession  of  that  Electorate 
(Jan,  27,  1806.)  Meantime,  Count  Haugwitz,  who  had  repaired 
to  Paris,  found  it  impossible  to  obtain  the  acceptance  of  Bona- 
parte to  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  so  modified.  He  then 
signed  a  second  convention  (Feb.  15,)  by  which  Prussia  enga- 
ged to  declare  the  occupation  of  Hanover  definitive  ;  and  to  shut 
the  rivers  in  the  North  of  Germany  against  the  English.     The 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  ]802  -1810.  213 

King  of  Prussia,  who  had  already  disbanded  his  army^  found 
himself  in  a  situation  that  obliged  him  to  ratify  that  arrangement. 
Bonaparte  had  made  prodigious  efforts  to  revive  the  French 
marine.  The  fleet  at  Rochefort,  commanded  by  Admiral  Mis- 
siessi,  had  taken  the  opportunity  of  sailing  from  that  port  (Jan. 
11,  1805.)  They  had  set  out  with  the  intention  of  levying  conr 
tributions  in  the  Little  Antilles,  belonging  to  the  English  ;  and 
after  throwing  in  supplies  to  General  Ferrand  who  still  kept 
possession  of  St.  Domingo,  they  had  returned  without  accident 
to  Rochefort.  The  fleet  at  Toulon,  consisting  of  fourteen  ves- 
sels of  the  line,  commanded  by  Admiral  Villeneuve,  and  hav- 
ing on  board  troops  under  the  command  of  General  Lauriston, 
probably  destined  for  Ireland,  had  repaired  to  Cadiz  (April  9,) 
where  they  were  joined  by  th(^  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral 
Gravina.  Next  day  the  two  combined  fleets  sailed  from  that 
port,  but  afterwards  separated.  That  under  Villeneuve  had 
proceeded  to  Martinico ;  but  being  apprised  of  the  arrival  of 
Lord  Nelson  at  Barbadoes.  Villeneuve  again  joined  the  Span- 
ish Admiral,  when  the  fleet  returned  to  Europe.  An  engage- 
ment took  place  near  Cape  Finistcrre  (July  22,)  which  was 
honourable  to  Sir  Robert  Calder,  the  English  Admiral,  who 
captured  two  ships  of  the  line.  Being  soon  after  considerably 
reinforced,  and  amounting  to  thirty-five  ships  of  the  line,  they 
set  sail  for  Cadiz,  where  a  partial  blockade  was  m.aintained  for 
some  time  by  Calder  and  Collingwood.  But  Nelson,  who  had 
been  invested  with  the  command  of  the  English  fleet,  induced 
the  enemy,  by  means  of  a  pretended  retreat,  to  leave  their  sta- 
tion. An  engagement  took  place  off  Cape  Trafalgar  (Oct.  21,) 
which  cost  the  English  Admiral  his  life,  hut  which  ruined  the 
combined  fleet.  Villeneuve  was  made  prisoner,  and  Gravina 
fled  towards  Cadiz  with  ten  ships.  This  glorious  victory  se- 
cured to  England  the  command  of  the  sea. 

When  Bonaparte  had  made  preparations  for  marching  against 
Austria,  he  resolved  to  reinforce  his  army  in  Italy  by  the  troops 
which  occupied  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  To  ingrati- 
ate himself  with  Ferdinand  IV.,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  that 
prince  'Sept.  21,)  by  which  the  latter,  on  obtaining  the  evacua- 
tion 01  his  own  states,  promised  to  remain  neutral.  He  did  not 
depend,  however,  on  that  monarch's  fulfilling  his  promise.  It 
was  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  allies,  that  the  Russian  and  Eng- 
lish armies  should  land  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples- ;  the  one  by 
the  way  of  Corfu,  and  the  other  from  Malta.  The  plan  was 
carried  into  execution,  and  the  foreign  troops  were  received  as 
friends.  A  decree  of  Napoleon,  dated  from  Schoenbrun  (Dec. 
27,)  had  declared  that  the  dynasty  of  the  Bourbons  had  ceased 


214  CHAPTER  XI. 

to  reign  at  Naples.  After  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  the  Russians 
and  Enirlish  abandoned  Italy  ;  and  Ferdinand  IV.  found  him- 
self without  defence,  exposed  to  a  French  army,  who  were  ap- 
proaching his  capital.  He  embarked  for  Sicily,  when  the  French 
entered  Naples  (Jan.  1S06,)  and  Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  brother 
of  Napoleon,  was  created  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (March  30,) 
although  his  sway  never  extended  farther  than  the  kingdom  of 
Naples. 

Those  are  probably  in  a  mistake,  who  imagine  they  find  in 
the  conduct  of  Bonaparte,  the  gradual  development  of  a  great 
plan,  conceived  before-hand ;  and  springing  from  his  head,  so 
to  speak,  like  the  fabled  Minerva  from  the  brain  of  Jupiter. 
The  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed,  the  success  of  his 
arms,  and  the  weakness  of  foreign  Cabinets,  suggested  to  him 
one  idea  after  another.  It  was  when  he  was  on  his  march 
against  the  Russians,  that  he  received  the  news  of  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar,  which  had  completely  destroyed  the  labour  of  three 
years,  and  annihilated  his  liopes  of  reducing  England  by  plant- 
ing his  standard  on  her  soil.  His  imagination  then  conceived 
the  plan  of  opposing  one  combination  of  strength  to  another, 
and  surrounding  France  with  a  number  of  states,  independent 
in  appearance,  but  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  head  of  the 
Empire. 

After  the  peace  of  Presburg,  he  had  repaired  to  Munich, 
where  he  adopted  his  stepson,  Eugene  Beauharnais,  and  de- 
clared him  his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  announ- 
cing this  elevation  to  the  Senate,  (Jan.  12,  180(5,)  he  declared 
that  he  reserved  to  himself  the  right  of  determining  the  common 
tie  which  was  to  unite  all  the  States  com.posing  the  Federative 
System  of  the  French  Empire.  This  was  the  first  time  that 
this  system  was  spoken  of.  In  a  short  time  after,  he  declared, 
that  the  whole  peninsula  of  Italy  made  part  of  the  Grand  Em- 
pire. Finally,  a  constitutional  statute  of  the  Imperial  family, 
which  he  published  at  that  time  (March  30,)  may  be  regarded 
as  the  fundamental  law  of  the  Federative  System  he  had  lately 
announced.  That  statute  granted  to  the  Emperor  of  the  French 
an  absolute  supremacy  over  all  the  sovereigns  of  his  family  ;  and 
he  no  doubt  had  great  hopes,  that  the  time  would  arrive  when 
no  others  would  be  found  in  any  of  the  adjacent  states. 

In  annexing  the  Venetian  provinces  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
Bonaparte  detached  from  them  Massa-Carrara  and  Carfagnana, 
which  he  bestowed  on  the  Prince  of  Lucca.  At  the  same  time, 
he  created  within  these  provinces  twelve  dutchies,  as  hereditary 
liefs  of  the  Empire,  and  three  within  the  states  of  Parma ;  ali 
of  which  he  disposed  of  in  favour  of  his  generals  and  ministers. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1789—1815.  215 

The  dutchy  of  Cleves,  ceded  by  Prussia,  as  well  as  that  of 
Berg-  which  had  been  ceded  to  him  by  the  King  of  Bavaria, 
were  conferred,  together  with  the  hereditary  dignity  of  Admiral 
of  France,  on  his  brother-in-law  Joachim  Mtirat  (March  30.) 
Alexander  Berthier  was  created  Prince  of  Neufchatel  (June  5.) 
At  a  later  period,  he  granted  the  dutchy  of  Benevento  to  M. 
Talleyrand  Perigord,  under  the  title  of  Sovereign  Principality  ; 
and  the  principality  of  Pontecorvo  to  Jean  Baptiste  Bernadotte, 
the  brother-in-law  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He  took  these  two  ter- 
ritories from  the  States  of  the  Church,  under  the  pretext  that 
their  sovereignty  was  an  object  of  litigation  between  the  Courts 
of  Eome  and  Naples  ;  an  allegation  which  was  not  true. 

The  continuation  of  the  History  of  Bonaparte  presents  us 
with  a  series  of  new  usurpations  and  aggressions.  Towards 
the  end  of  January,  the  French  troops  entered  into  the  free  city 
of  Frankfort,  where  they  levied  four  millions,  to  punish  the  in- 
habitants for  their  connexion  with  the  English.  Bonaparte  was 
living  at  that  time  in  the  most  perfect  peace  with  the  German 
Empire  to  which  that  city  belonged,  and  which  could  not  protect 
it.  By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  the  Bocca  di  Cattaro,  in  Dalma- 
tia,  was  to  be  restored  to  the  French ;  but  the  Russians,  whose 
fleet  was  cruising  off  these  coasts,  immediately  took  possession 
of  that  place  (Feb.  4,)  at  the  moment  when  the  Austrians  were 
about  to  surrender  it  to  the  French.  Bonaparte  made  this  a 
pretext  for  refusing  to  give  up  to  the  Court  of  Vienna  the  for- 
tress of  Braunau,  which  he  was  to  evacuate  according  to  the 
stipulations  of  that  same  treaty,  and  for  leaving  a  part  of  his 
army  in  Germany.  He  did  more  ;  he  ordered  General  Lauris- 
ton,  who  commanded  the  French  army  in  Dalmatia,  to  occupy 
Ragusa  (May  27,)  a  Republic  placed  under  the  protection  of  the 
Porte,  with  whom  there  subsisted  a  treaty  of  peace.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  the  13th  August  1807,  that  Ragusa  was  formally 
united  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

The  Elector  of  Baden  and  the  Princes  of  Nassau  were  oblig- 
ed to  make  cessions  to  France.  The  former  surrendered  Kehl, 
and  the  latter  Cassel  and  Kostheim,  opposite  Mayence.  Wesel, 
a  fortress  in  the  dutchy  of  Cleves  was  likewise  occupied  by  the 
French  troops.  All  these  were  so  many  violations  of  the  peace 
of  Luneville,  and  the  treaty  of  Vienna  in  180-5. 

In  order  to  promote  this  federative  system,  the  States-General 
of  the  Batavian  Republic  received  a  hint  to  petition  Bonaparte 
for  a  King.  A  treaty  was  in  consequence  concluded  at  Paris 
(March  24,)  by  which  Louis,  the  brother  of  Napoleon,  was  cre- 
ated Hereditary  and  Constitutional  King  of  Holland;  the  title 
to  descend  to  his  male  issue.     That  young  man  accepted  with 


lJ16  chapter  xr. 

reluctance  a  crown  which  he  had  never  coveted,  and  which  ho 
Vv^ore  with  niuch  dignit}^ 

William  Pitt,  whom  history  would  have  been  proud  to  call  the 
Great  Pitt,  had  she  not  already  given  that  title  to  his  father,  had 
died  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  (Jan.  23.)  Charles  Fox, 
his  former  antagonist,  succeeded  him  in  the  ministry.  He  im- 
mediately entered  into  negotiations  for  peace  between  France 
and  England.  This  commission,  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  was 
intrusted  first  to  Lord  Yarmouth  and  afterwards  to  Lord  Lau- 
derdale. After  the  death  of  Fox  (Sept.  13,)  the  negotiations 
ended  without  having  produced  any  change  in  the  relations  be- 
tween France  and  England ;  nevertheless  they  deserve  to  be 
placed  among  the  important  events  of  that  year,  as  they  were 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  Vv^ar  with  Prussia,  as  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  mention. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  likewise  made  an  attempt  for  a  re- 
conciliation with  Bonaparte.  He  sent  M.  D'Oubril  to  Paris, 
who,  after  a  negotiation  of  ten  days,  concluded  a  treaty  with 
General  Clarke,  the  French  plenipotentiary,  (July  20,  1806,)  by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  the  Eussian  troops  shouU  evacuate 
the  Bocca  di  Cattaro,  and  the  French  troops  quit  Ragusa ;  that 
the  independence  of  the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Islands  should  be 
acknowledged,  as  well  as  the  independence  and  integrity  of  the 
Porte  ;  that  in  three  months  the  French  troops  should  evacuate 
Germany;  that  the  two  parties  should  use  their  joint  influence 
to  procure  a  cessation  of  the  war  between  Prussia  and  Sweden; 
that  Bonaparte  should  accept  the  mediation  of  Russia,  in  nego- 
tiating a  maritime  peace.  A  secret  article  secured  to  Ferdi- 
nand IV.  the  Balearic  Isles,  in  compensation  for  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  It  thus  appeared  that  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  the 
greatest  sufferer.  The  Emperor  Alexander  refused  to  ratify 
this  treaty,  whether  it  was  that  he  considered  the  terms  not  alto- 
gether honourable,  or  that  he  was  displeased  with  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  which  took  place  at  this 
time. 

The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  consequence  of  the  peace  of  Presburg.  That  event 
which  entirely  changed  the  state  of  Germany,  and  placed  so 
large  a  portion  of  that  Empire  under  obedience  to  Bonaparte, 
was  prepared  by  the  article  of  the  peace  which  recognised  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  and  the 
Electar  of  Baden ;  as  well  as  by  several  other  irregular  transac- 
tions which  took  place  after  that  time.  Such  vras  the  conduct 
of  the  Elector  Arch-Chancellor,  in  arrogating  to  himself  the 
right  of  appointing  his  own  successor  ;  and  nominating  Cardmal 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  iS02— ISIO.  217 

Fesch  as  such,  who  was  Bonaparte's  uncle.  The  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  was  concluded  at  Paris  (July  12,  1806,)  be- 
tween Bonaparte  and  sixteen  of  the  German  princes,  including 
the  Duke  of  Cleves,  who  separated  from  the  Germanic  Em- 
pire, and  formed  a  particular  union  among-  themselves,  under 
the  protection  of  Bonaparte. 

The  declarations  which  the  minister  of  France  and  those  of 
the  Confederated  Estates,  remitted  on  the  same  day  to  the  Diet 
of  Ratisbon,  intimated  to  that  assembly,  that  the  German  Em- 
pire had  ceased  to  exist.  The  Chief  of  the  Germanic  body,  who 
had  been  kept  ignorant  of  all  these  measures,  then  published  a 
spirited  declaration  (Aug.  6,)  by  which  he  resigned  a  crown 
which  could  only  appear  valuable  in  his  eyes  so  long  as  he  was 
able  to  fulfil  the  duties,  and  exercise  the  prerogatives  which 
were  attached  to  it. 

This  transaction,  v/hich  put  an  end  to  the  German  Empire, 
had  been  kept  a  secret  from  Prussia.  Bonaparte,  in  announcing 
to  Frederic  William  the  result  which  it  had  produced,  invited 
him  to  form  a  similar  confederation  in  the  North  of  Germany  ; 
but  at  the  same  time,  he  negotiated  privately  with  the  Electors 
of  Hesse  and  Saxony,  to  prevent  them  from  entering  into  that 
union  ;  and  declared,  that  he  could  never  permit  the  cities  of 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Lubec,  to  become  parties  to  it.  In  his 
negotiations  with  England,  he  proposed  to  make  over  these  ci- 
ties to  Ferdinand  IV.  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  He  carried 
nis  stratagems  e^'^n  farther.  He  several  times  offered  to  the 
English  plenipotentiaries  the  same  Electorate  of  Hanover  which, 
a  few  months  before,  he  had  almost  compelled  Prussia  to  claim 
as  her  owni ;  and  he  offered  to  the  Elector  of  Hesse  the  princi- 
pality of  Fulda,  which  had  been  granted  to  the  House  of  Orange, 
then  in  strict  alliance  with  that  of  Brandeburg.  All  these  un- 
derhand manoeuvres  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Cabinet  of  Berlin, 
which  immediately  resolved  to  declare  war.  Unfortunately  for 
Prussia,  she  commenced  hostilities  without  waiting  the  arrival 
of  the  supplies  v/hich  Russia  owed  her,  in  virtue  of  the  alliance 
between  the  two  States  by  the  treaty  of  Peterhoff  (July  28, 
ISOO;)  and  she  had  to  take  the  field  against  an  active  enemy, 
whose  warlike  troops  were  already  in  the  heart  of  Germany. 

General  Knobelsdorff,  whom  the  King  of  Prussia  had  sent  to 
Paris,  gave  in  the  demands  which  were  to  be  considered  as  his 
ultimatum  :-^Bonaparte  treated  his  propositions  as  extravagant 
and  insulting,  and  accordingly  commenced  hostilities.  The 
campaign  was  decided  by  the  battle  of  Jena,  or  rather  by  two 
battles  which  were  fought  on  the  same  day  (Oct.  14,  1806.) 
Bonaparte  in  person  gained  the  one  near  Jena  over  Prince  Ho- 

voT,.  n.  U) 


218  CHAPTER   XI. 

henlohe ;  Marshal  Davoust  gained  the  other  near  Auerstadt 
over  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Prus- 
sian army.  The  rout  was  complete.  For  a  short  time  the 
troops  retired  without  confusion.  The  approach  of  the  enemy's 
cavalry,  however,  extinguished  all  remains  of  order,  and  the 
most  precipitate  dispersion  of  the  vanquished  army  ensued. 
About  20,000  w^ere  killed  and  wounded  in  the  battle  and  pur- 
suit ;  and  the  prisoners  formed  at  least  an  equal  number.  The 
scattered  remains  of  the  troops  who  united  after  the  action,  were 
either  defeated  or  obliged  to  surrender  as  prisoners  of  war.  The 
King,  with  the  wTeck  of  his  army,  marched  back  to  Prussia. 
Berlin,  his  capital,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  The 
carelessness,  the  unskilfulness,  or  the  treachery  of  their  com- 

anders,  and  the  want  of  means  of  defence,  were  the  causes 
ivhy  several  fortresses,  and  whole  battalions  of  troops,  surreii- 
dered  after  a  slight  resistance.  There  were  some  who  were 
even  obliged  to  capitulate  in  spite  of  their  bravery.  At  Erfurt, 
Field-Marshal  Mellendorff  capitulated  with  14,000  men  (Oct. 
16.)  Spandau  fell  on  the  same  day  that  the  enemy  entered  into 
Berlin  (Oct.  25.)  Prince  Hohenlohe,  after  a  brave  defence,  ca- 
pitulated at  Prentzlau  (Oct.  29,)  with  a  corps  originally  consist- 
ing of  16,000  infantry,  and  sixteen  regiments  of  cavalry.  Stettin 
and  Custrin  opened  their  gates  after  a  slight  resistance  (Nov.  1.) 
At  Lubec,  21,000  men,  with  General  Blucher,  laid  down  their 
arms  (Nov.  7.)  Magdeburg  capitulated  next  day  with  22,000 
men. 

Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  Bonaparte  took  posses- 
sion of  the  principality  of  Fulda.  He  also  sent  a  message  to  the 
old  Duke  of  Brunswick,  that  none  of  his  family  should  ever  reign 
after  him.  That  prince  died  of  the  wounds  he  had  received  at 
Auerstadt ;  and  his  lifeless  body  was  not  permitted  to  be  deposi- 
ted among  the  ashes  of  his  ancestors.  The  Elector  of  Hesse, 
who  had  remained  neutral,  was  declared  an  enemy  to  France, 
and  his  territories  seized.  Bonaparte,  in  return,  granted  neu- 
trality to  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  whose  troops  had  fought  against 
him  at  Jena. 

The  King  of  Prussia  had  tried  to  allay  the  storm  which  threat- 
ened his  monarchy.  The  Marquis  de  Lucchesini  and  General 
Zastrow  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  Marshal  Duroc  at  Char- 
lottenburg  (Oct.  30.)  Bonaparte  refused  to  ratify  the  prelimi- 
naries which  were  signed  there,  because  the  idea  had  occurred 
to  him  in  the  meantime  of  exciting  the  Poles  to  insurrection. 
An  armistice  was  then  signed  (Nov.  16,)  on  conditions  extremely 
rigorous,  by  which  Breslau,  Glogau,  Colberg,  Graudentz  and 
Dantzic,  were  delivered' up  to  the  French.     Frederic,  who  had 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  219 

resolved  to  throw  him  self  on  Russia,  whose  forces  were  approach- 
ing in  all  haste,  rejected  that  armistice.  From  Berlin  Bona- 
])arte  repaired  to  Posnania,  where  he  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  Elector  of  Saxony  (Dec.  11.)  That  prince  then  assumed 
the  title  of  King,  joined  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  got 
possession  of  the  Circle  of  Cotbus,  belonging  to  Prussia.  By  a 
treaty  signed  at  the  same  place  (Dec.  15,)  the  Dukes  of  Sax- 
ony, of  the  race  of  Ernest,  were  likewise  received  into  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine. 

A  Russian  army  of  90,000  men  had  arrived  in  Prussia  in  the 
month  of  November.  Frederic  William,  on  his  side,  formed  a 
new  army  of  40,000  men.  Several  actions  took  place  without 
any  decisive  result;  but  after  the  battle  of  Pultusk  (Dec.  26,) 
where  the  victory  was  claimed  both  by  the  French  and  Rus- 
sians, each  party  retired  to  winter  quarters. 

During  Bonaparte's  stay  at  Berlin,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
the  Continental  System ;  or  at  least  reduced  its  elements  into 
shape.  The  purport  of  this  system  was  to  ruin  the  commerce, 
and  by  consequence,  the  prosperity  of  England,  by  excluding 
from  the  Continent  of  Europe  the  importation  not  only  of  her 
own  m.anufactures,  but  the  productions  of  her  colonies  ;  the  use 
of  which  had  become,  through  long  habit,  one  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  to  all  the  nations  of  Europe  ;  and  for  which,  moreover, 
no  substitute  could  be  found  in  home  manufactures.  This  chi- 
merical scheme,  and  the  Federative  System,  which  we  have 
already  mentioned,  were  the  two  scourges  which  Bonaparte  in- 
flicted on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  The  abuse,  it  was  alleged, 
which  the  English  made  of  their  superiority  by  sea,  had  provo- 
ked Bonaparte  to  this  measure.  The  right  of  blockade,  that  is, 
the  right  of  a  belligerent  power  to  station  a  force  before  a  hostile 
port  sufficient  to  prevent  any  neutral  vessel  from  entering,  is 
founded  in  principle.  But  England  pretended,  that  if  a  port 
were  declared  to  be  under  blockade,  it  must  be  considered  as 
actually  blockaded  ;  and  accordingly,  she  had  declared  all  the 
ports  between  Brest  and  the  Elbe  under  blockade  (May  16.) 
An  order  issued  by  Bonaparte,  known  by  the  name  of  the  De- 
cree of  Berlin,  declared  the  whole  British  Islands  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  by  way  of  reprisals  (Nov.  21.)  He  commanded  all 
British  subjects  to  be  arrested,  who  might  be  found  in  the  coun- 
tries occupied  by  his  troops,  or  those  of  his  allies.  He  ordered 
their  property,  and  every  article  of  British  or  colonial  produce 
on  the  Continent  to  be  confiscated  ;  and  excluded  from  his  ports 
all  vessels  which  should  come  directly  from  Britain,  or  any  of 
its  dependencies.  The  development  of  this  system  we  shall 
notice  afterwards. 


220  CHAPTER  XI. 

The  repose  of  the  armies  did  not  continue  longer  than  a  month. 
General  Bennigsen,  who  had  the  cJiief  command  of  the  Russians 
and  Prussians,  undertook  to  relieve  the  cities  of  Graudentz 
Dantzic,  and  Colberg.  After  a  number  of  petty  engagements, 
which  claim  no  particular  notice,  thf>  campaign  was  terminated 
by  the  battle  of  Eylau  in  Prussia  (I'eb.  8,  1S07.)  Bonaparte, 
or  rather  Davoust,  was  successful  against  the  left  wing  and  the 
centre  of  the  allies ;  but  Lestocq,  the  Prussian  General,  having 
arrived  on  the  field  of  battle,  near  the  right  wing  of  the  Prus- 
sians which  had  never  been  engaged,  marched  instantly  to  sup- 
port the  left  wing  which  was  giving  way,  and  snatched  the  vic- 
tory from  the  hands  of  Davoust.  Bennigsen,  who  was  in  want 
of  ammunition,  retired  towards  Koningsberg,  leaving  Bonaparte 
on  the  field  of  battle,  which  was  covered  with  30,000  of  the 
French  slain,  and  12,000  wounded.  The  Russians  had  lost 
17,000  men.  After  this  carnage,  Bonaparte  announced  that  he 
had  defeated  the  Russians,  and  retired  behind  the  Passarge. 
Hostilities  were  then  suspended  for  some  months. 

In  the  month  of  February,  negotiations  for  peace  were  re- 
newed. Bonaparte,  who  was  at  Osterode,  sent  General  Bertrand 
to  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Memel,  to  try  to  detach  him  from 
Russia.  \Vlien  the  King  had  declined  this  proposal,  some  de- 
liberation took  place  as  to  the  terms  of  an  armistice ;  but  the 
Emperor  Alexander,  who  had  also  arrived  at  Memel,  saw  that 
this  was  only  a  manoeuvre  of  Bonaparte,  who  merely  wished 
to  gain  time  to  repair  his  losses.  The  negotiations,  accordingly, 
were  broken  oft'.  Baron  Hardenberg,  who  had  been  placed  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  at  the  helm  of  foreign  aftairs,  then  resumed 
the  project  of  Mr.  Pitt,  which  had  failed  in  1S05,  because  Count 
Haugwitz,  the  former  minister,  had  dissuaded  Frederic  William 
from  entering  into  the  alliance.  The  basis  of  a  new  coalition 
was  laid  by  the  convention  of  Bartenstein,  between  Russia  and 
Prussia  (April  21,)  in  w^hich  Austria,  Great  Britain,  Sweden 
and  Denmark,  were  invited  to  join.  The  same  day  a  conven- 
tion with  the  King  of  Sweden  Avas  likewise  signed  at  Barten- 
stein, in  consequence  of  which  Prussia  promised  to  send  a  body 
of  troops  into  Pomerania.  Austria  was  disposed  to  enter  into 
this  project,  but  before  coming  to  a  decision,  she  tried  the 
scheme  of  mediation  ;  and  in  the  month  of  March,  new  pro- 
posals for  peace  were  made,  which  proved  unsuccessful.  Sup- 
plies were  promised  to  Prussia  by  a  convention  signed  at  Lon- 
don (June  27,)  but  which  a  change  of  circumstances  prevented 
from  being  ratified. 

While  the  armies  continued  in  a  kirid.  of  inaction.  Marshal 
Lefebvre  pressed  the  siege  of  Dantzic.     After  several  attempts 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810.  221 

to  blockade  the  place,  General  Kalk]:eiitli  obtained  a  capitulation 
on  very  honcarable  terms  (May  24.)  Neisse,  Kozel  and  Glatz, 
likewise  capitulated  in  course  of  the  following  month.  These  two 
latter  places  were  not  to  be  restored  by  the  French.  Hostilities 
recommenced  in  the  month  of  June.  Skirmishes  were  daily 
taking  place,  until  the  battle  of  Friedland  decided  the  campaign 
(June  14.)  General  Bennigsen  defeated  the  divisions  of  Lan- 
iies  and  Mortier,  when  the  Russians,  thinking  the  battle  was 
gained  as  they  no  longer  saw^  the  enemy,  slackened  their  exer- 
tions ;  but  towards  the  evening  Bonaparte  xarrived  on  the  field 
of  battle  W'ith  guides,  and  the  corps  of  Marshals  Ney  and  Vic- 
tor ;  and  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion  which  appeared  in 
the  Russian  army,  he  put  them  completel}^  to  the  rout.  In 
consequence  of  this  defeat,  Koningsberg  opened  her  gates  to  the 
conqueror.  The  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  passed  the  Nie- 
men  (June  18  ;)  and  next  day  Bonaparte  entered  Tilsit. 

Meantime  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  with  whom  negotiations 
were  still  carrying  on  to  obtain  their  accession  to  the  convention 
of  Bartenstein,  had  sent  General  Stutterheim  to  the  head-quar- 
ters of  the  two  monarchs,  with  power  to  sign  a  defensive  al- 
liance ;  but  the  war  had  then  recommenced  with  new  vigour. 
There  was  a  part}^  in  both  Cabinets,  and  even  among  the  allied 
Generals,  who  wished  to  prevent  this  alliance  ;  and  ihis  party 
succeeded  in  their  designs.  A  Russian  General  appeared  at 
Tilsit  on  the  part  of  Bennigsen  to  negotiate  an  armistice,  which 
was  concluded  on  the  spot  (June  21,)  without  including  the 
Prussian  army.  Four  days  after,  an  interview  took  place  be- 
tween Alexander  and  Napoleon,  on  the  invitation  of  the  latter, 
w^ho  wished  to  exert  all  his  address  to  seduce  the  Northern  Au- 
tocrat from  the  alliance  into  Avhich  he  had  entered.  This  me- 
morable interview  took  place  on  a  raft  in  the  middle  of  the  river 
Niemen.  Each  prince,  accompanied  by  five  generals  and  cour- 
tiers, reached  the  raft  from  the  opposite  bank  at  the  same  mo- 
ment, and  embraced  each  other  with  all  the  appearance  of  per- 
fect cordiality.  They  conversed  for  two  hours  in  a  pavilion, 
and  the  ambitious  ruler  of  France  displa3^ed  in  such  glowing 
colours  the  joys  of  arbitrary  power  and  unlimited  dominion,  and 
held  out  such  an  attractive  prospect  of  the  advantages  which  he 
might  derive  from  a  union  of  councils  and  co-operation,  that 
Alexander  listened  with  pleasure  to  his  new  adviser,  and  was 
ready  to  rush  into  a  new  alliance.  On  the  same  day,  Field- 
Marshal  Kalkreuth  signed  an  armistice  on  the  part  of  Prussia. 
The  next  day  he  had  a  second  interview,  -at  which  the  King 
of  Prussia  assisted,  who,  when  he  objected  to  some  parts  of  the 
proposed  treaty,  was  insulted  with  a  hint  of  his  not  being  enti- 

VOL.  TI.  19"^ 


222  CHAPTER  XI. 

tied  to  tlie  honour  of  consultation,  as  he  had  been  so  completely 
conquered.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Bonaparte  demanded 
that  the  Emperor  Alexander  should  dismiss  his  minister  Baron 
Budberg,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  Baron  Hardenberg.  The  Prince 
Kourakin,  and  Count  de  Goltz  were  substituted  in  their  place. 

The  treaty  with  Kussia  was  first  signed  (July  7.)  The  Em- 
peror Alexander  obtained  from  Bonaparte  the  spoliation  of  his 
former  ally,  or  according  to  the  form  which  was  given  to  it  in 
that  transaction,  That  the  King  of  Prussia  should  recover  one 
half  of  his  estates.  The  provinces  which  Prussia  had  obtained 
by  the  second  and  third  division  of  Poland  were  ceded  to  the 
King  of  Saxony,  under  the  title  of  the  Dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fortress  of  Graudentz,  Avhich  remained 
in  the  possession  of  Prussia,  and  the  city  of  Dantzic,  which  was 
to  regain  its  independence,  with  the  exception  of  the  department 
of  Bialystock  which  was  annexed  to  the  Eussian  Empire.  Alex- 
ander acknowledged  the  Kings  created  by  Bonaparte,  including 
the  King  of  Westphalia.  He  likewise  acknowledged  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Khine,  and  ceded  to  Bonaparte  the  Seignory  of 
Jever,  which  he  inherited  from  his  mother.  He  promised  to 
withdraw  his  troops  from  Moldavia  and  Wallachia ;  and  to  make 
common  cause  with  Bonaparte  against  England,  should  the  lat- 
ter refuse  to  make  peace  by  submitting  to' the  principles  of  free 
commerce  by  sea.  It  appears,  moreover,  by  certain  secret  arti- 
cles, that  Alexander  promised  to  surrender  to  Bonaparte  the 
Bocca  di  Cattaro,  and  the  isles  of  the  Ionian  Republic  ;  which 
took  place  in  the  month  of  August  following.  The  peace  which 
was  signed  between  Russia  and  Bonaparte  two  days  after  (July 
9,)  included  nearly  the  same  stipulations. 

A  special  convention  was  required  for  executing  the  articles 
of  the  treaty,  which  related  to  the  evacuation  of  the  States  of  the 
King  of  Prussia.  This  was  negotiated  and  signed  at  Konings- 
berg  (July  12,)  with  unpardonable  precipitancy,  by  Field-Marshal 
Kalkreuth,  who  forgot  to  insert  certain  stipulations  so  essential 
and  so  obvious,  that  it  must  have  appeared  to  him  superfluous 
to  mention  them.  Bonaparte  took  advantage  of  these  om.issions 
to  ruin  the  provinces  which  were  left  in  possession  of  Prussia. 
It  may  be  justly  said,  that  the  convention  of  Koningsberg  did 
nearl)^  as  much  miscliief  to  Prussia  as  the  peace  of  Tilsit  itself. 
It  occasioned  the  necessity  of  signing  a  series  of  subsequent  con- 
ventions, by  each  of  which  Prussia  had  to  submit  to  some  new 
sacrifice.  Some  of  the  more  important  of  these  we  shall  after- 
wards have  occasion  to  mention. 

The  King  of  Sweden,  who  was  attacked  in  Poraerania  by 
Marshal  Mortier,  had  concluded  an  armistice  at   Schlalkorv 


rEFJOD  IX.     A.  D.  ISnS— 1810.  223 

(April  18.)  GustavTis  Adolphus  IV.  projected  an  attack  on  Mar- 
shal Briine,  while  a  body  of  10,000  Prussians  were  to  make  a 
descent  for  blockading-  Colberg.  To  carry  this  project  into  exe- 
cution, he  was  so  eager  to  declare  against  the  armistice,  that,  on 
the  signature  of  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  he  found  himself  alone  under 
arms,  and  exposing  his  troops  to  great  danger.  This  unseason- 
able zeal  obliged  him  to  evacuate  Stralsund  and  the  whole  of 
Pomerania  (Sept.  7.) 

In  erecting  the  Dutchy  of  Warsaw,  Bonaparte  had  given  it  a 
constitution  modelled  after  that  of  France,  without  paying  atten- 
tion to  the  difference  of  manners,  customs,  and  localities  of  the 
i.i habitants.  The  King  of  Saxony  was  put  in  possession  of  that 
State  ;  but  the  new  dutchy  was  nothing  else  than  a  province  ®f 
the  French  Empire.  The  city  of  Dantzic  was  again  plunged 
into  a  state  of  the  most  abject  dependence  ;  and  until  the  year 
1S14,  it  remained  under  the  orders  of  a  Governor-general  ap- 
pointed by  the  French.  The  throne  of  Westphalia  was  destined 
by  Bonaparte  for  his  younger  brother  Jerom^e.  That  monarchy 
was  composed  of  the  greater  part  of  those  provinces  ceded  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  ;  of  nearly  all  the  estates  of  the  Elector  of 
Hesse  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  ;  of  a  district  belonging  to  the 
Electorate  of  Hanover  ;  of  the  principalit}^  of  Corvey,  and  the 
county  of  Rittberg — containing  in  all  about  two  millions  of  in- 
habitants. Only  a  small  part  of  this  kingdom  was  situated  in 
Westphalia;  and  it  is  not  known  by  what  chance  the  name  of 
that  country  was  selected  for  the  new  monarchy.  Deputies  from 
that  kingdom  were  summoned  to  Paris,  where  they  received 
from  the  hands  of  Bonaparte  a  constitutional  charter  (Nov.  15,) 
in  the  construction  of  which  they  had  never  once  been  consulted. 
As  to  the  other  districts  which  Bonaparte  had  taken  possession 
of  in  Germany,  or  of  which  he  had  deprived  their  rightful  sove- 
reigns, viz.  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  the  principalities  of  Erfurt, 
Fulda,  Baireuth,  and  Munster,  with  the  counties  of  Catzeneln- 
bogen  and  Hanau,  they  were  governed  entirely  to  his  ov/n  inter- 
est, and  disposed  of  at  his  convenience. 

While  the  girmies  of  Bonaparte  were  occupied  in  Prussia, 
Spain  formed  the  resolution  of  shaking  ofT  the  yoke  which  the 
Emperor  of  France  had  imposed  upon  her,  Charles  lY.  soli- 
cited privately  the  mediation  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  to  bring 
about  a  peace  wath  England.  By  a  proclamation  of  October 
80th  1806,  a  levy  of  40,000  men  was  ordered  for  the  defence  ot 
the  country,  without  mentioning  against  what  enemy.  This 
imprudent  step,  which  they  had  not  courage  to  prosecute,  ruined 
Spain.  At  the  commencement  of  1807,  a  French  army  was  as- 
sembled in  the  vicinity  of  Bayonne.    A  trap  was  laid  for  Charles 


224  CHAPTER  XI. 

IV. ;  and  he  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  it.  According^  to  a 
convention  signed  at  Fountainbleau  (Oct.  27,)  between  his  pleni- 
potentiary and  that  of  Bonaparte,  for  the  partition  of  Portugal, 
that  kingdom  was  to  be  divided  into  three  lots.  The  most  north- 
erly part  was  destined  for  the  King  of  Etruria,  (who  was  to  sur- 
render up  Tuscany  to  Bonaparte,)  and  to  be  called  the  kingdom 
of  Northern  Lusitania.  The  southern  part,  comprising  Algarves, 
was  to  form  a  principality  for  Don  Manuel  Godoy.  The  pro- 
vinces in  the  middle  part  were  to  be  disposed  of  at  the  general 
peace,  when  the  King  of  Spain  was  to  assume  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  the  two  Americas. 

Immediately  after  the  signing  of  this  treaty,  Bonaparte  an- 
nounced to  the  Queen-Dowager  of  Etruria,  who  was  Regent  for 
her  son  Louis  II.,  that  the  kingdom  no  longer  belonged  to  him; 
and  that  a  new  destiny  awaited  him  in  Spain.  In  course  of  a 
few  days,  the  French  troops  occupied  Tuscany.  Maria  Louisa 
resigned  the  government,  and  retired  to  Madrid.  All  this  took 
place  after  Bonaparte  had  obtained  orders  that  the  15,000  Span- 
iards, who  were  in  Etruria,  should  be  sent  to  the  islands  of 
Denmark. 

A  decree  of  the  French  Senate,  of  August  18th  1807,  though 
not  published  till  a  month  after,  suppressed  the  Tribunate,  and 
introduced  other  changes,  intended  to  extinguish  all  traces  of  the 
Republic.  By  a  treaty  signed  at  Fountainbleau,  Bonaparte  made 
over  to  his  brother  Louis,  the  principalit}^  of  East  Friesland  and 
the  territory  of  Jever,  in  lieu  of  the  city  and  port  of  Flushing. 

In  terms  of  the  treaty  of  the  27th  October,  30,000  French 
troops,  under  the  command  of  Junot,  crossed  the  Pyrenees  in 
two  divisions  ;  and  took  possession  of  Pampeluna,  St.  Sebastians, 
Figueras,  and  Barcelona.  The  two  divisions  united  again  at 
Salamanca,  and  being  reinforced  by  13,000  Spaniards,  they 
marched  upon  Lisbon  ;  while  40,000  others  assembled  at  Bay- 
onne,  under  the  pretence  of  supporting  their  companions  if  it 
were  necessary.  The  Prince  Regent  of  Portugal  embarked  with 
all  his  treasures  (Nov.  29,)  and  departed  for  Brazil.  The  whole 
of  Portugal  w^as  taken  possession  of;  and  General  Junot  pro- 
claimed that  the  Hou^e  of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign  in  Eu- 
rope ;  but  the  French  never  executed  their  scheme  of  partition. 

We  have  already  observed,  what  progress  the  Federative 
system  of  the  French  Empire  had  made  in  1807,  by  the  founda- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  and  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
and  by  the  occupation  of  Portugal ;  and  we  shall  next  advert  to 
the  measures  adopted  during  the  same  year  by  Bonaparte,  for 
consolidating  the  Continental  system,  and  by  Great  Britain  for 
counteracting  its  effects.    An  order  was  issued  by  the  British 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  226 

Cabinet  (Jan.  7,)  declaring  that  no  neutral  vesse.  would  be  per- 
mitted to  trade  with  any  port  belonging  to  France  or  her  allies, 
or  occupied  by  their  troops,  or  under  their  dependence.  A  de- 
cree, published  at  Warsaw  (Jan.  25,)  ordered  the  confiscation 
of  all  English  merchandise  in  the  Hanseatic  towns,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  order  of  Bonaparte.  An  order  of  the  Brit- 
ish Cabinet  {.March  11.)  again  prescribed  a  rigorous  blockade  of 
the  mouths  of  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Ems.  A  declara- 
tion was  made  by  Bonaparte  (Oct.  14,)  in  presence  of  the  foreign 
ambassadors  at  Fountainbleau,  purporting  that  he  would  permit 
no  connexion,  either  commercial  or  diplomatic,  between  the 
Continental  powers  and  England.  An  order  of  the  British 
Cabinet  (Nov.  11,)  declared,  that  all  the  ports  and  places  in 
France,  and  the  countries  in  alliance  with  them,  or  any  other 
Gauntry  at  war  with  England,  as  well  as  all  other  ports  and 
places  in  Europe  where  the  British  flag  was  excluded,  though 
not  actually  at  war  with  Great  Britain  ;  and  all  other  ports  and 
places  of  the  colonies  belonging  to  her  enemies,  should  hence- 
forth be  subjected  to  the  same  restrictions  as  if  they  were  really 
under  blockade  :  and,  consequently,  that  the  vessels  destined 
for  these  ports  should  be  subjected  to  examination  by  the  British 
cruisers  ;  and  required  to  stop  at  a  British  station,  and  pay  a 
duty  proportioned  to  the  value  of  the  cargo.  Another  order  of 
the  British  Cabinet  (Nov.  25,)  modified  the  preceding  declara- 
tion in  favour  of  neutral  vessels,  which  should  come  to  discharge 
either  English  merchandise  or  Colonial  produce  in  the  British 
ports.  A  decree  of  the  17th  December,  called  the  decree  of 
Milan,  because  it  was  issued  at  that  place,  declared,  that  all 
ships  which  should  be  searched  by  a  British  vessel,  or  pay  any 
tax  whatever  at  the  requisition  of  the  English  Government, 
should  be  denationalized,  and  regarded  as  English  property  ;  and 
having  thus  forfeited  their  original  and  national  rights,  they 
might  be  lawfully  captured  wherever  found.  The  same  decree 
declared  the  British  Isles  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade  both  by  sea 
and  land. 

Having  thus  established  the  Continental  sj^stem,  Bonaparte 
used  every  endeavour  to  make  all  the  Continental  Powers  ac- 
cede to  it.  Prussia  and  Russia  adhered  to  it,  after  the  peace  of 
Tilsit.  Denmark  soon  entered  into  this  French  system.  Spain 
acceded  to  it  (Jan.  8,)  Austria  (Feb.  18,  1808,)  and  Sweden 
(Jan.  6,  1810  ;)  so  that,  for  some  years,  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope had  no  other  medium  of  communication  with  England  than 
by  way  of  Constantinople.  There  was  one  prince  in  Christen- 
dom, who  refused  his  accession  to  the  Continental  system,  and 
that  was  Pius  VII.     This  sovereiofn  PontiflT  declared,  that  an 


226  CHAPTER   -kl. 

alliance  which  prohibited  all  intercourse  with  a  nation  from 
whom  they  had  suffered  no  grievance,  was  contrary  to  religion. 
In  order  to  punish  his  Holiness  for  this  resistance,  General  Miol- 
lis  had  orders  to  occupy  Eome  (Feb.  2,  1S08.)  This  was  the 
commencement  of  a  series  of  aggressions  and  attacks,  by  which 
Bonaparte  vainly  hoped  to  bend  that  great  personage.  To 
gratify  his  resentment,  he  stripped  the  States  of  the  Church,  by 
a  decree  issued  at  St.  Cloud  (April  2,)  of  the  provinces  of  Urbino, 
Ancona,  Macerata  and  Camerino,  which  were  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

In  order  to  add  lustre  to  his  crown,  and  to  attach  his  servants 
to  him  by  the  ties  of  interest,  Bonaparte  resolved,  not  to  re- 
store the  noblesse — though  there  was  no  reason  known  why  he 
should  not — but  to  create  titles  of  nobility  which  should  pas? 
m  hereditary  succession  to  their  descendants.  These  title? 
were  those  of  Princes,  Dukes,  Counts,  Barons,  and  Chevaliers 
or  Knights.  They  were  constituted  by  an  Imperial  statute 
which  he  transmitted  to  the  Senate ;  for  the  decrees  of  the  Se 
nate  were  seldom  used,  except  in  declaring  the  union  of  territo 
Ties,  or*brdering  levies  of  conscripts. 

The  spoliation  of  the  Church  appeared  but  a  trivial  violence 
compared  with  that  masterpiece  of  intrigue  and  cunning  bj 
which  the  House  of  Bourbon  was  deprived  of  the  throne  o1 
Spain.  The  second  French  army  formed  at  Bayonne,  passed 
the  Pyrenees  about  the  beginning  of  the  year,  under  the  com 
mand  of  Joachim  Murat,  and  advanced  slowly  as  if  it  only 
waited  an  order  to  seize  the  capital.  A  popular  insurrection 
broke  out  at  Madrid,  directed  against  Godoy,  the  Prince  ol 
Peace  ;  and  Charles  IV.,  who,  from  the  commencement  of  hi? 
reign,  had  been  disgusted  with  state  affairs,  abdicated  the  crown 
in  favour  of  his  son,  the  Prince  of  Asturias  (March  19,  1808,) 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Ferdinand  VII.  The  intrigues  of  the 
Queen-mother,  who  was  unwilling  to  quit  the  throne,  and  the 
plots  concerted  by  Murat,  soon  embroiled  the  Royal  family  in 
disputes.  The  French  troops  entered  Madrid  (Mar.  23.)  Ta- 
king advantage  of  the  inexperience  of  the  young  monarch,  they 
inveigled  him  into  an  interview  with  Bonaparte  at  Bayonne, 
where  Charles  IV.  and  his  Queen,  allured  by  promises  of  fa- 
vour and  friendship,  likewise  presented  themselves.  This  weak 
prince  there  retracted  his  abdication,  and  ceded  his  dominions 
over  to  Bonaparte  by  a  formal  treaty  (May  5.)  By  threatening 
Ferdinand  VII.  with  death,  they  extorted  from  him  a  similar  de- 
claration (May  10.)  Charles  IV.  his  Queen,  and  the  Prince  of 
Peace  were  conveyed  to  Compeigne,  and  afterwards  to  Mar- 
seilles. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1S02-  1810.  227 

Ferdinand  VII.  and  his  brothers  were  imprisoned  in  the  cas- 
tle of  Valencay.  Bonaparte,  conferred  the  throne  of  Spain  on 
his  brother  Joseph  (June  6,)  who  was  then  King  of  Naples.  A 
Spanish  Junta,  assembled  at  Bayonne,  received  a  constitution 
from  the  hands  of  Napoleon.  On  obtaining  the  crown  of  Spain, 
Joseph  made  over  the  kingdom  of  Naples  to  his  brother,  who  in 
his  turn  resigned  it  to  Murat,  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Bayonne. 
Murat  then  gave  up  the  dutchies  of  Cleves  and  Berg. 

Bonaparte  found  himself  deceived  as  to  the  character  of  the 
Spanish  nation,  when  he  supposed  they  would  tolerate  this  out- 
rage with  impunity.  A  tumult  of  the  inhabitants  of  Madrid 
was  quelled  by  Murat,  who  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  upon  the 
crowd  (May  2,)  when  upwards  of  1000  people  lost  their  lives. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  same  month,  a  general  insurrection 
broke  out  in  all  those  parts  of  Spain  not  occupied  by  the  enemy. 
This  was  a  great  annoyance  to  Bonaparte  during  the  rest  of  his 
reign,  and  prevented  him  from  subduing  that  peninsula.  It 
served  as  an  example  and  encouragement  to  other  nations  to 
shake  off  his  yoke.  The  Portuguese  rose,  in  imitation  of  their 
neighbours.  The  English  sent  supplies  to  both  nations  ;  and 
it  was  beyond  the  Pyrenees  that  Bonaparte  experienced  those 
first  disasters  which  were  the  harbingers  of  his  downfall. 

One  event,  more  remarkable  for  the  pomp  with  which  it  was 
accompanied,  than  for  the  consequences  which  it  produced, 
was  the  interview  which  took  place  at  Erfurt  (Sept.  27,)  be- 
tween the  Emperor  Alexander  and  Bonaparte.  What  negotia- 
tions might  have  been  agitated  there,  are  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty ;  but  publicity  has  been  given  to  the  measures  concerted 
in  common  between  Bonaparte  and  Alexander  for  making  over- 
tures of  peace  to  England,  although  they  must  have  foreseen 
that  the  attempt  would  prove  fruitless.  From  that  time  an  in- 
timate friendship  subsisted  for  two  years  between  the  Courts  of 
Russia  and  France. 

The  inconsiderate  haste  v/ith  which  Field-Marshal  Kalkreuth 
had  concluded  the  convention  of  Koningsberg,  and  the  defects 
or  omissions  of  that  act,  furnished  the  agents  of  Bonaparte  with 
numerous  pretexts  for  oppressing  the  Prussian  States  by  per- 
petual aggressions  ;  and  for  continuing  not  only  to  occupy  the 
country,  but  to  impose  taxes  for  the  service  of  France,  without 
deducting  their  amount  from  the  usual  contribution  which  that 
kingdom  had  to  pay.  To  extricate  themselves  from  so  harassing 
a  situation.  Prince  William,  the  King's  brother,  who  had  been 
sent  to  Paris  to  negotiate  for  the  evacuation  of  Prussia,  signed 
a  convention  there  (Sept.  8,)  by  which  the  King  engaged  to 
pay,  at  stated  terms,  the  sum  of  140  000,000  francs.     The  Em- 


22S  CHAPTER  XI. 

peror  Alexander,  during  the  interview  of  Erfurt,  got  this  sum 
reduced  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions.  In  consequence 
nt  this,  a  new  convention  was  signed  at  Berlin  (Nov.  3,)  ac- 
cording to  which,  Stettin,  Custrin,  and  Glogau,  were  to  remain 
in  the  hands  of  the  French,  as  security  for  payment  of  the  sti- 
pulated sum ;  the  rest  of  the  Prut^sian  states  were  evacuated. 

Austria  was  on  the  point  of  entering  into  the  fourth  coalition, 
when  the  peace  of  Tilsit  was  concluded.  From  that  moment 
the  Cabinet  of  Vienna  resolved  to  prepare  for  war  by  slow  and 
successive  operations,  which  might  appear  to  be  merely  mea- 
sures of  precaution  ;  more  especially  by  organizing  her  armies 
on  better  principles,  and  training  all  the  citizens  to  arms,  by  the 
institution  of  a  militia  called  Lanchvehr,  that  they  might  be  in 
condition  to  act  on  the  spur  of  the  moment.  The  ArchduVe 
Charles,  who  was  appointed  Generalissimo,  superintended  all 
diese  preparations,  and  succeeded  in  reviving  the  courage  of  the 
nation.  Although  these  armaments  could  not  escape  the  notice 
of  the  French  agents,  and  although  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1808,  and  especially  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1S09,  they 
had  several  times  asked  for  explanations  on  this  subject,  never- 
theless. Count  Stadion  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  department 
for  foreign  affairs,  and  Count  Metternich  the  Austrian  minister 
at  Paris,  dissembled  so  well,  that  Bonaparte  never  dreamt  of 
war  till  it  was  on  the  very  point  of  breaking  out.  The  time 
chosen  for  this  was  wdien  the  French  armies  were  occupied  in 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

Reasons — or  it  may  be  rather  said  pretexts — were  not  want- 
ing to  Austria ;  for  undoubtedly  her  true  motive  was,  to  raise 
herself  from  that  state  of  abasement  into  which  she  had  sunk. 
Violations  innumerable  of  the  peace  of  Presburg,  the  organiz- 
ing of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  the  compelling  her  to 
accede  to  the  Continental  System,  and  the  spoliation  of  the 
Bourbons  in  Spain,  were  causes  more  than  sufhcient  to  justify 
her  having  recourse  to  arms.  The  war  which  Austria  under- 
took in  1809,  has  been  called  the  war  of  the  fifth  coalition.  It 
is  true  that  Great  Britain,,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the  King  of 
Sicily,  were  her  allies  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  descent 
which  the  English  made  on  Zealand,  she  had  to  support  alone 
\he  whole  burden  of  the  war.  On  opening  the  campaign,  she 
made  an  appeal  to  the  German  nation,  which  was  answered  by 
the  Kings  of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Saxony,  by  a  declara- 
tion of  war. 

The  Austrians  had  divided  their  forces  into  three  armies  ; 
two  hundred  and  tv/enty  thousand  men,  under  the  Archduke 
Charles,  were  destined  to  act  in  Germany ;  the  Archduke  Per- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1S02— 1810.  229 

dinand  of  Este,  willi  thirty-six  thousand  men,  was  to  penetrate 
tiirough  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw  into  Prussia,  where  he  expectf^d 
to  be  joined  by  the  troops  of  that  country.  The  Archduke 
John,  with  eighty  thousand  men,  was  to  enter  Italy.  The 
campaign  was  opened,  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians,  by  the  in- 
vasion of  Bavaria  (April  10,  1809.)  Bonaparte  at  first  beat  the 
Archduke  Louis  and  General  Hiller,  who  commanded  two  divi- 
sions, at  Abensberg  (April  20,)  and  thus  cut  them  off  from  the 
grand  army  under  the  Archduke  Charles.  The  latter  was  hira- 
self  defeated  at  Eckmuhl  and  Ratisbon,  three  days  after,  and 
effected  his  retreat  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube..  Bona- 
parte then  pursued  Hiller,  Avho  was  defeated  at  Ebersberg  (May 
3,)  and  retired  to  Krems,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  Vi- 
enna in  consequence  was  left  defenceless,  and  surrendered  by 
capitulation  (May  13.)  It  was  there  that  Bonaparte  passed  the 
Danube,  and  fought  with  the  Archduke  at  Eberdsorff,  Ar-pern 
and  Essling,  two  most  sanguinary  engagements  (IMay  21 — 22,) 
in  which  the  French  lost  30,000  men.  He  then  retired  to  the 
Isle  of  Lobau,  where  his  army,  cut  off  from  provisions  and 
supplies,  passed  forty-eight  hours  in  great  distress,  until  they 
had  succeeded  in  reconstructing  the  bridges  which  the  floods  of 
the  Danube  had  carried  away.  In  Italy  the  Archduke  John 
had  defeated  Eugene  Beauharnais,  who  commanded  the  French  ■ 
army,  at  Sa^ile ;  but  being  informed  of  the  defeat  at  Ratisbon, 
he  commenced  his  retreat,  and  was  defeated  near  the  Piave 
(May  8;)  after  which  he  retired  on  the  Raab,  where  he  was 
again  defeated  (June  14.)  Beauharnais  then  joined  the  army 
of  Napoleon.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand  took  possession  of 
Warsaw,  and  marched  as  far  as  Thorn,  Vv^here  he  took  from  the 
Prussians  one  hundred  pieces  of  cannon.  But  an  insurrection 
which  happened  in  the  rear  of  his  army,  obliged  him  to  retreat, 
when  the  Polish  troops  took  possession  of  Cracow  (July  14.) 

About  the  beginning  of  July,  Bonaparte  passed  over  to  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  battle  of  Enzersdorff,  where  Ber- 
nadotte  and  the  Saxons  distinguished  themselves,  was  bloody, 
but  not  decisive  :  next  day  (July  6,)  the  Archduke  Charles  was 
defeated  at  Wagram,  and  retreated  in  good  order  into  Moravia. 
An  armistice  was  then  concluded  near  Znaym  (July  12,)  on 
conditions  very  oppressive  for  Austria.  But  the  negotiations 
for  peace  were  long  protracted  ;  as  both  parties  were  waiting  the 
result  of  an  expedition  which  the  English  had  made  to  Zealand  ; 
and  as  Austria  hoped  that  Prussia,  and  perhaps  even  Russia, 
would  declare  in  her  favour. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Tyrol ;  who  were  very  much  attached 
to  the  House  of  Austria,  from  whom  they  had  been  separated  at 

VOL.  II.  20 


230  CHAPTER  XI. 

ihe  peace  of  Presburg,  had  taken  up  arms  under  the  conduct  ot 
an  innkeeper,  named  Hoffer.  By  the  armistice  of  Znaym.  Aus- 
tria was  compelled  to  abandon  this  brave  people,  whom  the  Ba- 
varians and  the  French  together  had  great  difficulty  in  reducing 
(o  submission. 

We  cannot  pass  in  silence  the  bold  expedition  made  by  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  the  son  and  heir  of  him  who  had  command- 
ed at  Jena.  At  the  head  of  a  body  of  volunteers  which  he  had 
formed  in  Bohemia,  he  had  entered  Saxony  when  the  armistice 
was  concluded.  Not  being  disposed  to  accede  to  it,  he  traversed 
the  dutchy  of  Brunswick  and  the  whole  of  Lower  Saxony  ;  beat 
the  Westphalian  General  Rewbel,  who  had  attempted  to  stop 
his  march  ;  and  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  in  safety,  where 
he  found  transports  which  took  him  and  his  army  on  board,  and 
conveyed  them  to  England. 

An  English  fleet,  commanded  by  Sir  Richard  Strachan,  with 
thirty-eight  thousand  troops,  under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of 
Chatham,  the  brother  of  Mr.  Pitt,  was  despatched  to  Zealand, 
with  the  intent  of  destroying  the  shipping,  dockyards,  and  arse- 
nals at  Antwerp  and  Flushing,  and  for  occupying  the  Island  of 
Walcheren.  They  landed  in  that  Island  (July  30,)  of  which 
they  took  possession,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Flushing, 
after  a  siege  of  fifteen  days.  But  Lord  Chatham  found  it  im- 
possible to  execute  his  commission  with  regard  to  Antwerp,  on 
account  of  the  activity  of  Marshal  Bernadotte,  who  had  formed 
there  an  army  of  35,000  men.  The  whole  expedition  was  badly 
conducted,  and  in  about  four  months  Lord  Chatham  returned  to 
England.  The  English  destroyed  the  fortifications  of  Flushing, 
which  they  were  unable  to  retain. 

Russia,  as  the  ally  of  France,  likewise  took  part  in  this  war. 
A  body  of  troops,  commanded  by  Prince  Galitzin,  had  entered 
into  Galicia ;  but  it  was  merely  a  display,  by  which  Alexander 
meant  to  fulfil  an  engagement  that  he  had  contracted  with  re- 
luctance. The  peace  betv/een  Austria  and  France  was  signed 
at  Schoenbrunn  (Oct.  14,  1S09,)  which  regulated  the  territorial 
cessions  made  by  the  former  to  Bonaparte,  the  King  of  Saxony 
and  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  The  very  day  on  which  the  peace 
was  signed,  Bonaparte  united  the  territories  which  had  been 
ceded  to  him  directly  into  a  single  State,  under  the  name  of  the 
lllyrian  ProviJices,  which  he  governed  on  his  own  separate  ac- 
count, without  annexing  them  to  France. 

A  decree  of  the  Senate,  of  the  2d  March  1809,  erected  the 
government  general  of  the  Tuscan  departments  into  a  grand 
Jignity  of  the  Empire,  to  be  conferred  on  a  Princess  of  the  Im- 
perial blood,  under  the  title  of  Grand  Dutchess.     This  lady  was 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  231 

Madam  Eliza  Bacciochi,  Princess  of  Lucca  and  Piombino,  who 
was  next  day  decorated  with  the  Arch-ducal  title.  On  the  same 
day,  Napoleon  ceded  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg  to  his  nephew, 
the  son  of  the  King  of  Holland  ;  taking  the  government  on  him- 
self during  the  minority  of  that  child. 

No  outrage  had  been  able  to  overcome  the  perseverance  cf 
Pius  VII.  Bonaparte  published  a  decree  at  Schoenbrunn  (May 
17,)  by  which  the  States  of  the  Pope  were  annexed  to  the  French 
Empire,  and  the  city  of  Rome  declared  a  free  Imperial  city. 
The  union  of  the  States  did  take  place ;  but  Rome  had  no  ap- 
pearance of  a  free  city.  When  the  decree  was  put  in  execution 
(June  11,)  the  Pope  published  a  Bull  of  excommunication  against 
Bonaparte  and  his  adherents,  counsellors,  and  coadjutors.  From 
that  moment  the  venerable  captive  was  more  closely  imprisoned. 
On  the  night  of  the  5th  of  July,  he  was  forcibly  removed  from 
Rome  by  order  of  Napoleon,  and  transferred  to  Grenoble,  and 
thence  to  Savona,  u'here  he  was  detained  three  years  under 
rigorous  supervision. 

The  year  1809  proved  disastrous  for  the  French  arms  by  sea. 
The  captain  of  an  English  vessel,  and  Marques,  a  Portuguese 
colonel,  took  possession  of  the  Island  of  Cayenne  and  French 
Guiana  (Jan.  12.)  Lieutenant-General  Beckwith  and  Rear-Ad- 
miral  Cochrane  took  Martinico  by  capitulation  (Feb.  12.)  Ad- 
miral Gambler  and  Lord  Cochrane^  destroyed  a  French  fleet, 
commanded  by  the  Vice-Admirals  Villaumez  and  L'Allemand 
(April  11,)  in  Basque  Roads,  by  means  of  Congreve  rockets. 
The  French  fort  of  Senegal  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  in 
the  m^onth  of  June  following.  General  Carmichael,  and  a  body 
of  Spaniards  who  had  arrived  from  Portorico,  expelled  the  French 
from  St.  Domingo  (July  7.)  Admiral  Collingwood  and  General 
Oswald  took  possession  of  the  Ionian  Islands  (Oct.  8.) 

Bonaparte  had  now  arrived  at  the  summit  of  his  grandeur, 
but  Providence  had  denied  him  a  family  by  his  wife  Josephine 
Tascher  de  la  Pagerie.  With  the  consent  of  both  parties,  a  de- 
cree of  the  Senate  pronounced  the  dissolution  of  that  marriage 
(Dec.  16  ;)  which  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  Paris  confirmed. 
Another  decree  of  the  Senate  (Feb.  17,  1810,)  conferred  on  the 
eldest  son  of  the  French  Emperor  the  title  of  King  of  Rome  ; 
and  ordained,  that  the  Emperor  of  the  French  should  be  crowned 
a  second  time  at  Rome  within  the  ten  first  years  of  his  reign. 
Bonaparte  soon  after  (April  1.)  espoused  the  Arch-dutchess  Ma- 
ria Louisa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria. 

By  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  between  Bonaparte 
and  Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden,  this  latter  prince  regained  posses- 
sion of  Swedish  Pomerania  on  condition  of  acceding  to  the  Con- 


232  CHAPTER  XI. 

tinental  system,  though  under  certain  modifications.  Had  Charles 
executed  this  engagement,  his  kingdom  would  have  been  rained 
beyond  resource.  The  part  of  the  Hanoverian  States  belonging 
to  the  King  of  England  which  Bonaparte  had  still  reserved  in 
his  own  possession,  was  ceded  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Paris 
(Jan.  14,)  to  his  brother  Jerome,  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  of  Westphalia.  Besides  the  dutchy  of  Lauenberg, 
Bonaparte  reserved  to  himself  a  landed  revenue  of  four  millions 
five  hundred  and  fifty-nine  thousand  francs,  for  bestowing  in 
legacies  and  endowments. 

Louis  Bonaparte  had  reluctantly  accepted  the  crown  of  Hol- 
land ;  but  from  the  moment  he  had  placed  it  on  his  head,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  interests  of  the  country ;  and  resisted,  as 
far  as  prudence  would  allow,  the  arbitrary  orders  of  his  brother, 
when  he  judged  them  prejudicial  to  the  welfare  of  HoUmd. 
This  gave  rise  to  frequent  broils,  accompanied  sometimes  with 
threats.  Bonaparte  reproached  the  Dutch  Government,  more 
especially  for  not  earnestly  and  rigorously  enforcing  the  Con- 
tinental system,  so  pernicious  to  their  commerce.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  ISIO,  things  had  come  to  such  a  state,  that 
it  was  expected  Napoleon  would  cancel  the  kingdom  of  Holland 
from  the  list  of  European  States.  To  avert  this  calamity,  Louis 
signed  a  treaty  at  Paris  (March  16,)  by  which  a  body  of  12.000 
Dutch  and  6000  French  were  to  be  stationed  at  the  mouths  ot 
all  the  rivers,  to  protect  the  French  revenue-officers  who  were 
superintending  the  execution  of  Bonaparte's  orders.  Louis 
ceded  to  him  Dutch  Brabant,  Zealand,  and  a  part  of  Gueldres. 
of  which  the  Waal  was  henceforth  tc  form  the  frontier.  In  vain 
did  that  excellent  man  hope,  by  so  Treat  a  sacrifice,  to  repur- 
chase the  independence  of  his  kingdoiD.  Under  pretext  of  cer- 
tain insults  which  the  French  agents  had  received  at  the  hands 
of  this  exasperated  people,  Bonaparte  sent  a  French  army  to 
occupy  the  whole  country.  Then  Louis  resigned  a  crown 
which  he  could  no  longer  wear  with  honour  ;  he  abdicated  in 
favour  of  his  son  (July  3.)  But  Napoleon,  indignant  at  a  mea- 
sure on  which  he  had  not  been  consulted,  annexed  the  kingdom 
of  Holland  to  the  French  Empire,  by  a  decree  dated  at  Ram- 
bouillet  (July  9.) 

Some  months  afterwards,  the  Republic  of  Valais,  which,  since 
the  year  1S02,  had  formed  an  independent  State,  was  united  to 
the  French  Empire  by  a  decree  of  Bonaparte  (Nov.  12.)  But 
the  most  important  of  his  usurpations  in  1810,  and  that  which 
was  instrumental  in  working  his  downfall,  wus  the  union  of  the 
Hanseatic  countries  situated  on  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea,  viz. 
certain  districts  of  Westphali-",,  and  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802— 18 JO.  233 

some  possessions  of  the  princes  of  Salm-Salm,  and  Salm-Kyr- 
burg;  part  of  the  dutchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  free  cities  of  Bremen 
U'^d  Hamburg,  as  well  as  the  city  of  Lubec  and  the  dutchy  of 
Lauenburg.  By  a  decree  of  the  Senate  (Dec.  13,)  these  places 
were  declared  united  to  France  ;  the  necessity  of  which  Bona- 
ptiite  had  stated  in  a  message  addressed  to  these  pliant  and  sub- 
tniss^ve  bodies. 

France  still  retained  possession  of  Guadaloupe,  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon,  and  the  Mauritius.  The  year  1810,  in  which  the 
greatness  of  Bonaparte  in  Europe  reached  its  summit,  deprived 
him  of  these  possessions.  General  Beckwith  and  Admiral 
Cochrane,  attacked  and  seized  Guadaloupe.  An  expedition 
sent  by  Lord  Minto,  the  English  Governor-General  in  India, 
and  a  thousand  men  from  the  Cape,  reduced  the  Isle  of  Bour- 
bon (July  7,)  and  that  of  the  Mauritius  some  months  after. 

It  will  now  be  necessary  to  point  out  some  of  the  modifica- 
tions which  the  Continental  system  underwent.  The  English 
had  shown  some  disposition  to  put  an  end  to  that  unnatural  state 
of  commerce  which  preceding  measures  had  established.  They 
first  modified  the  Orders  of  1807  regarding  America;  so  that 
the  Americans  were  permitted,  under  certain  conditions,  to  carry 
on  trade  in  all  ports  subject  to  French  influence,  which  were 
not  actually  under  blockade  ;  and  the  law  of  blockade  was  even 
restricted  to  the  ports  of  Holland  and  France,  and  those  of  the 
northern  part  of  Italy,  between  Pesaro  and  Orbitello.  The 
clause  in  the  decree  of  11th  November,  relative  to  the  payment 
of  a  compulsory  duty  in  England,  was  abolished. 

A  now  era  in  the  Continental  system  began  with  a  decree  of 
Bonaparte  (Aug.  7,)  known  by  the  name  of  The  Decree  or  Tarif 
of  Trianon.  A  second,  by  way  of  supplement,  was  issued 
from  St.  Cloud  (Sept.  12.)  Making  a  distinction  between  the 
trade  and  the  produce  of  the  colonies  ;  and  availing  himself  oj 
the  universal  custom  which  had  rendered  the  latter  among  the 
necessaries  of  life,  he  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  this  cir- 
cumstance to  replenish  his  treasury,  by  permitting  their  impor- 
tation on  paying  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  50  per  cent.  A  third 
decree,  signed  at  Fontainbleau,  ordered  all  English  merchandise, 
found  in  France  or  her  dependencies,  to  be  seized  and  burnt. 
At  that  time,  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Germany,  were 
covered  with  bonfires,  which  destroyed  the  property  of  native 
merchants,  and  opened  a  new  prospect  for  English  manufactures 
one  da,y  to  replace  the  articles  that  were  thus  wantonly  consumed. 

We  shall  now  give  a  short  outlitie  of  the  most  remarkable 
events  that  took  place  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  during  this  period 
of  French  preponderance. 

VOL.  11.  20^ 


234  CHAPTER    XI. 

For  more  than  six  years  Portugal,  by  means  of  the  pecuniary 
sacrifices  which  she  had  made  to  the  French  crown,  had  main- 
tamed  her  noutrahty  between  France  and  England.  But  as  she 
had  betrayed  her  predilection  for  England  during  the  Prussian 
war,  her  ruin  was  determined  on ;  and  as  she  could  no  longe-: 
conceal  from  herself  the  danger  of  her  position,  the  Prince  Re- 
gent entered  inco  a  strict  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  by  a  con- 
vention signed  at  London  (Oct.  22,  1807.)  General  Junot  had 
taken  possession  of  the  country  after  the  Royal  family  had  em- 
barked for  Brazil ;  and  solemnly  declared,  that  the  House  of 
Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign  in  Europe  (Feb.  1,  1808.)  Fol- 
lowing the  example  of  the  Spaniards,  the  Portuguese  soon  shook 
off  the  yoke  of  the  oppressor.  The  city  of  Oporto  gave  the  first 
signal  of  insurrection  (June  6;)  an  English  army,  commanded 
by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  landed  in  Mondego  Bay  (July  31,)  and 
defeated  Junot  at  Vimeiro  (Aug.  21.)  The  French  General, 
whose  army  Vv^as  reduced  to  a  most  distressing  state,  obtained 
from  General  Dalrymple,  who  had  taken  the  command  of  the 
English  troops,  a  capitulation  on  very  honourable  terms,  which 
was  concluded  at  Cintra  (Aug.  30.)  Junot,  and  his  troops,  were 
conveyed  to  France  in  English  vessels. 

The  Russian  Admiral  Siniawin  was  not  so  fortunate.  He 
was  then  lying  in  the  Tagus  with  a  fleet  of  nine  ships  of  the 
line,  and  a  frigate,  which  had  been  employed  in  the  war  against 
the  Turks  in  the  Archipelago,  and  found  himself  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  surrendering  his  fleet  to  Sir  Charles  Cotton  the  Eng- 
lish Admiral  (Sept.  3,)  which  was  not  to  be  restored  to  the  Em.- 
peror  until  the  conclusion  of  a  pacific  treaty  between  Russia  and 
Great  Britain.  The  convention  of  Cintra,  of  which  the  true 
circumstances  are  not  well  known,  excited  so  great  a  discontent 
in  England,  that  Sir  Heu  Dalrymple  and  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 
were  called  home,  that  an  investigation  might  be  made  into  this 
unpopular  measure. 

During  their  absence,  and  after  the  affair  of  Corunna,  Soult 
received  orders  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Portugal,  where  there 
were  not  more  than  8000  English  troops,  under  the  command  of 
General  Craddock,  and  an  army  of  the  natives.  At  the  head  of 
23,000  men  he  marched  towards  Chaves,  and  took  possession  of 
that  place  (March  7,)  which  is  one  of  the  frontier  fortresses  of 
the  kingdom.  But  on  his  arrival  at  Oporto  he  encountered  the 
Portuguese  army,  who  for  three  days  disputed  with  him  the 
possession  of  the  place.  Here  he  remamed  a  full  month  before 
he  durst  proceed  on  his  march.  Meantime  General  Wellesley 
had  landed  at  Lisbon  with  a  new  English  army.  He  manosu- 
vred  so  well  that  by  the  end  of  May,  Soult  was  obliged  to  retire 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802—1810.  235 

into  Galicia,  with  the  loss  of  his  artillery  and  baggage.  Nex« 
year  the  French  sent  a  third  expedition  to  Portugal,  but  as  this 
belongs  more  properly  to  the  war  in  Spain,  we  shall  take  of'ca- 
sien  to  notice  it  afterwards.  After  the  retreat  of  Souk,  the  Por- 
tuguese acted  a  considerable  part  in  the  liberation  of  Europe 
Gereral  Wellesley,  who  was  intrusted  with  very  extensive 
powers,  organized  their  army,  and  augmented  it  to  40,000  m^^n, 
with  the  assistance  of  600,600Z.  Sterling,  which  England  lur- 
nished  for  that  purpose. 

The  connexion  between  Great  Britain  and  Portugal,  became 
stiH  more  intimate  by  the  treaty  of  alliance  which  was  conclu- 
ded at  Rio  Janeiro  (Feb.  19, 1811.)  George  III.  there  promised 
never  to  recognise  any  King  of  Portugal  but  the  heir  and  legiti- 
mate representative  of  the  House  of  Braganza.  The  Regerxt 
granted  Britain  the  right  of  building  ships  of  war  in  Brazil,  and 
of  supplying  themselves  with  timber  for  the  purpose  from  the 
forests  of  that  country  ;  and  by  abrogatmg  certain  former  stipu- 
lations, he  agreed  to  receive  into  his  ports  as  many  British  ves- 
sels as  chose  to  enter.  The  Regent  likewise  promised  to  co- 
operate with  England  for  the  abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade  ;  and 
this  is  the  first  example  of  a  stipulation  of  the  kind.  Together 
with  this  treaty  there  was  also  concluded  a  treaty  of  commerce. 
Towards  the  end  of  1810  Portugal  became  the  theatre  of  war, 
as  we  shall  observe  when  we  come  to  speak  of  Spain. 

Charles  IV.  King  of  Spain,  had  flattered  himself  that  by  sub- 
mitting to  the  payment  of  subsidies  to  France,  according  to  the 
treaty  of  October  30,  1803,  he  would  be  exempted  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  taking  part  in  the  war  which  had  broken  out  between 
Bonaparte  and  England  ;  and  it  was  on  the  faith  of  this  that 
the  latter  power  had  commenced  hostilities.  Four  Spanish 
ships  returning  to  Europe,  loaded  with  treasures  and  valuable 
merchandise  from  South  America,  were  seized  off  Cape  St. 
Mary  (Oct.  5,  1804,)  by  an  Enghsh  squadron.  After  that  act 
of  hostility,  which,  but  for  the  negotiation  that  had  preceded  it, 
might  have  been  regarded  as  a  violation  of  the  law  of  nations, 
Charles  IV.  declared  war  against  England  (Dec.  12  ;)  and  the 
following  year  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  marine  totally 
destroyed  by  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  which  Admiral  Nelson 
gained  over  the  combined  fleets  of  Gravina  and  Villeneuve. 

In  1806  the  English  made  an  attempt  to  get  possession  of  the 
Spanish  colony  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  expedition  sailed  from 
St.  Helena  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Sir  Home  Popham. 
The  troops  were  commanded  by  General  Beresford.  Buenos 
Ayres  capitulated  on  the  2d  July;  there  the  English  found  nu- 
merous treasures  which  were  transported  to  Europe  ;  but  an 


236  CHAPTER  XT. 

:nsunection  of  the  inhabitants,  headed  by  a  Spaniard  named 
Peeridon,  and  Liniers  a  native  of  France,  obliged  General  Beres- 
^ord  to  surrender  himself  and  his  troops  prisoners  of  war  (Aug-. 
12. \  Admiral  Popham  took  possession  of  Maldonado  (Oct.  29,) 
wfiere  he  remained  in  expectation  of  the  supplies  which  he  ex- 
pected to  come  from  England.  General  Auchmuty  landed  ai 
Maldonado  in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year,  and  took  che 
town  of  Monte  Video  by  assauU  (Feb.  2.)  New  reinforcements 
having  arrived  from  England,  General  Whitelocke  again  attack- 
ed Buenos  Ayres,  and  penetrated  into  the  town  (July  5  ;)  but 
Liniers,  at  the  head  of  the  Spaniards,  made  so  able  a  defence, 
that  the  English  General  signed  a  capitulation,  by  which  he  ob- 
tained the  restitution  of  all  British  prisoners  ;  and  the  English 
promised  to  evacuate  Monte  Video  within  the  space  of  two 
months. 

Charles  IV.  and  his  minister,  during  the  war  with  Prussia, 
had  shown  a  desire  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Bonaparte.  By 
signing  at  Fontainbleau  the  partition  of  Portugal,  they  opened 
a  way  for  the  French  armies  into  Spain,  who  took  possession  of 
St.  Sebastian,  Pampeluna,  Figueras,  and  Barcelona  ;  and  were 
even  masters  of  Madrid  while  one  part  of  the  Spanish  army 
were  occupied  in  Portugal,  and  the  other  in  Denmark.  The  con- 
sequences of  these  imprudences  were,  the  overturning  of  Spain, 
and  the  dethronement  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  as  we  have 
noticed  above. 

When  the  Spaniards  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  royal  intru- 
der, they  formed  themselves  into  Juntas,  or  directorial  commit- 
tees, in  every  province.  That  of  Seville,  which  was  composed 
of  enterprising  men,  took  the  lead  in  the  insurrection,  declared 
war  against  Bonaparte  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  con- 
cluded an  armistice  with  England.  Their  authority  was  not 
acknowledged  by  the  Provincial  Juntas,  each  of  which  had  set 
on  foot  an  army  of  their  own.  All  these  armies  engaged  the 
French  troops  wherever  they  met  them,  and  were  very  often 
vanquished.  The  insurrection  did  not  come  to  a  head  till  after 
the  battle  of  Baylen  (July  20,  1808,)  where  14,000  French 
troops,  under  Generals  Dupont  and  Vidal,  laid  down  their  arms. 
Castanos,  to  whom  this  success  was  ov/ing,  was  then  appointed 
Generalissimo  ;  and  the  Junta  organized  a  Regency,  at  the  head 
of  which  they  placed  the  old  Cardinal  de  Bourbon.  There  were 
two  other  events  which  greatly  encouraged  the  Spaniards;  the 
one  was  the  expulsion  of  Le  Febvre  from  Saragossa  by  General 
Palafox,  and  the  other  the  arrival  of  the  Marquis  de  la  Romana 
at  Corunna  with  7000  men,  who  had  been  conveyed  to  the  is- 
land of  Funen  for  invading  Sweden,  but  had  embarked,  m  spite 
of  the  French,  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  their  country 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  237 

Joseph  Bonaparte  having  abandoned  Madrid  and  retired  to 
Burgos  (Aug.  1,)  a  Central  Junta  was  established  at  Aranjuez. 
This  Junta  raised  three  armies  :  that  of  the  North,  under  Blake 
and  Komana  ;  that  of  the  Centre,  under  Castanos ;  and  tliat  of 
Arragon,  under  Palafox.  Immediately  after  the  interview  at 
Erfurt,  Bonaparte  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  which 
had  been  increased  to  180,000  men  ;  and  after  gaining  several 
advantages  over  the  enemy,  he  sent  back  his  brother  Joseph  to 
Madrid.  Meantime,  two  divisions  of  the  English  army  having 
arrived,  the  one  from  Lisbon,  and  the  other  from  Corunna,  they 
formed  a  junction  in  the  province  of  Leon,  under  the  command 
of  Sir  John  Moore.  Bonaparte  marched  against  them,  but  they 
thought  it  prudent  to  retire.  Having  arrived  at  Astorga,he  re- 
ceived intelligence  of  the  preparations  of  the  Austrians,  when 
he  set  out  for  Paris,  leaving  the  command  of  the  army  to  Soult, 
who  obliged  the  English  to  embark  at  Corunna,  after  a  severe 
engagement  in  which  Sir  John  Moore  lost  his  life.  A  treat}^  of 
peace  and  alliance  was  signed  at  London  between  England  and 
the  Supreme  Junta,  acting  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.  (Jan. 
14,  1809.)  England  sent  into  Portugal  a  new  army,  under  the 
command  of  Sir  A.  Wellesley.  The  second  siege  of  Saragossa, 
which  was  undertaken  first  by  Junot,  and  continued  by  Lannes, 
was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  events  in  modern  war.  The 
garrison,  commanded  b}^  Palafox,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  place 
who  were  completely  devoted  to  him,  perform-od  prodigies  of 
valour.  When  the  French  took  the  city  (Feb.  21,)  it  presented 
nothing  but  a  mass  of  ruins.  It  was  calculated  that  above  100,000 
men  perished  in  that  siege. 

Marshal  Victor  defeated  Cuesta  at  Medellin  (March  28,)  and 
Suchet  defeated  General  Blake  at  Belchite  (June  16  :)  but  Soult, 
who  had  penetrated  into  Portugal,  was  repulsed  by  Wellesley^ 
who  fought  the  bloody  battle  of  Talavera  with  Marshals  Jourdan 
and  Victor,  which  turned  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  French. 
The  misconduct  of  the  army  of  Cuesta,  which  had  been  con- 
joined with  that  of  Wellesley  in  this  battle,  determined  the  latter 
henceforth  to  carry  on  a  defensive  war  with  the  English  and 
Portuguese  alone  ;  and  to  leave  to  the  Spaniards  the  care  of 
occupying  the  French,  by  harassing  their  troops  incessantly, 
destroying  their  convoys  and  magazines,  and  surprising  their 
entrenchments.  The  battle  of  Ocana  (Nov.  19,)  which  Cuesta 
fought  with  General  Mortier  and  lost,  was  the  last  pitched  bat- 
tle which  the  Spaniards  fought.  From  that  time  they  confined 
themselves  to  a  Guerilla  warfare,  by  which  they  did  infinite 
damage  to  the  enemy. 

In  1809,  the  Central  Junta  retired  to  Seville.     Towards  the 


238  CHAPTER  XI. 

end  of  the  year,  they  were  replaced  by  an  Executive  Directory 
of  nine  members  ;  and  next  year  these  were  superseded  in  their 
turn  by  a  Regency  of  five  members,  which  was  established  at 
Cadiz.  An  assembly  of  the  Cortes  was  summoned  to  meet 
there,  the  members  of  which  were  nominated,  not  by  the  clergy, 
the  nobility,  and  the  cities,  which  composed  the  legitimate  States 
of  Spain,  but  by  the  great  body  of  the  inhabitants.  That  assem- 
bly, who  could  do  no  more  for  the  defence  of  their  country,  em- 
ployed themselves  in  establishing  a  democratic  constitution  in 
Spain,  destroying  by  degrees  all  the  institutions  of  the  monarchy. 

Soult,  who  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  South, 
conquered  the  Vv^iole  of  Andalusia  in  1810,  with  the  exception 
of  Cadiz,  which  Victor  had  in  vain  attempted  to  besiege.  The 
principal  efforts  of  the  French  were  then  turned  towards  Portu- 
gal ;  and  on  this  occasion  Massena  was  ordered  to  undertake 
the  reduction  of  that  country,  at  the  head  of  70,000  men.  Junot 
laid  siege  to  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  which  surrendered  after  a  vigorous 
defence  (July  10.)  Almeida  was  likewise  obliged  to  capitulate 
a  few  weeks  after  (August  27.)  These  conquests  were  made, 
without  any  apparent  wish  on  the  part  of  the  English  commander, 
recently  created  Lord  Wellington,  to  prevent  them.  He  had 
then  begun  to  carry  into  execution  the  plan  of  defensive  warfare 
which  he  had  conceived  after  the  battle  of  Talavera.  In  the 
spring  he  was  stationed  on  the  Coa,  and  began  to  retreat  after 
the  fall  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  ;  nor  did  he  stop  till  he  had  reached 
Torres  Vedras.  Four  months  were  employed  in  effecting  this 
slow  retrograde  march.  Massena  followed  him  every  step,  suf- 
fering from  continual  fatigue  and  daily  skirmishes ;  and  strug- 
gling against  famine,  as  the  English  army  had  destroyed  every 
thing  that  lay  in  their  way.  Towards  the  end  of  October,  Lord 
Wellington  took  up  an  impregnable  position,  where  for  four 
months  the  French  General  found  all  his  manoeuvres  unsuccess- 
ful. Lord  Wellington  took  advantage  of  this  interval  to  secure 
considerable  reinforcements  which  arrived  from  Lisbon.  He  was 
thus  prepared  to  fall  upon  his  adversary,  when  the  impossibility 
of  subsisting  longer  in  an  exhausted  country  should  at  length 
compel  him  to  retreat. 

When  giving  a  summary  of  the  history  of  France,  we  spoke 
of  the  renewal  of  hostilities  between  Bonaparte  and  Great  Britain 
in  1803,  as  well  as  of  the  part  which  the  latter  took  in  the  Con- 
tinental wars  of  1805,  1807,  and  1809.  The  efforts  which  she 
had  made  to  support  these  expenses,  added  a  frightful  increase 
to  her  national  debt ;  but  the  constantly  increasing  progress  of 
her  commerce  furnished  her  with  the  means  of  meeting  this 
©noimous  expenditure.     In  vain  had  Bonanarte  expected  to  ruin 


TERior  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  239 

.^he  mdustry  of  England  by  the  Continental  system.  In  the 
Fiench,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  colonies  which  she  conquered,  she 
fo^ind  new  channels  to  supply  the  place  of  those  which  were 
shut  ago.inst  her  on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  The  Empire  of 
the  sea  still  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  British  ;  and.  in 
1807,  they  annihilated  the  marine  of  Denmark,  the  only  king- 
dom which  then  retained  any  maritime  power.  But  of  ihis  cir- 
cumstance we  shall  speak  hereafter. 

The  year  1806  is  remarkable  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade  in  the  English  colonies.  Since  1785,  the  Blacks  had  found 
zealous  advocates  in  the  British  Parliament,  amongst  whom  Fox, 
Wiiberforce,  and  Pitt,  were  the  most  distinguished.  But  the 
British  Government,  too  sagacious  to  enter  precipitately  into  a 
measure  which  might  endanger  the  fortune  of  the  planters,  and 
even  the  tranquillity  of  the  colonies,  wished  first  to  consult  ex- 
perience on  the  subject,  and  to  leave  the  proprietors  time  to  pre- 
pare themselves  for  a  different  order  of  things.  For  twenty 
years  they  had  refused  to  adopt  the  bill  which  Mr.  Wiiberforce 
regularly  laid  before  the  Parliament,  to  demand  restrictive  laws 
against  the  trade.  It  was  not  until  Mr.  Fox  and  Lord  Grenville 
entered  into  the  ministry,  that  this  question  occupied  their  serious 
deliberations.  An  Act  of  Parliament,  ratified  by  the  King  (May 
16,  1806,)  forbade  the  exportation  of  slaves  from  the  English 
colonies,  and  conveying  them  into  foreign  colonies.  A  Bill  of 
the  6th  February  1807,  which  was  ratified  by  the  King  on  the 
17th  March  following,  enacted,  that  the  slave  trade  should  ac- 
tually cease  from  the  date  of  May  1st  ensuing  ;  providing,  how- 
ever, that  vessels  already  departed  on  the  trade  should  be  allowed 
to  import  slaves  into  the  West  Indies  until  the  1st  January  1808. 

Of  all  the  countries  which  were  brought  under  the  yoke  of 
Napoleon,  the  most  unfortunate  without  dispute  was  Holland. 
Her  commerce,  the  only  resource  of  her  numerous  inhabitants, 
was  annihilated  by  the  Continental  system  ;  her  finances  were 
in  such  a  state  of  disorder,  that,  in  spite  of  all  their  economy, 
the  annual  deficit  was  regularly  about  twenty  millions  of  flo- 
rins :  her  inhabitants  were  harassed  as  much  by  the  soldiers  of 
Bonaparte  as  by  his  revenue  officers ;  and  as  if  nature,  in  con- 
cert with  political  oppression,  had  conspired  her  ruin,  her  soil 
was  laid  waste,  and  her  industry  destroyed  by  periodical  inun 
dations,  fires,  and  other  calamities.  Such  is  the  picture  which 
that  wretched  country  presented  up  to  the  moment  when  Bona- 
parte extinguished  the  feeble  remains  of  independence  which  it 
enjoyed.  After  various  alterations,  that  Republic  obtained  a 
constitution  similar  to  that  which  had  existed  in  France  since 
1804.     M.  Schimmelpennink  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  go 


240  CHAPTER  XI. 

veinment  (April  1S05,)  under  the  title  of  Grand  Pensionary. 
and  vested  with  such  powers  as  the  last  Stadtholders  had  never 
exercised,  even  after  the  revolution  of  1788.  We  have  already 
observed  how  this  power,  together  with  the  Royal  title,  were 
rendered  hereditary  in  favour  of  Louis  Bonaparte  ;  and  how 
the  Dutch  monarchy  vanished  at  the  fiat  of  Napoleon. 

Switzerland,  with  the  exception  of  some  partial  commotions 
which  are  scarcely  worthy  of  remark,  had  remained  tranquil 
under  the  system  of  government  which  Bonaparte  had  pre- 
scribed in  the  act  of  mediation  (Feb.  19,  1803.)  The  Conti- 
nental System,  and  the  prohibition  laid  on  the  greater  part  ot 
Swiss  commodities  in  France,  paralyzed  their  industry  and 
their  commerce ;  and  caused  many  of  the  inhabitants  to  emi- 
grate, who  for  the  most  part  directed  their  course  towards  North 
America.  A  treaty  which  General  Ney  had  signed  at  Friburg 
(Sept.  27,)  regulated  the  connections  between  France  and  the 
Helvetic  Confederation,  in  a  manner  more  advantageous  for  that 
country  than  in  the  time  of  the  Director3\  Bonaparte  was  sa- 
tisfied with  a  defensive  alliance  ;  but  the  Swiss  agreed  to  im- 
port from  the  mines  of  France  their  stock  of  salt,  vvdiich  they 
had  till  then  been  in  the  habit  of  receiving  partl}^  from  Bavaria. 
This  stock  amounted  to  two  hundred  thousand  quintals  per  an- 
num ;  apd  the  revenue  which  France  derived  from  furnishing 
this  article,  was  sufficient  to  support  more  than  20,000  troops. 
At  the  same  time  a  military  capitulation  was  signed,  by  which 
Bonaparte  took  into  his  service  sixteen  thousand  Swiss  volun- 
teers. It  must  appear  astonishing,  that  in  this  nation  of  war- 
riors, a  sufficient  number  could  not  be  found  to  make  up  the 
complement  of  16,000  men.  The  incomplete  state  of  the  Swiss 
regiments  was  a  subject  of  perpetual  complaint  with  Bonaparte. 

Tlie  number  of  the  Italian  States  had  been  perpetually  di- 
minishing ;  and  about  the  time  of  which  we  now  speak,  that 
peninsula  was  entirety  subjected  to  the  influence  of  Bonaparte, 
and  divided  nominally  between  France,  Naples,  and  the  kingdom 
of  Italy ;  excepting  the  smiall  Republic  of  St.  Marino,  which 
preserved  its  independence  in  the  midst  of  the  general  convulsion. 
The  Italian  Republic,  which  since  the  year  1805  had  borne  the 
title  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  was  oppressed  by  the  enormous 
load  of  contributions  which  were  exacted  for  the  support  of  the 
French  troops,  as  well  as  by  payments  for  the  civil  list  of  the 
King  and  his  viceroy.  That  country  submitted  with  great  im- 
patience to  the  law  of  ihe  military  conscription,  which  was  con- 
•irary  to  the  feelings  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants.  It  obtained 
considerable  aggrandizements  after  the  peace  of  Presburg  by 
.he  union  of  the  Venetian  provinces  in  1807,  and  by  that  of  the 


PERIOD  IX.       A.  D.   1802—1810.  24a 

four  provinces  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States  ;  but  these  accessions 
made  no  addition  to  its  happiness.  Eugene  Beauharnais,  dig- 
nified with  the  title  of  Prince  of  Venice,  was  proclaimed  heir 
to  the  throne  of  Italy,  failing  the  male  descendants  of  Bonaparte. 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  was  overthrown  about  the  beginning 
of  1806.  Ferdinand  IV.,  had  retired  to  Sicily,  and  Joseph  Bo- 
naparte was  put  in  his  place  ;  but  he  had  occupied  that  unstable 
throne  only  two  years,  when  he  exchanged  it  for  another  still 
more  insecure.  Bat  before  surrendering  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
to  Joachim  Murat  who  was  appointed  his  successor  (June  28, 
1808,)  he  wished  to  immortalize  his  nam  -,  by  giving  a  new  con- 
stitution to  that  kingdom,  which  was  guaranteed  by  Bonaparte. 
The  attempts  which  Murat  made  to  conquer  Sicily  proved 
abortive. 

Germany  had  experienced  two  complete  revolutions  in  course 
of  the  nine  years  of  which  we  have  given  a  short  summary 
The  constitution  of  the  Germanic  Empire  was  changed  in  se- 
veral essential  respects  by  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of 
Ratisbon.  Of  all  the  ecclesiastical  princes  that  belonged  to  the 
Germanic  body,  one  only  was  retained,  viz.  the  Elector,  Arch- 
Chancellor,  who  took  the  place  of  the  ancient  Elector  of  May- 
ence ;  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  was  secu- 
larized. The  territories  of  the  rest,  as  well  as  the  revenues  of 
all  ecclesiastical  endowments,  mediate  or  immediate,  were  em- 
ployed either  to  indemnify  the  hereditary  princes  who  had  lost 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  estates  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
or  to  aggrandize  those  whom  the  policy  of  Bonaparte  chose 
to  favour.  In  place  of  the  two  Ecclesiastical  Electors  who 
were  suppressed,  four  lay  Electors  were  appointed,  one  of  w^hom 
only  was  a  Catholic,  that  of  Saltzburg,  who  had  formerly  been 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  three  were  Protestants,  those 
of  Wurtemberg;  Baden,  and  Hesse-Cassel. 

The  House  of  Orange  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Fulda  and 
other  territories  ;  Brisgau  and  Ortenau  were  ceded  to  the  Duke  of 
Modena,  who  left  them  at  his  death  to  hi.s  son-in-law  the  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand.  The  relation  between  the  two  religions  was 
still  more  unequal  in  the  College  of  Princes,  where  the  Pro- 
testants had  acquired  so  great  a  superiority  that  the  head  of  the 
Empire  refused  to  ratify  that  article  of  the  Resolutions.  The 
free  cities  were  reduced  to  six,  viz.  Augsburg,  Lubec,  Nurem- 
berg^ Frankfort,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg.  The  immediate  nobi- 
lity were  retained  ;  but  those  of  them  wdio  were  entitled  to 
indemnity  were  disappointed,  as  nothing  remained  to  be  distri- 
buted. In  place  of  the  existing  duties  payable  on  the  Rhine, 
a  rate  of  navigation  was   established,  the  proceeds  of  which 

VOL.  II.  21 


242  -  CHAPTER   XL 

were  to  be  divided  between  France  and  Germany  ;  a  part  of  the 
endowment  of  the  Arch-Chancellor  v/as  founded  on  that  revenue. 

The  execution  of  the  Kesoliitions  of  the  Deputation,  gave  rise 
to  several  conventions  among  the  States  of  the  Empire,  as  well 
as  to  a  great  variety  of  claims.  So  many  difficulties  had  arisen 
on  this  occasion,  especially  from  the  refusal  of  the  Emperor  to 
sanction  the  Resolution,  without  certain  modifications,  that  the 
Empire  was  abolished  before  this  new  fundamental  law  could 
be  carried  into  practice  in  all  its  bearings.  The  peace  of  Pres- 
burg  had  created  two  new  Kings  in  the  centre  of  Germany, 
namel)",  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  who  had  as- 
sumed that  dignity.  These  two  princes,  with  the  Elector  of 
Baden,  were  declared  sovereigns,  and  obtained  territorial  addi- 
tions at  the  expense  of  Austria,  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  city  of  Augsburg.  The  King  of  Bavaria  annex- 
ed that  free  city  to  his  Estates.  The  Elector  of  Saltzburg  ex- 
changed all  that  the  Resolutions  of  the  Imperial  Deputation  had 
given  him  for  the  principality  of  Wurtzburg  which  was  taken 
from  the  King  of  Bavaria,  to  which  the  Electoral  title  was 
transferred.  The  Grand  Mastership  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
was  secularized  in  favour  of  a  prince  of  the  House  of  Austria. 
The  heir  of  the  Duke  of  Modena  lost  Brisgau,  and  Ortenau, 
which  fell  to  the  Elector  of  Baden. 

The  annihilation  of  the  German  Empire,  the  germ  of  which 
is  to  be  found  in  that  treaty,  was  effected  by  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  which  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  the 
Arch-Chancellor,  the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  Dukes  of  Cleves  and 
Berg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Princes  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  Salm,  Isemburg,  Lichtenstein  and  Aremberg,  and  Count 
Leyen,  concluded  with  Bonaparte  (July  6,  1806,)  who  was 
named  Protector  of  the  League,  as  they  announced  in  their  de- 
clarations to  the  Diet.  The  act  by  which  the  Emperor  Francis 
II.  abdicated  the  crown  of  Germany  (Aug.  6,)  completed  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Germanic  body.  The  princes  who  had  joined 
that  confederation  usurped  the  sovereignty,  instead  of  the  mere 
superiority  which  they  had  formerly  enjoyed  under  the  authori- 
ty of  the  Empire.  By  overthrowing  the  barriers  which  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  the  country,  the  most  ancient  customs,  and 
conventions,  had  opposed  to  the  encroachments  of  absolute 
power,  they  set  a  fatal  example  of  trampling  under  foot  the  well 
acquired  rights  of  their  people.  They  carried  their  injustice 
still  farther.  They  usurped  dominion  over  the  princes,  pro- 
vinces, and  cities,  their  associates  and  coequals,  who  were  un- 
fortunately placed  in  their  neighbourhood;  and  who  had  not 
been  apprized  in  time  that  they  might  repair  to  Paris,  in  order 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1802— ISIO.  24? 

to  co-operate  in  that  transaction,  or  counteract  the  intrigues  by 
which  it  was  accomplished. 

The  Elector  Arch-Chancellor  then  assumed  the  dignity  of 
Prince  Primate  ;  the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  Dukes  of  Berg  and 
Cleves,  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  took  the  title  of 
Grand  Dukes ;  to  which  the  act  of  the  12th  July  attached  the 
prerogatives  of  the  royal  dignity.  The  head  of  the  house  of 
Nassau  took  the  dignity  of  Duke,  and  Count  Leyen  that  of 
Prince.  A  federal  Diet,  divided  into  two  chambers,  was  to  de- 
liberate on  the  general  interests  of  the  union  ;  but  that  assembly 
never  met.  Of  the  six  free  cities  which  the  Deputation  had 
preserved,  the  King  of  Bavaria  had  Augsburg  adjudged  to  him 
by  the  peace  of  Presburg ;  he  afterwards  obtained  Nuremberg 
by  an  act  of  the  Confederation.  Frankfort  fell  to  the  share  of 
the  Prince  Primate ;  so  that  there  remained  only  three  of  the 
Hanseatic  towns. 

Several  other  princes  entered  successively  into  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  ;  but  none  of  these  accessions  were  voluntary. 
They  all  took  place  in  consequence  of  the  w^ar  with  Prussia, 
which  broke  out  in  October  1806.  These  princes,  taken  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  accession,  were  the  following  : — The  Elector 
of  Wurtzburg,  the  old  Elector  of  Saltzburg,  who  took  the  grand 
ducal  title,  the  King  of  Saxony,  the  Dakes  of  Saxony,  the  Houses 
of  Anhalt  and  Schwartzburg,  the  Prince  of  Waldeck,  the  Houses 
of  Lippe  and  Reuss,  the  King  of  Westphalia,  the  House  of 
Mecklenburg,  and  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg.  Thus  all  Germany, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  entered  in  succession  into  that  Confede- 
ration. 

Several  other  changes  occurred  in  the  Rhenish  Confedera- 
tion, especially  after  the  peace  of  Schoenbrunn.  The  grand 
dutchy  of  Berg  received  considerable  accessions.  The  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  was  augmented  in  1810,  by  the  union  of  the  States 
of  the  King  of  England  in  Germany,  with  the  exception  of  the 
dutchy  of  Lunenburg,  as  has  been  already  mentioned.  Within 
a  short  time  after  he  had  disposed  of  the  territory  of  Hanover, 
Bonaparte  formed  the  grand  dutdiy  of  Frankfort,  by  adding  the 
district  of  Fuida,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  county  of  Hanau, 
to  the  possessions  of  the  Prince  Primate  ;  with  the  deduction  of 
the  principality  of  Ratisbon,  on  condition  that  after  the  death  of 
the  Prince  Primate,  vv'ho  had  assumed  the  title  of  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Frankfort,  these  territories  should  pass  to  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais  and  his  male  descendants  ;  and  failing  these,  they  should 
revert  lo  the  Crown  of  France.  The  Grand  Duke  ceded  to 
Napoleon  the  principality  of  Ratisbon,  and  his  moiety  of  the 
navigation-dues  on  the  Rhine. 


244  CHAPTER   XI. 

The  F  '  ctor  of  Bavaria  had  lost  by  the  peace  of  Luneville 
that  pare  J  the  Palatinate  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
with  the  dutchy  of  Deux-ponts.  The  Deputation  of  1S03  de- 
prived him  of  the  rest  of  the  Palatinate  ;  but  that  act  amply 
compensated  him,  by  making-  over  to  him  the  bishoprics  of 
Bamberg,  Wurtzburg,  Freisingen,  Passau,  and  Augsburg,  witli 
several  abbeys  and  free  citie?.  By  the  peace  of  Presburg,  Bo- 
naparte took  Wurtzburg  from  him  ;  but  he  gave  him  in  lieu  of 
it  a  considerable  part  of  the  spoils  of  Austria,  especially  the 
county  of  Tyrol,  which  contained  more  than  700,000  inhabitants. 
To  recompense  that  monarch  for  the  zeal  which  he  had  displayed 
1809,  Bonaparte  put  him  in  possession  of  the  principalities  of 
Baireuth  and  Ratisbon,  the  dutchy  of  Saltzburg,  with  Berch- 
tolsgaden,  and  the  part  of  Lower  Austria  which  the  Emperor 
had  renounced  by  the  peace  of  Schoenbrunn.  In  return,  the 
King  of  Bavaria  ceded  back  a  part  of  the  Tyrol,  containing  about 
305,000  souls,  which  was  annexed  either  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  or  the  Illyrian  provinces. 

By  the  peace  of  Luneville,  the  Austrian  monarchy  had  lost, 
in  point  of  extent  and  population  ;  but  she  had  gained  an  addi- 
tion of  six  millions  of  francs  to  her  revenue.  The  government 
had  to  struggle  incessantly  against  the  ruinous  state  of  the  ex- 
chequer, and  the  over-circulation  of  paper  money.  Neither  loans 
nor  economy  could  recover  them.  The  embarrassed  state  of  his 
finances  was  still  more  increased  by  the  disastrous  war  of  1805. 
The  peace  of  Presburg  cost  the  Emperor  the  States  that  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Venetians,  the  Tyrol,  and  all  the  possessions  of 
his  House  in  Swabia.  He  acquired  nothing  by  that  treaty,  ex- 
cept the  dutchy  of  Saltzburg  and  Berchtolsgaden.  His  losses 
amounted  to  more  than  a  thousand  German  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritor}'-,  and  nearly  three  millions  of  subjects.  The  following 
year  (Aug.  6, 1806,)  he  voluntarily  laid  aside  the  Imperial  crown 
of  Germany,  adopting  instead,  the  hereditary  Imperial  crown  of 
Austria,  with  the  name  of  Francis  I.  Besides  Saltsburg  and 
Berchtolsgaden,  the  ci-devant  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  lost  also 
Passau  and  Eichstett ;  but  he  ob'.ained  the  principality  of  Wurtz- 
burg. The  Archduke  Ferdinand  was  deprived  of  Brisgau  and 
Ortenau. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  year  1807,  Austria  had  made 
warlike  preparations  which  indicated  that,  but  for  the  precipi- 
tancy with  which  the  peace  of  Tilsit  had  been  concluded,  she 
would  have  made  a  powerful  diversion  on  the  rear  of  the  French 
army.  It  was  not  till  the  convention  of  Fontainbleau  that  she 
obtained  the  restitution  of  Braunau,  which,  had  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  French,  and  which  she  purchased  by  new  ter- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1S02— 1810.  245 

ritorial  losses  on  the  side  of  Italy  ;  from  that  moment  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  made  great  exertions  for  re-organizing  the  army, 
introducing  a  new  order  and  a  better  discipline,  forming  bodies 
of  militia,  and  repairing  fortresses.  He  continued  to  inspire  the 
nation  with  an  enthusiasm  which  it  had  never  before  displayed. 
Many  wealthy  individuals  made  large  pecuniary  sacrifices  for 
the  service  of  their  country. 

The  peace  of  Schoenbrunn,  which  terminated  the  war  of  1S09, 
brought  Austria  down  to  the  rank  of  the  third  Continental 
power.  That  monarch}^  comprehended  a  surface  of  9471  Ger- 
man square  miles,  and  a  population  of  twenty-one  millions  ;  but 
her  commerce  was  annihilated  by  the  loss  of  Trieste  and  Fiume, 
which  separated  her  from  the  sea.  The  immense  quantity  of 
paper  money  in  the  ceded  provinces,  flowed  back  into  the  interior 
of  the  kingdom,  and  reduced  the  currency  of  these  bills  to  one- 
tifth  of  their  nominal  value. 

Prussia,  by  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of  1S03,  gained 
426,000  subjects,  and  more  than  four  millions  of  francs  to  her 
revenue  ;  and  the  provinces  which  she  acquired,  established,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  continuity  of  her  Westphalian  possessions 
with  the  centre  of  the  kingdom.  A  convention  with  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria  respecting  an  exchange  of  territory,  made  consider- 
able additions  to  the  Principalities  in  Franconia.  The  King, 
from  that  time,  occupied  himself  in  applying  the  remedy  of  a 
wise  administration  to  repair  the  calamities  which  wars  and 
levies  had  inflicted  on  the  country.  In  vain  had. they  tried  every 
means  of  persuasion  to  make  him  join  the  third  coalition  ;  and 
it  was  only  the  violation  of  his  territory  by  the  French  troops, 
that  at  last  prevailed  with  him  to  take  that  step.  We  have  al- 
ready spoken  of  the  convention  at  Potsdam,  by  which  he  engag- 
ed eventually  to  become  a  party  to  that  confederacy,  and  of  the 
attempt  which  he  made  to  restore  peace  by  means  of  negotiation. 
We  have  already  mentioned  how  he  became  involuntarily,  and 
by  the  turn  which  his  minister  gave  to  the  affair  with  which  he 
was  intrusted,  the  ally  of  him  whom  he  wished  to  engage  in 
war.  Prussia  obtained,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  precarious 
possession  of  the  Electorate  of  Hanover,  in  lieu  of  which  she 
ceded  Anspach,  Cleves,  and  Neufchatel.  The  superficial  extent 
of  the  whole  monarchy  amounted  then  to  5746  German  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  10,658,000  souls. 

The  occupation  of  Hanover  dragged  Prussia  into  a  war  with 
England;  and  the  course  pursued  towards  her  by  Bonaparte 
soon  compelled  her  to  declare  war  against  France.  He  had 
offered  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  to  the  King  of  England,  and 
opposed  Prussia  in  the  project  of  as.-iociating   Saxony,  Hesse 

VOL.  II.  21  ^ 


546  CHAPTER  XI.    , 

and  the  Hanseatic  towns,  in  the  confederation  which  Frederic 
wished  to  oppose  to  that  of  the  Rhine.  The  convention  of  Vienna 
thus  became  the  occasion  of  inflicting  new  calamities  on  Prussia. 
Frederic  William  renounced  the  territory  of  Hanover,  by  the 
peace  which  he  concluded  with  George  III.  at  Memel  (Jan.  28, 
1807  ;)  but  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  cost  the  former  the  half  of  his 
German  estates,  viz.  an  extent  of  2657  German  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  4,670,000  souls.  This  sacrifice  was  not 
sufficient  to  appease  the  resentment  of  Bonaparte.  By  misin- 
terpreting the  equivocal  terms  of  the  convention  of  Koningsberg, 
he  restored  to  the  King  only  a  part  of  his  provinces  on  the  east 
of  the  Vistula,  which  were  desolated  by  the  war,  and  reduced 
almost  to  a  desert.  After  sixteen  months  of  peace,  he  could  not 
obtain  repossession  of  his  other  provinces,  until  he  engaged  lo 
pay  120,000,000  of  francs,  to  leave  three  fortresses  in  the  hands 
of  Bonaparte  by  way  of  pledge,  and  to  promise  never  to  keep 
more  than  40,000  men  in  the  field. 

Prussia  was  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  destitution,  at  the  time 
when  Frederic  William  turned  his  attention  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  country.  The  army  had  devoured  ihe  substance  of 
the  inhabitants  ;  the  population  had  suffered  a  great  diminution  ; 
while  sickness  and  a  complication  of  miseries,  were  continually 
cutting  them  off  in  considerable  numbers.  The  King  submitted 
to  many  privations,  to  fulfil  the  obligations  he  had  contracted 
towards  France,  and  thereby  to  obtain  the  final  evacuation  of  the 
kingdom,  as  vv^ell  as  to  relieve  those  provinces  which  had  suf- 
fered more  severely  than  others  by  the  sojourn  of  the  French 
army.  He  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  revive  agriculture 
and  industry  among  his  subjects,  and  restore  the  resources  of 
the  army;  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  recovering  the  rank 
which  the  Prussian  monarchy  had  formerly  held. 

Independently  of  the  hardships  which  Bonaparte  inflicted  on 
Prussia,  by  protracting  the  stay  of  his  army,  and  by  the  contri- 
butions Avhich  he  imposed  on  her,  this  country  was  made  the  vic- 
tim of  a  rapacity  Avhich  is,  perhaps,  unprecedented  in  history. 
By  a  convention  which  the  King  of  Saxony,  as  Duke  of  War- 
saw, concluded  with  Bonaparte  (May  10,  1808,)  while  occupied 
at  Bayonne  in  overturning  the  Spanish  monarchy,  the  latter 
ceded  to  him,  for  a  sum  of  twenty  millions  of  francs,  not  only 
the  pecuniary  claims  of  the  King  of  Prussia  over  his  Polish 
subjects,  (for  these  he  had  abandoned  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit,) 
but  also  those  of  certain  public  establishments  in  Prussia,  such 
as  the  Bank,  the  Society  for  Maritime  Commerce,  the  Endow- 
ment for  Widows,  Hospitals,  Pious  Foundations,  Universities 
and  Schools ;  and  what  may  seem  incredible,  those  of  private 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802— ISIO.  247 

individuals  in  Prussia  over  Polish  subjects.  The  pecuniary 
claims  were  so  much  the  more  considerable,  as  the  capitalists  of 
the  ancient  provinces,  since  the  introduction  of  the  system  of 
mortgage  into  Prussia,  had  advanced  large  sums  to  Polish  pro- 
prietors for  the  improvement  of  their  patrimonies.  The  sums 
thus  taken  from  those  who  had  furnished  them,  and  transferred 
to  the  King  of  Saxony,  were  estimated  at  first  at  forty-three 
millions  and  a  half  of  francs,  and  four  millions  of  interest ;  but 
the  financial  authorities  of  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  discovered 
that  they  amounted  to  sixty-eight  millions.  In.  vain  did  Fre- 
deric William  offer  to  repurchase  this  pretended  right  of  the 
King  of  Saxony,  by  reimbursing  the  twenty  millions  of  francs 
which  the  latter  had  been  obliged,  it  was  said,  to  give  to  Bona- 
parte. The  Revolution  of  1S14  rectified  this  piece  of  injustice, 
as  it  did  many  others. 

During  this  period  the  north  of  Europe  was  agitated  by  three 
different  wars,  that  of  England  against  Denmark,  which  occa- 
sioned a  rupture  between  the  Cabinets  of  St.  Petersburg  and 
London ;  that  of  Russia  against  Sweden,  in  which  Denmark 
was  involved  ;  and  lastly,  the  w^ar  between  Russia  and  the 
Porte,  in  which  England  took  an  active  part. 

The  expedition  of  the  English  against  the  Isle  of  Zealand  in 
1S07,  was  an  event  which  Vv'as  censured  at  the  time  with  great 
severity ;  and  which  cannot  be  justified,  since  it  is  the  nature 
of  all  preventive  war  to  destroy  the  very  arguments  and  evi- 
dences of  its  necessity.  Nevertheless,  if  on  the  one  hand,  we 
consider  what  was  requisite  to  support  the  interests  of  Bona- 
parte after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  or  more  properly  speaking,  to 
2arry  into  execution  the  system  he  had  organized  ;  and  if  on 
the  other,  we  examine  into  his  conduct  a  short  time  after,  to- 
wards Spain  and  Portugal,  we  shall  find  England  not  wholly 
without  excuse.  The  peace  of  Tilsit  had  excluded  British  com- 
merce from  all  the  southern  ports  of  the  Baltic,  and  she  na- 
turally wished  that  Sweden,  and  especially  Denmark,  who  had 
a  communication  with  the  Continent  by  way  of  Jutland,  should 
open  their  ports  to  her.  Several  appearances  indicated  that  it 
was  the  intention  of  Bonaparte  to  seize  Denmark  also  after  the 
peace  of  Tilsit ;  and  the  British  minister  declared  that  he  was 
in  possession  of  proofs  of  a  plan  to  that  effect. 

The  British  Government  accordingly  fitted  out  an  expedition 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  his  designs,  with  an  activity  and 
a  celerity  such  as  the}^  had  never  displayed  in  sending  aid  to 
their  allies;  and  that  difference  in  their  conduct  tended  not  a 
little  to  create  an  unfavourable  opinion  as  to  the  enterprise 
I'hich  they  undertook  against  Denmark  in  1S07.     An  English 


248  CHAPTER  XI. 

fleet,  having  an  army  on  board,  to  which  a  Hanoverian  legion 
of  7000  men  then  in  the  Isle  of  Eugen,  was  afterwards  added, 
sailed  from  England  aboutthe  endof  July  or  beginningof  August. 
It  was  divided  into  two  squadrons,  one  of  which,  under  Commo- 
dore Keats,  took  up  their  station  in  the  Great  Belt,  which  till  then 
had  been  thought  inaccessible  to  ships  of  war,  and  thus  cut  o!f 
the  Isle  of  Zealand  from  the  main  land,  where  the  Prince  Royal 
with  the  Danish  army  then  was.  The  second  division,  under 
the  command  of  Admiral  Gambler,  with  troops  on  board  com- 
manded by  Lord  Cathcart,  arrived  off  Copenhagen.  Mr.  Jack- 
son Avas  sent  to  Kiel  to  demand  from  the  Prince  Royal  the 
surrender  of  the  Danish  fleet,  which  they  alleged  it  was  the  in- 
tention of  Bonaparte  to  seize. 

After  a  fruitless  negotiation,  Copenhagen,  after  being  invested 
by  the  army  of  Lord  Cathcart  on  the  land  side,  was  bombarded 
for  three  days  (Sept.  2,  3,  4,)  and  a  great  part  of  the  city  de- 
stroyed. At  length  General  Peymann,  the  Commander-in-chief 
of  the  Danish  forces,  demanded  an  armistice  to  treat  for  a  ca- 
pitulation. Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  the  same  officer  who  soon 
after  so  distinguished  himself  in  Portugal,  signed  that  capitula- 
tion on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  The  citadel  was  given  up 
to  the  English.  The  Danes  surrendered  their  fleet,  with  all 
the  naval  stores  in  their  arsenals  and  dock-yards.  The  Eng- 
lish stipulated  for  a  delay  of  six  weeks  to  prepare  for  departure, 
after  which  they  promised  to  surrender  the  citadel,  and  evacuate 
the  Isle  of  Zealand. 

In  this  manner  the  Danish  marine,  consisting  of  eighteen 
ships  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,  and  twenty-five  sloops 
of  war,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  During  the  six 
weeks  stipulated  for,  the  Court  of  London  offered  Denmark  the 
alternative  either  of  returning  lo  a  state  of  neutrality,  or  of  form- 
ing an  alliance  with  England.  The  Prince  Regent  having  re- 
fused both  of  these,  England  declared  war  against  him  (Nov. 
4 ;)  but  she  did  not  violate  the  capitulation  of  Copenhagen,  as 
the  evacuation  of  that  city  and  the  island  of  Zealand  took  place 
at  the  term  specified.  This  event  added  Denmark  to  the  French 
system.  Her  minister  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  at  Fon- 
tainbleau,  the  tenor  of  which  has  not  been  made  public  ;  but  if 
we  may  judge  by  the  events  which  followed,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  Danish  islands  should  be  occupied  by  French  troops  des- 
tined to  act  against  Sweden.  In  the  month  of  March  180S, 
32,000  French,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  troops  (the  last  brought 
from  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,)  under  the  command  of  Marshal 
Bernadotte,  arrived  in  Zealand,  Funen,  and  the  other  islands  of 
the  Baltic ;  but  the  defection  of  the  Spanish  troops,  and  the 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  249 

war  with  Austria,  prevented  the  projected  invasion  of  Sweden 
The  English  took  possession  of  the  colonies  of  Denmark,  and 
ruined  the  commerce  of  her  subjects.  Frederic  VI.,  who  had 
succeeded  his  father  Christian  VII.,  (March  13,  1808,)  after 
having  been  at  the  head  of  the  government  as  regent  since  1784, 
strictly  executed  the  Continental  system  ;  especially  after  the 
commencement  of  the  year  1810,  when  the  two  Counts  Bern- 
storff  had  retired  from  the  ministry.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to 
arrest  all  the  English  subjects   found  in  Denmark. 

The  expedition  of  the  English  against  Copenhagen,  induced 
the  Emperor  Alexander  to  declare  war  against  them  (Nov.  7.) 
That  monarch  entered  decidedly  into  the  Continental  system, 
and  demanded  of  the  King  of  S^veden,  that  agreeably  to  the 
conventions  as  to  the  armed  neutrality  of  the  North,  he  should 
enforce  the  principle  by  which  the  Baltic  was  declared  a  shut 
sea.  The  King  of  Sweden  replied,  that  the  principles  establish- 
ed by  the  conventions  of  1780  and  1800  had  been  abandoned  by 
that  of  June  17,  1801  ;  that  circumstances  were  entirely  changed 
since  Denmark,  on  whose  co-operations  he  had  formerly  reck- 
oned, had  lost  her  fleet ;  and  since,  independently  of  the  Sound, 
the  English  had  effected  another  entrance  into  the  Baltic,  through 
the  Great  Belt ;  these  objections,  however,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  incurring  a  ruinous  war. 

A  Russian  army  entered  Finland  (Feb.  21,  1808.)  Genera] 
Buxhowden,  who  had  the  command,  announced  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  that  province  that  the  Emperor  Alexander  had  thought 
it  necessary  to  occupy  that  country,  in  order  to  have  a  pledge 
that  the  King  of  Sweden  would  accept  the  proposals  of  peace 
which  France  had  made  to  him.  Although  the  Swedish  troops 
in  Finland  were  but  few  in  number,  and  defended  it  bravely, 
they  were  compelled  to  yield  to  the  superior  force  of  the  Rus- 
sians, and  to  retire  into  East  Bothnia.  Sueaborg,  the  bulwark 
of  Finland,  and  deemed  impregnable,  surrendered  (April  6,) 
after  a  siege  of  a  few  days  by  Vice-Admiral  Kronstadt.  A  mani- 
festo of  the  Emperor  Alexander  (March  28,)  had  already  decla- 
red the  grand  dutchy  of  Finland  to  be  incorporated  with  his  Em- 
pire. This  unexpected  attack  excited  the  most  lively  indignation 
in  Gustavus  IV.,  who  so  far  forgot  himself,  as  to  cause  M.  d'Alo- 
peus,  the  Russian  minister  at  his  court,  to  be  arrested.  Den- 
mark having  also  declared  war  against  him  (Feb.  29,)  a  Swedish 
army  of  20,000  men,  under  the  command  of  Gen.  Armfield,  un- 
dertook the  conquest  of  Norway.  But  this  expedition  was  repuls- 
ed with  loss  ;  and  the  Danes  even  made  incursions  into  Sweden. 

Field-Marshal  Count  Klinspor  being  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Swedish  army,  then  at  Uleaburg,  began  to  act  on  the  offensive 


250  CHAPTER  XI. 

in  the  north  of  Finland  ;  while  a  second  army,  under  the  com 
mand  of  General  Vegesack,  disembarked  at  Abo  (June  S.)  The 
war  was  carried  on  with  variable  success,  but  with  equal  bra- 
very on  both  sides.  At  the  end  of  the  campaign,  the  Russians 
were  again  masters  of  Finland.  A  body  of  10,000  English 
troops,  commanded  by  the  same  General  Moore  who,  a  few 
months  after,  fell  at  Corunna  in  Spain,  had  arrived  in  the  roads 
at  Gottenburg  (May  17  ;)  bat  as  the  Swedish  King  could  not 
come  to  an  agreement  as  to  the  employment  of  these  auxiliaries, 
nor  even  as  to  the  command,  he  refused  to  permit  the  troops  to 
disembark.  He  even  ordered  General  Moore,  w^ho  had  repaired 
to  Stockholm,  to  be  arrested.  But  having  soon  found  means  to 
escape,  Moore  returned  to  England  with  his  troops.  Mr.  Thorn- 
ton, the  British  envoy,  who  had  remonstrated  against  this  arbi- 
trary conduct  of  the  King,  was  recalled. 

Admiral  Chanikoff,  with,  a  Russian  fleet  of  twenty-four  ships 
of  war,  made  an  attempt  to  burn  the  Swedish  fleet,  commanded 
by  Admiral  Nauckhoff,  in  Virgin  Bay  (Aug.  18 ;)  but  the  ar- 
rival of  an  English  fleet  under  Sir  James  Saumarez  in  Baltic 
Port  where  Nauckhoff  was,  with  a  reinforcement  of  some  Eng- 
ish  ships  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Hood,  kept  them  in 
olockade  for  nearly  two  months.  In  Finland  an  armistice  had 
been  concluded,  (Sept.  ISOS,)  on  the  footing  of  the  Uti  Posside- 
tis; but  the  Emperor  Alexander  refused  to  ratify  it.  Another 
was  then  concluded  at  Olkioki  (Nov.  19,)  by  w^hich  the  Swedish 
army  engaged  to  evacuate  Uleaburg,  and  to  retire  behind  the 
Kemi.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year,  the  English  Cabinet  ad- 
vised the  King  of  Sweden  to  make  peace,  which  he  obstinately 
refused,  and  even  demanded  additional  supplies  to  continue  the 
war  with  vigoui  The  British  Cabinet  having  declined  to  grant 
them  unconditionally,  Gustavus  was  on  the  point  of  coming  to 
an  open  rupture  with  that  Court.  But  his  indignation  having 
abated,  he  agreed,  soon  after,  to  conclude  a  new  convention  at 
Stockholm  (March  1,  1S09,)  when  Great  Britain  engaged  to  pay 
in  advance  300,000Z.  sterling  by  quarterly  instalments. 

Meantime  a  revolution  was  fermenting  in  Sweden,  which  was 
to  change  the  aspect  of  affairs.  The  haughtiness  and  obstinacy 
of  the  King,  had  created  him  many  enemies.  The  people  were 
oppressed  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner  by  burdens  and  im- 
posts, which  Gustavus  increased  arbitrarily,  and  without  regard 
to  constitutional  forms.  The  severity  with  which  he  punished 
the  troops,  not  only  when  they  had  committed  faults,  but  even 
when  they  were  unsuccessful,  had  alienated  the  minds  of  the 
soldiers  from  him,  and  especially  the  guards.  A  conspiracy 
was  formed,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Lieutenant-Colonel  Adler- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  261 

sparre,  and  Colonel  Skioldebrand,  and  which  was  joined  by  the 
army  of  the  West,  or  of  Norway,  and  the  troops  that  were  sta- 
tioned in  the  Islands  of  Aland.  Adlersparre  and  the  army  of 
the  West  marched  on  Stockholm.  They  had  arrived  at  Orebro, 
when  Field-Marshal  Klinspor,  who  had  been  disgraced,  advised 
the  King  to  avert  the  storm  by  changing  his  conduct.  On  his 
refusal,  General  Adlercreutz  arrested  him  in  the  name  of  the 
people  (March  13.)  The  Duke  of  Sudermania,  the  King's  un- 
cle, was  proclaimed  Regent.  Gustavus  was  conveyed  to  Drott- 
ninghohn,  and  thence  to  Gripsholm,  where  he  signed  a  deed  of 
abdication,  which  he  afterwards  declared  on  various  occasions  to 
have  been  voluntary.  The  revolution  was  terminated  without 
commotion  and  without  bloodshed. 

The  Regent  immediately  assembled  the  Diet  at  Stockholm. 
Not  content  with  accepting  the  abdication  of  Gustavus,  such  as 
he  had  given  it,  they  excluded  all  his  descendants  from  the 
throne  of  Sweden.  They  offered  the  crown  to  the  Regent,  who 
declared  his  willingness  to  accept  it  when  they  had  revised  the 
constitution.  This  revision,  by  which  the  royal  authority  v/as 
limited  without  reducing  it  to  a  state  of  humiliation  and  depen- 
dence, having  been  adopted  by  the  Diet,  the  Duke  of  Suderma- 
nia was  proclaimed  King  (June  5,  1509,)  under  the  title  of 
Charles  XIII.  according  to  the  common  but  erroneous  method 
of  reckoning  the  Kings  of  Sweden.  As  the  new  monarch  had 
no  family,  they  elected  as  his  successor  to  the  throne.  Prince 
Christian  Augustus  of  Holstein-Augustenburg,  who  commanded 
the  Danish  army  in  Norway,  and  who  had  procured  the  esteem 
even  of  his  enemies.  Gustavus  and  his  family  were  permitted 
to  leave  the  kingdom  ;  and  towards  the  end  of  the  year  a  new 
fundamental  law  was  published,  regulating  the  order  of  succes- 
sion to  the  throne. 

At  Stockholm  the  people  flattered  themselves  that  the  de- 
thronement of  Gustavus  would  speedily  bring  peace  to  Sweden  ; 
bnt  it  was  not  so.  Alexander  I.  refused  to  treat  with  a  govern- 
ment so  insecure  as  a  regency,  and  hostilities  accordingly  con- 
tinued. General  Knorring  who  had  passed  the  Gulf  of  Bothijia 
on  the  ice  with  25,000  Russians,  took  possession  of  the  Islands 
of  Aland  (March  17,)  wdien  the  Swedish  troops  stationed  there 
retired  to  the  continent  of  Sweden.  Knorring  granted  the 
Swedes  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  to  allow  them  time  to  make 
overtures  of  peace.  Apprized  of  this  arrangement.  Count  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly,  who  had  crossed  the  Gulf  with  another  body  of 
Russians  on  the  side  of  Vasa,  and  taken  possession  of  Umea, 
evacuated  West  Bothnia,  and  returned  to  Finland.  A  third 
body  of  Russians,  under  the  command  of  SchouvalofT,  penetrated 


252  CHAPTER  x:. 

into  West  Bothnia  by  the  route  of  Tornea,  and  compelled  the 
Swedish  army  of  the  North,  which  was  commanded  by  Gripon- 
berg,  to  lay  down  their  arms  at  Seiwis  (March  25.)  This  san- 
guinary affair  occurred  entirely  through  ignorance ;  because  in 
that  country,  lying  under  the  6'6th  degree  of  north  latitude,  they 
were  not  aware  of  the  armistice  granted  by  Knorring.  On  the 
expiration  of  the  truce,  hostilities  recommenced  in  the  month  of 
May,  and  the  Russians  took  possession  of  the  part  of  West 
Bothnia  lying  to  the  north  of  Umea. 

The  peace  between  Russia  and  Sweden  was  signed  at  Fre- 
dericsham  (Sept.  17.)  The  latter  power  adhered  to  the  Con- 
tinental system,  reserving  to  herself  the  importation  of  salt  and 
such  colonial  produce  as  she  could  not  do  without.  She  sur- 
rendered Finland  with  the  whole  of  East  Bothnia,  and  a  part  of 
West  Bothnia  lying  to  the  eastward  of  the  river  Tornea.  The 
cession  of  these  provinces  which  formed  the  granary  of  Sweden, 
and  contained  a  population  of  900,000  souls,  was  an  irreparable 
loss  to  that  kingdom,  which  had  only  2,344,000  inhabitants  left. 
The  peace  of  Fredericsham  was  speedily  followed  by  that  of 
Jonkoping  with  Denmark  (Dec.  10,)  and  that  at  Paris  with  France 
(Jan..  6,  1810.)  By  the  first,  every  thing  was  re-established  on 
lis  ancient  footing  between  these  two  States.  But  by  the  peace 
of  Paris,  Svv^eden  renounced  the  importation  of  colonial  produce, 
and  onl}'  reserved  the  privilege  of  importing  salt  as  an  article 
of  absolute  necessity.  It  was  on  this  condition  alone  that  she 
could  obtain  repossession  of  Pomerania. 

The  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  having  died  suddenly,  a  Diet 
assembled  at  Orebro,  and  elected  John  Baptiste  Julius  Berna- 
dotte,  Prince  of  Ponte  Corvo,  his  successor  to  the  throne  (May 
28.)  The  election  was  unanimous  ;  but  out  of  more  than  one 
thousand  of  the  nobility  who  had  a  right  to  appear  at  the  Diet, 
only  one  hundred  and  forty  were  present.  Bernadotte  accepted 
an  offer  so  honourable.  On  his  arrival  at  Elsinore,  he  professed, 
as  his  ancestors  had  done  before  him  in  France,  his  adherence 
to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which  was  then  the  established 
religion  in  Sweden.  King  Charles  XIII.  having  adopted  him 
as  his  son,  he  was  proclaimed  at  Stockholm  (Nov.  5,)  eventual 
successor  to  the  throne,  under  the  name  of  Charles  John. 
Twelve  days  afterwards,  Sweden  declared  war  against  Great 
Britain. 

In  Russia,  the  Emperor  Alexander,  since  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  had  occupied  himself  incessantly  in  improving  every 
oranch  of  the  administration.  The  restrictive  regulations  which 
had  been  published  under  the  last  reign  were  abrogated;  by 
gradual  concessions,  the  peasantry  were  prepared  for  a  liberty 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  253 

which  they  had  not  yet  enjoyed.  The  number  of  universities, 
and  what  is  still  more  essential  to  civilization,  the  number  of 
schools  was  augmented.  The  senate,  the  ministry,  and  the 
civil  authorities  were  reorganized,  and  new  improvements 
adopted,  tending  to  abolish  arbitrary  power,  to  accelerate  the 
despatch  of  business,  and  to  promote  the  distribution  of  fair 
and  impartial  justice  to  all  classes  of  society.  Canals  were 
dug,  new  avenues  were  opened  for  industry,  and  commerce 
flourished,  especially  the  trade  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  only 
point  in  which  the  Government  failed,  was  in  its  attempts  to  re- 
store the  finances  ;  but  the  four  wars  of  the  preceding  seven 
years  in  which  Russia  had  been  engaged,  rendered  these  at- 
tempts unavailing. 

We  have  already  related  the  origin,  events,  and  termination 
of  two  of  these  wars,  viz.  that  of  1806,  which  ended  with  the 
peace  of  Tilsit,  and  procured  Russia  the  province  of  Bialystock  ; 
and  that  of  Sweden,  which  annexed  the  province  of  Finland  to 
that  Empire.  The  war  against  England  continued  after  the 
peace  of  Fredericsham,  but  without  furnishing  any  events  of 
great  importance.  The  two  other  wars  were  those  against  Per- 
sia and  the  Porte.  At  the  begii.ning  of  his  reign,  Alexander 
had  annexed  Georgia  to  his  Empire,  which  had  till  then  been 
the  prey  of  continual  disturbances.  This  accession  drew  him 
into  a  war  with  Persia,  which  did  not  terminate  till  1813.  The 
principal  events  of  that  war  were  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  at 
Etschmiazin,  by  Prince  Zizian off  (.Tune  20,  1804;)  the  conquest 
of  the  province  of  Shirvan  by  the  same  Prince  (Jan.  1806  ;) 
the  taking  of  Derbent  by  the  Russians  (July  3  ;)  and  the  defeat 
of  the  Persians  by  Paulucci,  at  Alkolwalaki,  (Sept.  1,  1810.) 

Before  speaking  of  the  war  between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  take  a  brief  retrospect  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire. The  condition  of  that  Empire,  badly  organized  and  worse 
governed,  was  such,  that  every  thing  then  presaged  its  ap- 
proaching dissolution  ;  or  in  other  words,  the  expulsion  of  the 
Turks  from  Europe.  Every  where  the  authority  of  the  Grand 
Seignor  was  disregarded.  Paswan  Oglou,  the  Pacha  of  Wid- 
din,  was  in  open  revolt.  Ali  Pacha  of  Janina  was  obedient 
only  when  it  suited  his  convenience.  The  Servians  had  taken 
up  arms  under  their  leader  Czerni  George,  and  threatened  to 
possess  themselves  of  Sabacz  and  Belgrade.  Djezzar,  the 
Pacha  of  Syria,  without  declaring  himself  an  enemy  to  the 
Porte,  enjoyed  an  absolute  independence.  The  sect  of  the  Wa- 
habites  was  in  possession  of  Arabia.  Egypt  was  distracted  by 
civil  wars.  Selim  III.,  who  had  reigned  there  since  1789,  con- 
vinced that  the  Porte  could  never  re-establish  its  authority  ex- 

voL.  II.  22 


254  CHAPTER  XI. 

cept  by  better  organizing  the  army,  had  endeavoured  to  model 
it  on  the  European  system.  This  attempt  afterwards  cost  him 
his  throne. 

Such  was  the  situation  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  when  Bona- 
parte, in  order  to  prevent  Alexander  from  sending  supplies  to 
Prussia,  resolved  to  embroil  him  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Porte. 
General  Sebastiani,  the  French  Envoy  at  Constantinople,  con- 
trived to  obtain  so  great  an  influence  over  the  minds  of  the 
Divan,  that  for  some  time  it  was  entirely  under  his  direction. 
Subjects  of  dissension  were  not  wanting  between  Russia  and 
the  Porte  ;  and  these  were  of  such  a  nature,  as  to  furnish  each 
party  with  plausible  reasons  for  complaining  of  the  infraction  oi 
treaties.  The  French  minister  was  not  slow  to  fan  the  spark  of 
discord.  He  even  induced  the  Divan  to  refuse  to  renew  their 
treaty  of  alliance  with  England,  which  was  then  on  the  point  of 
.expiring.  The  Emperor  Alexander,  foreseeing  that  there  would 
be  no  redress  to  his  complaints,  gave  orders  to  General  Michel- 
son  to  enter  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  The  Porte  then  declared 
war  against  Russia  (Dec.  30 ;)  but  deviating  for  the  first  time 
from  a  barbarous  custom,  he  allowed  M.  d'ltalinski,  the  Russian 
minister,  to  depart  unmolested. 

A  few  days  after,  Mr.  Arbuthnot,  the  English  minister,  quit- 
ted Constantinople,  after  having  repeatedly  demanded  the  re- 
newal of  the  alliance,  and  the  expulsion  of  M.  Sebastiani. 
Within  a  few  weeks  an  English  fleet  of  nine  ships  of  the  line, 
three  frigates,  and  several  fire-ships,  commanded  by  Vice-Admi- 
ral  Duckworth,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles,  and  ap- 
peared before  Constantinople.  Duckworth  demanded  of  the 
Divan,  that  the  forts  of  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Turkish  fleet 
should  be  surrendered  to  him  ;  that  the  Porte  should  cede  Mol- 
davia and  Wallachia  to  Russia,  and  break  off  alliance  with  Bo- 
naparte. But  instead  of  profiting  by  the  sudden  panic  which 
his  appearance  had  created,  he  allowed  the  Turks  time  to  put 
themselves  in  a  posture  of  defence.  Encouraged  and  instructed 
by  Sebastiani,  they  made  their  preparations  with  such  energy 
and  success,  that  in  the  course  of  eight  days  the  English  Vice- 
admiral  found  that  he  could  do  nothing  better  than  weigh  an- 
chor and  repass  the  Dardanelles.  On  his  arrival  at  Malta,  he 
took  on  board  5000  troops,  under  the  command  of  General  Era- 
ser, and  conve^^ed  them  to  Egypt.  The  English  took  posses- 
sion of  Alexandria  (Mar.  20;)  but  in  the  course  of  six  months, 
they  found  themselves  obliged  to  surrender  that  city  by  capitu- 
lation to  the  Governor  of  Egypt. 

The  campaign  of  1807  was  not  productive  of  any  very  deci- 
sive result,  as  General  Michelson  had  received  orders  to  detach 


TERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802—1810.  255 

80,000  men  to  oppose  the  French  in  Poland.  Czerni  George, 
the  leader  of  the  revolted  Servians,  took  Belgrade,  Sabacz,  and 
Nissa,  penetrated  into  Bulgaria,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  some 
Russian  troops,  and  gained  divers  signal  advantages.  General 
Michelson  himself  v/as  victorious  near  Guirdesov  (March  17,) 
without,  however,  being  able  to  get  possession  of  that  place.  The 
war  was  conducted  with  more  success  on  the  frontiers  of  the  two 
Empires  in  Asia.  The  Seraskier  of  Erzerum  was  entirely  de- 
feated by  General  Gudovitch  (June  18;)  and  that  victory  was 
an  event  so  much  the  more  fortunate,  as  it  prevented  the  Persians 
from  making  a  bold  diversion  in  favour  of  the  Turks.  The  most 
important  event  in  the  campaign  was  the  naval  battle  of  Lemnos, 
where  the  Russian  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Vice-admiral 
Siniawin,  defeated  the  Capitan  Pacha,  who  had  sailed  from  the 
Dardanelles  after  the  retreat  of  Duckworth. 

When  the  Ottoman  navy  sustained  this  defeat,  Selim  III.  had 
ceased  to  reign.  That  prince  had  rendered  hhnself  odious  to 
the  troops,  by  the  introduction  of  the  European  discipline  and 
dress,  known  by  the  name  of  Nizami  gedid,  and  by  his  connexion 
with  the  French  Emperor.  One  circumstance,  regarded  as  a  fun- 
damental law,  and  according  to  which  a  Sultan  who  had  reigned 
seven  years  without  having  any  children  was  regarded  as  un- 
worthy of  the  thron-e,  served  as  a  pretext  for  the  military  to  have 
him  deposed.  Selim,  finding  it  impossible  to  quell  or  allay  the 
revolt,  abdicated  voluntarily  (May  29,)  and  placed  his  cousin, 
Mustapha  IV.,  on  the  throne.  In  the  amnesty  which  that  prince 
published,  he  recognised  the  right  of  the  Janissaries  to  withdraw 
their  allegiance  from  the  Grand  Seignor  who  should  depart  from 
the  established  customs,  and  that  of  appointing  his  successor. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  had  promised,  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
to  evacuate  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  on  condition,  however,  that 
the  Turks  should  not  occupy  these  two  provinces  till  after  the 
conclusion  of  a  definitive  peace.  The  French  General  Guille- 
minot  was  sent  to  the  Turkish  camp  to  negotiate  an  armistice 
on  these  terms,  which  in  effect  was  signed  at  Slobozia  (Aug.  24.) 
The  evacuation  of  the  two  provinces  stipulated  by  that  arrange- 
ment never  took  place,  as  the  Emperor  of  Russia  refused  to  ratify 
the  treaty,  as  it  contained  certain  articles  which  he  judged  in- 
compatible with  his  dignity;  so  that  matters  remained  on  their 
former  footing.  That  circumstance  was  one  of  the  pretexts 
which  Bonaparte  alleged  for  continuing  to  occupy  Prussia. 

In  the  midst  of  these  political  quibblings,  the  time  arrived 
when  a  new  system  of  things  took  place.  The  Cabinets  of  St. 
Petersburg  and  Paris  were  making  mutual  advances  ;  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  fate  of  the  Porte,  and  especially  of  the  pro- 


256  CHAPTER   XI. 

vinces  beyond  the  Danube,  was  one  of  \he  subjects  which  were 
discussed  during  the  interview  at  Erfurt.  France  lost  her  influ- 
ence at  Constantinople,  when  they  saw  her  enter  into  an  alliance 
with  Russia ;  and  from  that  time  England  directed  the  politics 
of  the  Divan. 

Mustapha  IV.  had  in  the  mean  time  been  hurled  from  the 
throne.  Mustapha,  styled  Bairactar  or  the  Standardbearer, 
the  Pacha  of  Rudschuk,  a  man  of  extraordinary  courage,  and 
one  of  the  most  zealous  abettors  of  the  changes  introduced  by 
Selim,  which  he  regarded  as  the  sole  means  of  preserving  the 
State,  had  marched  with  35,000  men  to  Constantinople,  with 
the  view  of  reforming  or  seizing  the  government,  and  announced 
to  Mustapha  IV.  (July  28, 1808,)  that  he  must  resign,  and  make 
way  for  the  ancient  and  legitimate  Sultan.  Mustapha  thought 
to  save  his  crown  by  putting  Selim  to  death  ;  but  Bairactar 
proclaimed  Mahmoud,  the  younger  brother  of  Mustapha,  Avho 
was  then  shut  up  in  the  Seraglio.  Bairactar,  invested  with  abso- 
lute power,  re-established  the  corps  of  the  Seimens,  or  disciplined 
troops  on  the  footing  of  the  Europeans,  and  took  vigorous  mea- 
sures for  putting  the  Empire  in  a  condition  to  resist  the  Russians. 
These  patriotic  efforts  cost  him  his  life.  After  the  departure  of 
a  part  of  the  Seimens  for  the  army,  the  Janissaries  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Constantinople  revolted.  At  the  head  of  a  body  of 
newly  organized  troops,  Mustapha  defended  himself  with  cou- 
rage ;  but  seeing  the  moment  approach  when  he  must  yield  to 
the  superior  number  of  his  assailants,  he  put  to  death  the  old 
Sultan  and  his  mother,  whose  intrigues  had  instigated  the  insur- 
rection. He  retired  to  a  fortress  or  strong  place,  where  he  had 
deposited  a  quantity  of  gunpowder.  The  Janissaries  having 
pursued  him  thither,  he  set  fire  to  the  magazine,  and  blew  him- 
self and  his  persecutors  into  the  air.  The  young  Sultan  Mahmoud 
had  the  courage  to  declare  that  he  would  retain  the  European 
discipline  and  dress  ;  but  after  being  attacked  in  his  place,  and 
learning  that  the  city  was  filled  with  carnage  and  conflagration, 
he  yielded  to  necessity,  and  restored  the  privileges  of  the  Janis- 
saries. It  is  probable  they  would  not  have  spared  his  life,  but  for 
the  circumstance  that  he  was  the  last  scion  of  the  race  of  Osman. 

The  ministers  of  the  Divan,  whom  General  Sebastiani  had 
gained  over  to  the  interests  of  France,  finding  themselves  entirely 
discarded  by  the  last  revolution,  Mr.  Adair,  the  new  English 
minister  at  Constantinople,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  (Jan.  5, 
1809,)  by  which  the  Porte  confirmed  to  England  the  commercial 
advantages  which  the  treaty  of  1675  had  granted  them,  ns  well 
as  the  navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  Mr.  Spencer  Smith 
had  obtained  (August  3,  1799.) 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1802— 1810.  257 

Immediately  after  the  return  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  from 
£rfurt,  an  order  was  given  to  open  negotiations  with  the  Turks. 
The  conference  took  place  at  Jassy  ;  but  it  was  immediately 
broken  off,  after  the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  had  demanded,  as 
preliminary  conditions,  the  cession  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  British  minister  from  Constantinople. 
Hostilities  then  recommenced.  The  Russians  were  commanded 
by  Prince  Prosoroffski,  and  after  his  death,  by  Prince  Bagration. 
Having  passed  the  Danube,  they  took  possession  of  Ismael,  and 
fought  abloody battle  at  Tartaritza,near  Silistria  (Sept.  26,)  which 
compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege  of  that  place.  The  Grand 
Vizier,  without  taking  advantage  of  his  good  fortune,  retired  to 
winter-quarters. 

The  campaign  of  1810  was  more  decisive.  General  Kamen- 
skoi,  the  second  of  that  name,  had  taken  the  chief  command  of 
the  Russian  army ;  his  brother  of  the  same  name,  and  General 
Markoff,  opened  it  by  the  taking  of  Bazardjik  (June  4;)  the  cap- 
ture of  Silistria  (June  11,)  by  the  Commander-in-chief  and  Coimt 
Langeron,  opened  the  way  to  Shumla,  where  the  Grand  Vizier, 
Yussuff  Pacha,  occupied  a  strong  position  ;  while  General  Sa- 
banieff  defeated  a  body  of  Turkish  troops  near  Rasgard  (June 
14,)  the  remains  of  which  were  obliged  to  surrender.  The  Grand 
Vizier  then  demanded  an  armistice  for  negotiating  a  peace.  The 
reply  was,  that  it  would  be  concluded  immediately  on  his  recog- 
nising the  Danube  as  the  limit  of  the  two  Empires,  and  promising 
to  pay  a  sum  of  twenty  millions  of  piastres  ;  the  Russians  re- 
maining in  possession  of  Bessarabia  until  it  was  paid.  The 
Grand  Vizier,  at  the  instigation  of  the  British  minister,  rejected 
these  conditions.  Yussuff  Pacha  still  occupied  his  camp  near 
Shumla,  the  rear  of  which  was  protected  by  the  Hemus.  Ka- 
menskoi  the  elder,  attacked  him  in  his  entrenchments,  but  was 
repulsed  with  loss  (June  23  ;)  he  left  his  brother  at  Kargali  Dere 
(about  five  leagues  from  Shumla)  at  the  head  of  a  corps  of  ob- 
servation, while  he  attempted  himself  to  take  Rudschuk  by  main 
force,  but  was  again  repulsed.  The  younger  brother  then  found 
himself  obliged,  by  the  approach  of  a  superior  force,  to  abandon 
his  position  at  Kargali  Dere  (Aug.  15.)  Yussuff  being  deter- 
mined to  save  Rudschuk,  detached  Mouhtar  Pacha  with  a  body 
of  40,000  troops,  who  took  up  a  formidable  position  at  the  place 
where  the  Jantra  runs  into  the  Danube.  Kamenskoi  leaving  to 
Count  Langeron  the  care  of  the  siege  of  Rudschuk,  and  ordering 
Sass  to  invest  Guirdesov,  which  is  situated  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Danube  opposite  Rudschuk,  immediately  directed  his  march 
against  Mouhtar,  and  attacked  him  in  his  entrenchments  at 
Batine.     After  a  terrible  carnage,  the  Russians  took  possession 

VOL.  II.  22=^ 


258  CHAPTER  xn. 

Df  the  Turkish  camp  by  main  force  (Sept.  7,)  ivhen  ]\.ouh(ar 
escaped  with  a  small  detachment.  Within  a  few  days  after, 
Count  St.  Priest  took  Sczistov,  with  the  whole  Turkish  fleet. 
Rudschuk  and  Guirdesov  surrendered  on  the  same  day  (Sept. 
27,)  and  Nicopoli  and  Widdin  in  a  short  time  after ;  so  that  by 
the  end  of  the  campaign  the  Russians  were  masters  of  the  whole 
ri'ght  bank  of  the  Danube.  The  Grand  Vizier  had  contmued 
all  this  time  in  his  strong  camp  at  Shumla.  The  Servians,  as- 
sisted by  a  body  of  Russians,  had  taken  possession  of  the  last 
fortresses  in  their  country  which  the  Turks  had  still  maintained, 
such  as  Cladova,  Oreava,  and  Praova. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PERIOD  IX. 


The  decline  and  doivnfall  of  the  Empire  of  Bonaparte.— a.  c 
1810—1815. 

The  power  of  Napoleon  had  now  attained  its  greatest  height. 
The  birth  of  a  son,  an  event,  which  happened  March  20,  1811, 
might  have  given  stability  to  this  power,  had  he  known  how  to 
set  bounds  to  his  am.bition.  The  heir  to  the  Imperial  throne 
received  the  title  of  King  of  Rome,  a  dignity  which  had  been 
decreed  in  anticipation. 

The  differences  that  had  arisen  between  Bonaparte  and  the 
Head  of  the  Church,  became  this  year  a  subject  of  public  dis- 
cussion. The  will  of  a  despot  whom  no  power  could  resist,  was 
made  to  recoil  more  than  once  before  the  inflexible  firmness  of 
an  old  man,  disarmed  and  in  captivity.  Ever  since  Bonaparte 
had  deprived  the  Church  of  her  patrimony,  and  had  been  laid 
under  the  ban  of  excommunication,  Pius  VII.,  faithful  to  his 
principles,  had  refused  confirmation  to  every  bishop  nominated 
by  a  man  who  was  excluded  from  the  Catholic  communion. 
Bonaparte  thought  it  might  be  possible  to  dispense  with  the 
confirmation  of  the  Pope.  With  this  view,  he  assembled  a  na- 
tional council  at  Paris  (June  17,  1811,)  composed  of  French  and 
Italian  bishops,  and  in  which  Cardinal  Fesch,  the  Archbishop 
of  Lyons,  presided.  He  soon  found,  however,  that  despotic  au- 
thority was  of  little  avail  against  religious  opinions.  The  pre- 
lates, on  whose  compliance  he  had  calculated  with  too  much 
confidence,  declared  that  the  Council  had  no  power  to  grant  that 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810^1815.  259 

confirmation  which  was  refused  by  the  Pope ;  but  the  arrest  of 
three  of  the  most  refractory  prelates,  who  were  imprisoned  at 
Vincennes  (July  12,)  having  given  rise  to  a  negotiation,  the  rest 
adopted  a  modified  scheme  which  the  government  had  commu- 
nicated to  them  ;  on  condition,  however,  that  it  should  be  sub- 
mitted for  the  approbation  of  the  Pope.  But  his  Holiness,  who 
had  still  remained  at  Savona,  refused  to  treat  with  the  Council, 
which  he  declared  null  and  void,  as  having  been  convened  with- 
out his  authority.  The  project  of  Bonaparte  thus  completely 
failed ;  the  Council  was  dismissed  ;  and  twenty  of  the  Sees  of 
France  and  Ital}^  were  left  Avithout  bishops. 

Before  proceeding  to  detail  the  grand  events  which  overturned 
the  dominion  of  Bonaparte,  it  will  be  necessary  to  advert  to  what 
took  place  in  Spain  and  Portugal  in  1811  and  1812.  Sickness, 
and  the  want  of  provisions,  had  at  length  compelled  Massena  to 
effect  his  retreat  (March  1,)  during  which  he  sustained  con- 
siderable loss  by  the  pursuit  of  Lord  Wellington.  Thus,  for 
the  third  time,  was  Portugal  released  from  the  invasion  of  the 
French  army.  It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  narrow  limits 
to  which  we  are  here  confined,  to  detail  the  various  marches  and 
counter-marches  of  the  Generals,  or  the  operations  in  which  they 
were  engaged.  We  can  only  point  out  the  principal  actions  in 
a  detached  and  cursory  manner. 

Marshal  Soult  retook  Badajos  (March  10,)  while  Lord  Wel- 
lington still  retained  his  position  at  Torres  Vedras,  which  he  had 
quitted  with  reluctance  to  go  in  pursuit  of  Massena.  As  the 
possession  of  that  place  was  of  importance  for  the  English,  Lord 
Wellington  determined  to  besiege  it ;  but  Marshal  Marmont 
who  had  replaced  Massena  in  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
North,  and  Marshal  Soult  who  had  formed  a  junction  with  him, 
obliged  him  to  discontinue  the  siege.  He  retired  to  Portugal, 
where  he  remained  on  the  defensive  during  the  rest  of  the  cam- 
paign. The  advantages  of  the  campaign  of  1811  belonged  to 
General  Suchet.  After  a  destructive  siege,  he  took  Tortosa  by 
capitulation  (Jan.  1,)  and  Tarragona  by  main  force  (June  28.) 
He  made  him.self  master  of  Monteserrat  in  the  same  manner. 
(Aug.  19.)  By  a  signal  victory  which  he  gained  over  General 
Blake  (Oct.  25,)  at  Murviedro,  the  ancient  Saguntum,  he  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  conquest  of  Valencia,  which  surrendered 
by  capitulation  (Jan.  9,  1812.) 

At  the  commencement  of  1812,  the  French  forces  in  Spain 
amounted  to  150,000  men.  The  allies  consisted  of  52,000  Eng- 
lish troops,  24,000  Portug-uese,  and  100,000  Spaniards,  mcluding 
20,000  guerillas.  Lord  Wellington  reduced  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
(Jan.  19,)  and  then  retired  once  more  mto  Portugal,  where  ha 


260  CHAPTER  XII. 

kept  on  the  defensive  for  nearly  five  months.  He  then  attacked 
Salamanca,  took  that  city  (June  28,)  and  defeated  Marmont  in 
the  famous  battle  of  Areopiles,  near  Salamanca  (July  21,)  where 
Clausel  saved  the  French  army  from  a  complete  rout.  Joseph 
Bonaparte  quitted  Madrid.  Soult  gave  orders  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Cadiz,  which  had  continued  for  two  years.  He  evacuated 
Andalusia,  and  joined  King  Joseph  in  Murcia.  Wellington, 
now  master  of  Burgos,  was  desirous  to  get  possession  also  of 
the  citadel  of  that  place,  the  acquisition  of  which  was  necessary 
for  his  safety.  But  Souham,  who  had  succeeded  Marmont,  and 
Soult  having  approached  on  both  sides  to  save  the  town,  the 
British  General  retired  again  into  Portugal,  and  Joseph  Bona- 
parte returned  to  Madrid  (Nov.  1.) 

At  this  time  the  North  of  Europe  had  been  the  theatre  ot 
great  events.  For  some  time,  the  friendship  between  the  Courts 
of  St.  Petersburg  and  St.  Cloud  had  been  growing  cool.  The 
last  usurpations  of  Bonaparte,  during  the  course  of  1810,  brought 
about  a  complete  rupture.  The  extension  of  the  French  Empire 
towards  the  Baltic,  was  becoming  a  subject  of  suspicion  and 
anxiety  to  Alexander.  The  manner  in  which  Bonaparte  had 
taken  possession  of  the  dutchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  patrimony  of 
his  family,  was  an  outrage  against  his  person.  The  first  symp- 
tom of  discontent  which  he  exhibited,  was  by  abandoning  the 
Continental  system,  although  indirectly,  by  an  Ukase  (Dec.  13, 
1810,)  which  permitted  the  importation  of  colonial  produce, 
while  it  interdicted  that  of  France,  w^ine  only  excepted.  Under 
pretext  of  organizing  a  force  for  the  maintenance  of  these  regu- 
lations, he  raised  an  army  of  90,000  men.  A  rupture  with  Bo- 
naparte appeared  then  unavoidable. 

In  Sweden  also  there  arose  new  subjects  of  quarrel.  Bona- 
parte complained,  that  in  that  country  the  Continental  system  had 
not  been  put  in  execution  with  sufficient  rigour.  He  demanded, 
that  Charles  XIII.  should  put  two  thousand  sailors  into  his  pay ; 
that  he  should  introduce  the  Tariff  of  Trianon,  and  admit  French 
revenue-officers  at  Gottenburg.  In  short,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  were  to  form  a  confederation,  under 
the  protection  of  France.  During  these  discussions.  Marshal 
Davoust,  who  commanded  in  the  north  of  Germany,  took  pos- 
session of  Swedish  Pomerania  and  the  Isle  of  Rugen  (Jan.  27, 
1812.)  Bonaparte  offered,  however,  to  surrender  that  province 
to  Sweden,  and  to  compel  Alexander  to  restore  Finland  to  her, 
if  Charles  XIII.  would  agree  to  furnish  30,000  troops  against 
Russia. 

Sweden,  on  the  contrary,  w^as  on  terms  of  conciliation  with 
that  power.  By  an  alliance,  which  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  ISIO— 1815.  261 

(April  5,)  Alexander  promised  to  procure  her  Norway.  A  body 
of  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  thousand  Swedes,  and  be- 
tween fifteen  and  twenty  thousand  Russians,  were  then  to  make  a 
diversion  against  France  on  the  coasts  of  Germany.  This 
arrangement  was  afterwards  changed;  in  a  conference  which 
the  Emperor  had  at  Abo  (Aug.  30,)  the  latter  consented  that  the 
Russian  troops,  destined  to  act  in  Norway,  should  be  transported 
to  Riga  for  the  defence  of  Russia ;  and  that  they  should  not,  till 
a  later  period,  undertake  the  conquest  of  Norway.  Charles  XIII. 
was  also  reconciled  to  England,  while  he  had  always  pretended 
to  be  ignorant  of  the  declaration  of  war  of  November  17,  1810. 
A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Orebro  (July  12.)  where  they 
agreed,  though  in  general  terms,  on  a  defensive  alliance. 

Bonaparte,  seeing  the  moment  approach  when  a  rupture  with 
Russia  w^ould  take  place,  hesitated  for  some  time  as  to  the  part 
he  should  take  with  regard  to  Prussia,  in  the  very  centre  of 
w^hich  he  still  possessed  three  fortresses.  He  determined  at  last 
to  preserve  that  State,  and  to  make  an  ally  of  it,  on  which  the 
principal  burden  of  the  war  should  fall.  Four  conventions  w^ere 
concluded  at  Paris,  on  the  same  day  (Feb.  24,)  between  these 
two  powers.  By  the  principal  treaty,  an  alliance  purely  defen- 
sive was  established ;  but  according  to  certain  secret  articles, 
that  alliance  was  declared  offensive ;  on  such  terms,  however, 
that  Prussia  was  not  to  furnish  any  contingent  beyond  the  Py- 
renees in  Ital)^  or  against  the  Turks.  By  the  first  convention, 
which  was  likewise  to  be  kept  secret,  the  alliance  was  expressly 
directed  against  Russia  ;  and  the  King  of  Prussia  promised  to 
furnish  a  body  of  20,000  auxiliary  troops.  Glogau,  Stettin,  and 
Custrin,  were  to  be  ^till  occupied  by  the  French.  The  two  other 
conventions  related  to  the  sums  still  due  by  Prussia,  and  the  sup- 
plies which  she  had  to  furnish. 

A  few  days  after,  there  was  also  signed  at  Paris  a  defensive 
alliance  against  Russia,  between  Austria  and  France.  The  recip- 
rocal supplies  to  be  furnished  by  each,  was  30,000  men;  and  the 
Court  of  Vienna  was  given  to  hope,  that  she  might  again  be  re- 
stored to  the  possession  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces.  From  that  mo- 
ment, Bonaparte  began  to  make  the  most  active  preparations.  By 
a  decree  of  the  Senate,  the  whole  male  population  of  France,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  twenty  and  sixty  years,  was  divided  into  three 
Bans,  or  bodies  summoned  by  proclamation  ;  the  first  of  these 
contained  100,000  men,  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  princes  of  the  confederation  were  to  furnish  their  con- 
tingent as  follows  : — Bavaria  30,000  troops,  Westphalia  and 
Saxony  each  20,000,  Wurtemberg  14,000,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  40,000.  Negotiations  were  at  that  time  in  progress  between 


262  CHAPTER  XII. 

Bonaparte  and  Alexander,  apparently  with  a  view  of  adjusting 
their  mutual  complaints.  I3ut  matters  had  recently  taken  a 
turn,  which  left  little  reason  to  hope  that  they  would  come  to 
any  satisfactory  result.  These  conferences  were  continued  at 
Dresden  where  Bonaparte  had  gone,  and  where  he  met  the  Em- 
peror and  Empress  of  Austria,  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  a  great 
number  of  the  princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation.  This 
was  the  last  moment  of  Bonaparte's  greatness.  He  waited  the 
return  of  Count  Narbonne,  whom  he  had  sent  to  Wilna  with 
his  last  proposals  to  the  Emperor  Alexander.  Immediately  af- 
ter the  arrival  of  the  Count,  war  was  declared  (June  12,  1812.) 

The  army  of  Bonaparte  amounted  to  587,000  men,  of  which 
73,000  were  cavalry.  It  was  separated  into  three  grand  divi- 
sions ;  the  main  army  was  composed  of  the  divisions  of  Da- 
voust,  Oudinot,  and  Ney.  It  contained  also  the  troops  of  Wur- 
temberg,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  the  Prince  Royal.  The 
second  army,  commanded  by  Eugene  Beauharnais,  consisted  of 
the  divisions  of  Junot  and  St.  Cyr  ;  the  Bavarians,  under  the 
command  of  Deroy  and  Wrede,  made  a  part  of  it.  The  third 
army,  commanded  by  Jerome  Bonaparte,  consisted  of  the  Poles, 
under  Prince  Poniatowski,  the  Saxons,  under  Regnier,  and  the 
Westphalians  under  Vandamme.  The  Austrian  auxiliaries,  at 
the  head  of  whom  was  Prince  Schwartzenberg,  formed  the  ex- 
treme right  wing.  The  corps  of  Marshal  Macdonald  and  the 
Prussians,  were  placed  on  the  extreme  left.  To  oppose  this 
immense  mass,  Alexander  had  only  260,000  men,  divided  into 
two  armies,  which  were  called  the  first  and  second  armies  of 
the  West.  The  former,  under  the  command  of  Count  Barclay 
de  Tolly,  extended  as  far  as  Grodno,  and  communicated  on  the 
north  side  with  Count  d'Essen,  Governor  of  Riga ;  and  on  the 
south,  with  the  second  army  of  the  West,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  Prince  Bagratioh.  But  independently  of  these  forces, 
there  were  bodies  of  reserve,  and  armies  of  observation,  formed 
with  all  expedition,  and  ultimately  joined  with  the  main  armies. 

Of.  the  great  number  of  battles  fought  during  this  memorable 
campaign,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  selecting  the  more 
important ;  without  entering  into  a  detail  of  the  various  move- 
ments of  either  party.  The  inferiority  of  numbers  which  Alex- 
ander had  to  oppose  to  Bonaparte,  seemed  to  render  a  defensive 
plan  advisable,  according  to  which,  by  destro3dng  all  the  means 
of  subsistence  in  the  districts  which  they  abandoned,  they  might 
allure  the  enemy  into  countries  desolated  and  destitute  of  every 
resource.  Bonaparte  allowed  himself  to  be  duped  by  feint  re- 
treats ;  his  scheme  was  to  place  himself  between  the  two  Rus- 
sian armies,  and  after  having  destroyed  both,  to  penetrate  into 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  263 

the  interior  of  the  Empire,  where  he  reckoned  on  finding  im- 
mense riches,  and  to  dictate  the  terms  of  peace,  as  he  had  twice 
done  at  Vienna. 

The  passage  of  the  Niemen,  by  the  French  army,  was  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  (June  22  ;)  the  Russians  immedi- 
ately began  their  system  of  retreat.  Bonaparte,  at  first,  suc- 
ceeded in  penetrating  between  the  two  armies ;  but  after  several 
battles  fought  by  Prince  Bagration,  more  especially  th-at  at 
Mohiloff  (July  23,)  the  two  armies  effected  a  junction  at  Smo- 
lensko.  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  Vandamme,  to  whom  B.onaparte 
attributed  that  check,  were  ordered  to  quit  the  French  army, 
while  he  himself  advanced  as  far  as  Witepsk. 

Bonaparte  engaged  Barclay  de  Tolly,  and  fought  a  bloody 
battle  with  him  at  Smolensko  (Aug.  17.)  He  took  possession 
of  that  city  by  force,  after  it  had  been  set  on  fire  by  the  inhabit- 
ants. He  found  no  provisions  in  it,  and  scarcely  a  shelter  to 
cover  his  sick  and  wounded.  On  the  news  of  the  progress 
which  the  French  were  making,  a  general  enthu'siasm  seized 
the  Russian  nation.  Alexander  had  encouraged  and  excited 
this  patriotic  spirit  by  repairing  to  Moscow.  The  nobles  armed 
their  peasantry,  and  prepared  to  fight  with  desperation  to  the 
last.  The  two  armies  of  the  West  were  combined  into  one, 
of  which  Prince  KutusofT  took  the  command.  He  engaged 
Bonaparte,  and  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Moskwa,  about 
twenty-five  leagues  from  Moscow  (Sept.  7.)  Although  65,000 
men,  including  Russians,  French,  and  allies,  were  left  dead  on 
the  field  of  battle,  that  action  was  by  no  means  .decisive;  but 
KutusofT,  whose  army  was  reduced  to  70,000  men,  while  Bona- 
parte, out  of  150,000^,  had  still  120,000  left,  resolved  to  continue 
his  retreat,  and  to  leave  Moscow  at  the  mercy  of  the  enemy. 
The  French  entered  that  place  seven  days  after  the  battle  (Sept. 
14.)  They  found  that  ancient  capital  entirely  abandoned,  but 
still  containing  immense  wealth  which  the  inhabitants  had  not 
been  able  to  carry  with  them.  AVithin  two  days,  a  conflagra- 
tion which  broke  out  in  five  hundred  places  at  once,  reduced 
that  immense  city  to  a  heap  of  ashes.  The  precautions  of  the 
incendiaries  had  been  so  well  taken,  that  all  the  efforts  of  the 
French  to  arrest  the  progTess  of  the  flames  proved  inefTectual; 
and  out  of  9158  houses,  they  could  only  save  2041.  Thus 
perished  irrevocably  the  means  of  subsistence,  which  had  for  a 
moment  revived  the  courage  of  the  invaders. 

In  a  short  time  famine  began  to  make  its  appearance  in  the 
army  of  Bonaparte.  Dissembling  the  real  state  of  his  affairs, 
he  twice  offered  peace.  Alexander  refused  to  treat  at  a  time 
when  the  war  was  only  on  the  eve  of  commencing;  and  told 


264  CHAPTER    XII. 

the  Russian  generals,  that  he  was  still  resolved  to  continue  his 
retreat,  which  commenced  accordingly  on  the  15th  October. 
Marshal  Mortier,  who  commanded  the  rear-guard,  had  orders  to 
set  fire  to  the  Kremlin,  the  palace  of  the  ancient  Czars  of  Rus- 
sia. Bonaparte  directed  his  march  towards  Smolensko,  through 
a  country  reduced  to  an  entire  desert.  He  was  incessantly 
harassed  by  the  Russians,  whose  troops,  marching  at  a  conve- 
nient distance,  attacked  both  his  flanks.  On  arriving  at  Smo- 
lensko (Nov.  9,)  after  having  lost  40,000  men,  the  arm^^  was 
assailed  by  the  rigours  of  winter,  which  added  to  "their  other 
misfortunes.  Kutusoff  having  advanced  before  them,  and  tak- 
ing post  at  Krasnoi,  they  were  obliged  to  force  a  passage  with 
the  loss  of  13,000  men",  and  70  pieces  of  cannon.  Two  days 
after,  11,000  men  of  Ney's  division,  laid  down  their  arms  ; 
35,000  men,  and  twenty-five  cannons  without  horses,  were  all 
that  remained  to  the  conqueror  of  Moscow. 

This  exhausted  and  dispirited  army  had  50  leagues  to  march, 
before  they  could  reach  the  Beresina,  where  other  dangers 
awaited  them.  The  passage  of  that  river  was  occupied  by  the 
army  of  TchichagoiT,  amounting  to  50,000  men,  who  had  arrived 
from  Moldavia.  Another  Russian  army,  under  Count  Witgen- 
stein,  was  marching  from  the  north  to  join  the  former  ;  but 
Marshal  Victor's  body  of  reserve,  which  had  arrived  from  Prus- 
sia, intercepted  them  for  a  while,  without  having  been  able  to 
prevent  their  final  junction.  Victor,  Oudinot,  and  Dombrowski, 
brought  a  reinforcement  to  Bonaparte  of  35,000  men,  exhaust- 
ed with  cold  and  famine.  The  passage  of  the  Beresina  was 
forced  with  admirable  bravery  (Nov.  27-2S  ;)  but  it  cost  France 
or  the  allies,  the  lives  or  the  liberty  of  more   than  30,000  men. 

At  this  point,  the  main  body  of  the  Russians  ceased  to  pursue 
the  unfortunate  wreck  of  Bonaparte's  army ;  nevertheless,  as 
far  as  Wilna,  they  were  continually  harassed  by  the  Cossacs. 
There  was  besides  a  frightful  deficiency  of  provisions  and 
clothing,  so  that  upwards  of  25,000  men  fell  a  sa,crifice  to  these 
privations  in  their  route  to  Wilna.  This  was  the  first  city  or 
town  that  fell  in  their  way ;  all  the  others  had  been  completely 
destroyed;  the  miserable  remnant  Avho  reached  that  place  (Dec. 
9,)  were  at  length  supplied  with  provisions  ;  but  the  Cossacs 
did  not  leave  them  long  in  the  enjoyment  of  repose.  On  the 
following  day  they  were  obliged  to  commence  their  retreat  to 
Kowno,  from  which  they  directed  their  march  towards  the  Vis- 
tula. Independently  of  the  corps  of  Macdonald,  who  had  the 
Prussians  under  his  command,  and  of  the  auxiliary  body  of 
Austrians  and  Saxons,  none  of  which  took  any  part  in  that 
route,  only  13,800  French  and  Italians,  and  about  23,000  Poles 
an''  CJprmans,  found  their  way  back  from  Russia. 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  265 

Bonaparte  himself  had  taken  his  departure  privately  on  the 
5th  December,  leaving  the  command  of  the  army  to  Miirat. 
With  such  despatch  had  he  consulted  his  safety,  that  on  the  ISth 
of  the  same  month  he  arrived  at  Paris. 

Prince  Schwartzenberg,  being  joined  by  General  Reynier  who 
commanded  the  Saxons,  had  fought  several  engagements  with 
the  army  of  Tchichagoff,  none  of  which  had  proved  decisive  ; 
and  after  the  affair  of  the  Beresina  he  had  retired  towards  War- 
saw and  Pultusk.  Several  most  sanguinary  engagements, 
although  not  more  decisive  than  the  form.er,  had  taken  place 
between  Count  Witgenstein  and  the  left  wing  of  the  French 
army ;  especially  towards  the  commencement  of  the  campaign, 
when  Marshals  Oudinot  and  St.  Cyr  had  joined  Macdonald. 
On  these  occasions,  the  Prussians  had  rendered  very  important 
services  ;  but  the  moment  General  Yorke,  w^ho  commanded 
these  auxiliaries,  had  been  inform.ed  of  the  retreat  of  Bonaparte, 
he  thought  himself  authorized,  not  from  any  political  motiv^es 
which  he  would  never  have  avowed,  but  from  the  destitute  con- 
dition in  which  he  had  been  left,  to  conclude  a  capitulation  with 
the  Russians,  by  which  he  withdrew  his  whole  forces  from  the 
French  army  (Dec.  29.) 

That  event  was  of  little  importance  in  itself,  although  it  pro- 
duced a  very  great  sensation  in  Prussia,  and  served  as  a  pretext 
for  Bonaparte  to  demand  new  levies,  without  being  obliged  to 
acknowledge  the  whole  extent  of  the  losses  he  had  sustained. 
One  of  his  ministers,  Regnault  d'Angely,  spoke  of  the  event,  in 
his  official  report,  as  the  Glorious  Retreat  of  Moscow !  More- 
over, a  decree  of  the  Senate,  issued  at  the  commencement  of  the 
follovv^ing  year  (Jan.  11,)  placed  a  new  conscription  of  350,000 
men  at  the  disposal  of  the  government.  In  order  to  raise  the 
necessary  funds  for  this  new  armament,  Bonaparte  seized  ihe 
revenues  of  all  the  communes  in  France  ;  their  properties  were 
sold  to  promote  his  schemes ;  and  he  promised  to  make  them 
ample  reimbursements,  by  assigning  to  themi  annuities  on  the 
civil  list. 

Nothing  annoyed  Bonaparte  so  much  as  the  incessant  resis- 
tance and  opposition  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  In  the  hope  of  gaining 
a  more  easy  victory,  by  bringing  that  respectable  old  man  nearer 
his  person,  he  had  ordered  him  to  be  conveyed  to  the  Palace  of 
Fontainbleau,  about  the  middle  of  the  year  1812.  After  his  re- 
turn from  Moscow,  he  repaired  thither  himself,  and  succeeded 
in  extorting  the  Pope's  consent  to  a  new  Concordat ;  on  condi- 
tion, however,  that  the  stipulations  should  be  kept  secret,  until 
they  were  examined  by  a  Consistory  of  Cardinals.  But  Bona- 
parte took  an  early  opportunity  of  publishing  this  new  Concor- 

voL.  II.  23 


266  CHAPTER  XII. 

dat,  as  a  fundamental  law  of  the  State — a  circumstance  which 
induced  Pius  VII.  to  disavow  it,  and  to  declare  it  null  and  of 
none  effect. 

Meantime,  a  new  and  formidable  league  was  preparing  against 
Bonaparte.  After  the  campaign  of  1S12,  the  King  of  Prussia 
had  demanded,  agreeably  to  the  convention  of  February  24th, 
that  Bonaparte  should  reimburse  him  for  the  ninety-three  mil- 
lions which  he  had  advanced  in  furnishing  supplies  to  the  French 
army,  beyond  the  sum  which  he  owed  as  his  contingent  for  the 
war.  The  refusal  of  Bonaparte  to  pay  that  debt,  served  as  a 
pretext  for  Frederic  William  to  shake  off  an  alliance  so  contrary 
to  the  true  interests  of  his  kingdom.  An  appeal  which  he  made 
to  the  nation  excited  a  general  enthusiasm  ;  and  as  every  thing 
had  been  for  five  years  preparing  in  secret,  in  the  twinkling  of 
an  eye  the  Prussian  army,  which  had  been  reduced  to  42,000 
men,  was  raised  to  123,000.  This  defection  of  Prussia  fur- 
nished Bonaparte  with  a  plea  for  demanding  new  levies.  A  de- 
cree of  the  Senate  (April  3,  1813,)  ordered  him  180,000  addi- 
tional troops. 

The  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Kalisch  and  Breslau  (Feb. 
27,  28,)  laid  the  foundation  of  an  intimate  alliance  between  Rus- 
sia and  the  King  of  Prussia.  Alexander  promised  to  furnish 
150,000  men,  and  Prussia  80,000,  exclusive  of  the  troops  in 
garrisons  and  fortresses.  Alexander  moreover  engaged  never 
to  lay  down  arms  until  Prussia  should  be  restored  to  her  statis- 
tical, financial,  and  geographical  position,  conformably  to  the 
state  of  that  monarchy,  such  as  it  had  been  before  the  war  of 
1806.  Within  a  few  days  after,  these  two  monarchs  had  an 
interview  at  Breslau,  where  a  more  intimate  friendship  was  con- 
tracted, which  subsisted  between  them  for  a  long  time. 

Prince  Kutusoff  issued  a  proclamation,  dated  from  Kalisch 
(March  23,  1813,)  which  announced  to  the  Germans  that  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  must  henceforth  be  regarded  as  dis- 
solved. The  House  of  Mecklenburg,  without  waiting  for  that 
annunciation,  had  already  set  the  first  example  of  abandoning 
that  league.  The  allies  had  flattered  themselves  that  the  King 
of  Saxony  would  make  common  cause  with  them ;  but  that 
monarch  declared  that  he  would  remain  faithful  to  his  system. 
This  perseverance  of  a  respectable  Prince  whose  country  abound- 
ed with  resources,  did  much  injury  to  the  common  cause.  At 
a  later  date,  it  cost  the  King  of  Saxony  the  half  of  his  estates, 
without  taking  into  account  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  which  could 
never  be  regarded  but  as  a  precarious  possession. 

The  King  of  Sweden  had  engaged  with  Alexander  to  make 
a  diversion  on  the  rear  of  Bonaparte  ;  on  condition  that  he  would 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  267 

secure  him  the  possession  of  Norway,  or  at  least  the  proA^nce 
of  that  kingdom  called  the  Bishopric  of  Drontheim.  Great  Bri- 
tain was  desirous  that  that  arrangement  should  be  made  with 
the  consent  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  who  was  offered  a  com- 
pensation on  the  side  of  Holstein,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  Swe- 
dish Pomerania.  Frederic  VI.  having  given  an  absolute  refu- 
sal, a  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Sweden  was  concluded 
at  Stockholm  (March  3,  1813,)  by  which  the  latter  engaged  to 
employ  a  body  of  30,000  troops  on  the  Continent  in  active  ser- 
vice against  France.  It  was  agreed  that  this  army  should  act 
in  concert  with  the  Russian  troops  placed,  in  consequence  of 
other  arrangements,  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  Royal  of 
Sweden.  Great  Britain  promised  to  employ  every  necessary 
means  for  procuring  Sweden  the  possession  of  Norway,  without 
having  recourse  to  force  ;  unless  the  King  of  Denmark  should 
refuse  to  accede  to  the  alliance  of  the  North.  She  promised  to 
furnish  supplies  to  Sweden,  and  ceded  to  her  the  island  of 
Guadaloupe.  After  this  alliance  with  England,  Sweden  entered 
likewise  into  a  league  offensive  and  defensive  with  Prussia,  by 
a  treaty  which  was  signed  at  Stockholm  (April  22.)  Frederic 
William  promised  to  despatch  27,000  troops  to  join  the  army 
which  the  Prince  Royal  commanded  in  Germany. 

Murat,  to  whom  Bonaparte  had  intrusted  the  command  of  the 
few  troops  which  he  had  brought  back  from  Moscow,  abandoned 
his  commission,  and  retired  to  Naples.  Eugene  Beauharnais 
then  assumed  the  command,  and  arrived  with  16,000  men  on  the 
Elbe  (March  10;)  but  after  being  joined  by  the  French  troops 
from  Pomerania,  the  Bavarians,  the  Saxons,  and  a  corps  which 
General  Grenier  had  formed,  his  army  by  the  end  of  the 
month  amounted  to  87,000  men  ;  extending  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  from  Dresden  to  Hamburg.  In  a  short  time,  the 
whole  disposable  force  of  Bonaparte  in  Germany  were  again 
augmented  to  308,000  men. 

The  Prussian  army  consisted  of  128,000  troops,  including 
garrisons  and  bodies  of  reserve;  but  the  three  battalions  of 
Blucher,  Yorke,  and  Bulow,  who  had  taken  the  field,  did  not 
amount  to  more  than  51,000  combatants.  The  main  army  of 
the  Russians,  which,  since  the  death  of  Kutusoff,  had  been  com- 
manded by  Count  Witgenstein,  amounted  to  38,000  men  ;  al- 
though the  whole  of  the  Russian  forces  on  the  Vistula  and  the 
Oder,  and  between  the  Oder  and  the  Elbe,  amounted  to  166,000 
men.  The  first  action,  v/hich  took  place  in  Germany,  was  the 
battle  of  Luneburg  (April  2,)  where  the  Russian  General  Doren- 
berg  obliged  General  Morand's  division,  on  their  route  from 
Pomerania,  to  lay  dowTi  their  arms. 


268  CHAPTER  XII. 

On  the  5th  of  April,  Bonaparte  took  the  command  of  his  ars  ^ 
in  person  ;  and  on  the  2d  of  May  with  115,000  men,  he  engag>  d 
169,000  Prussians  and  Russians,  under  the  command  of  "NV  it- 
o-enstein.  The  advantage  in  that  action  was  on  the  side  of  the 
French.  The  loss  on  both  sides  was  equal.  The  Prussians 
took  1000  prisoners,  Avith  10  pieces  of  cannon,  without  them- 
selves losing  one.  The  scene  of  this  battle,  so  glorious  for  the 
Prussians,  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gross-G.erschen.  to 
which  Bonaparte  gave  the  name  of  Lutzen,  in  commemoration 
of  the  famous  Gustavus  Adolphus.  In  his  bulletins,  he  repre- 
sented that  battle,  which  was  by  no  means  decisive,  as  a  com- 
plete victory,  because  the  allies  did  not  renew  the  combat,  and 
next  day  commenced  their  retreat  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
to  advance  nearer  to  their  reinforcements. 

They  took  up  a  position  at  Bautzen.  Their  numbers  there 
amounted  to  96,000  men,  who  engaged  148,000  French,  under 
the  command  of  Bonaparte  (May  21,  1813.)  The  Allies  had 
determined  not  to  expose  themselves  to  a  defeat,  but  to  terminate 
every  battle  the  moment  they  saw  it  could  not  turn  to  their  ad- 
vantage. Within  five  days  after  that  engagement,  to  which  the 
French  gave  the  name  of  the  battle  of  Wurtchen,'Blucher  gain- 
ed a  decided  advantage  at  Haynau  over  the  division  of  General 
Maison,  and  captured  the  whole  of  their  artillery.  An  armis- 
tice was  then  concluded  between  the  two  parties  at  Poischwitz. 

This  measure  was  at  the  request  of  Bonaparte,  as  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  await  the  arrival  of  his  reinforcements ; 
especially  since  he  found  himself  menaced  on  the  North  by  an 
invasion  of  the  Swedes.  It  is  probable  he  would  not  have  taken 
this  step  had  he  penetrated  the  views  of  Austria ;  but  Count 
Metternich  had  dexterously  contrived  to  conceal  these  from  him, 
in  the  several  interviews  which  he  had  with  him  at  Dresden,  so 
that  the  sagacit}?-  of  that  great  commander  was  completely  at 
fault.  The  Allies  had  no  wish  for  an  armistice,  which  could 
only  make  them  lose  time,  as  their  armaments  were  in  a  state 
of  readiness  ;  but  they  consented  to  it  at  the  request  of  Austria, 
who  had  neied  of  some  delay  to  complete  her  preparations, 
although  she  was  at  first  actuated  by  a  different  motive.  She 
had  still  hopes  to  avoid  the  war,  by  inducing  Bonaparte  to  accept 
those  moderate  conditions  of  peace  to  which  the  Allies  had  given 
their  consent  by  the  treaty  of  June  27,  of  which  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  speak  immediately.  At  the  time  when  the  armistice 
was  signed.  Count  Metternich,  who  had  apprized  Bonaparte  of 
these  conditions,  had  already  certain  information  that  the  two 
monarchs  were  not  deceived  in  predicting  that  they  would  be 
refused.     All  hopes  of  peace  had  now  vanished;  but  there  still 


PEUioD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  269 

Temained  another  moti^^e,  which  made  the   Court  of  Vienna 
anxious  for  further  delay. 

By  a  convention  signed  at  Dresden  (June  30,)  Bonaparte  ac- 
cepted the  mediation  of  Austria  for  a  peace,  either  general  or 
Continental ;  and  the  armistice,  which  was  to  expire  on  the  20th 
July,  was  prolonged  to  the  10th  of  August.  At  the  request  of 
Francis  I.,  a  sort  of  congress  was  opened  at  Prague.  Bonaparte 
had  no  wish  for  peace,  as  he  never  supposed  that  Austria  would 
declare  against  him.  The  Allies  had  no  wish  for  it,  as  they 
knew  well  the  disposition  of  that  power  ;  while  Austria,  the  only 
Cabinet  which  had  pacific  views,  had  given  up  all  hope  of  ever 
bringing  Bonaparte  to  any  reasonable  terms  of  accommodation. 
Such  were  the  auspices  under  which  the  Congress  of  Prague 
was  opened.  They  were  discussing  the  form  in  which  the  ne- 
gotiations were  to  proceed,  when  the  10th  of  August  arrived. 
The  ministers  of  Russia  and  Prussia  then  declared  that  the 
term  of  the  armistice  had  expired,  and  consequently  that  their 
diplomatic  powers  were  at  an  end. 

Within  two  days  after,  Austria  declared  war  against  Bona- 
parte ;  and  the  three  monarchs  who  met  at  Prague,  resolved  to 
accompany  the  main  army,  which  v/as  under  the  command  of 
Prince  Schwartzenberg,  during  the  whole  campaign. 

It  will  not  be  improper  here  to  give  a  summary  of  the  treaties 
which  constituted  the  sixth  coalition,  and  procured  the  accession 
of  Austria  so  decisive  for  the  cause  of  the  allies.  (1.)  The 
treaty  of  Reichenbach  (June  14,)  between  Great  Britain  and 
Prussia.  The  former  bound  herself  to  pay  to  the  other,  within 
the  six  months,  666,666Z.  sterling,  for  the  maintenance  of  80,000 
troops  ;  and  came  under  the  same  engagement  with  regard  to 
the  augmentation  of  Prussia,  that  Russia  had  entered  into  by 
the  treat}^  of  Kalisch.  The  King  of  Prussia  promised  to  cede- 
to  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  a  certain  portion  of  territory,  inclu- 
ding the  principality  of  Hildesheim,  and  containing  a  population 
of  between  3  and  400,000  souls.  (2.)  The  treaty  of  Reichen- 
bach between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  (June  15,)  by  which  the 
former  promised  to  pay  to  the  other,  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year,  1,333,334Z.  sterling,  for  the  maintenance  of  160,000  men. 
(3.)  The  treaty  of  Reichenbach,  between  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Russia  (June  27  ;)  the  first  engaged  to  declare  war  against  Bo- 
naparte, if  at  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice  he  had  not  accepted 
the  conditions  of  peace  which  they  offered  him.  The  following 
are  the  proposals  to  which  we  have  already  alluded.  Austria 
on  her  own  behalf,  demanded  only  the  restitution  of  the  lUyrian 
provinces,  and  the  territory  which  she  had  ceded  to  the  dutchy 
of  Warsaw.  Such  were  the  pledges  of  her  sincere  desire  for 
VOL.  II.  23  ^ 


270  CHAPTER  XII. 

restoring  peace  to  Europe.  Prussia  was  content  to  obtain  the 
restitution  of  her  part  of  the  same  dutchy,  and  that  of  Dantzic, 
and  the  evacuation  of  the  fortresses  occupied  by  the  French  ; 
thus  abandoning-  all  her  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe. 
Moreover,  they  allowed  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  still  to  re- 
main, and  they  deprived  Bonaparte  only  of  his  last  usurpation* 
in  the  north  of  Germany.  By  another  article  of  the  treaty,  it 
was  stipulated,  that  if  these  conditions  were  rejected,  and  war 
once  begun,  they  should  never  make  peace  but  on  condition  that 
Austria  and  Prussia  were  to  be  again  placed  on  the  footing  in 
which  they  had  been  in  1805 ;  that  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  should  be  dissolved  ;  the  independence  of  Holland  and 
Italy  secured :  and  the  House  of  Bourbon  restored  to  the  throne 
of  Spain.  (4.)  The  treaty  of  Petersv\'aldau  between  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Russia  (July  6.)  by  which  the  former  undertook  to  sup- 
port a  German  legion  of  10,000  men  for  the  service  of  Russia. 
(5.)  A  definitive  alliance  signed  at  Toplitz  (Sept.  9,)  between 
Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  by  which  these  powers  were  to 
assist  each  other  with  60,000  men.  It  w^as  agreed  to  reconstruct 
the  Austrian  monarchy  upon  the  plan  approaching  as  near  as 
possible  to  that  of  1805;  to  dissolve  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  ;  and  to  restore  the  House 
of  Brunswick-Luneburg.  (6.)  The  treaty  of  alliance  signed  at 
Toplitz  between  Austria  and  Great  Britain. 

Bonaparte,  on  his  side,  likewise  acquired  an  ally  at  this  im- 
portant crisis.  The  Danes  had  already  entered  into  Hamburg 
with  the  French,  when  Marshal  Davoust  compelled  General 
Tettenborn  to  evacuate  that  city,  (May  30,)  which  he  had  got 
possession  of  in  the  month  of  March.  An  English  fleet  having 
appeared  off  Copenhagen  (May  31,)  and  demanded  the  cession 
of  Norway  in  favour  of  Sweden,  the  King  of  Denmark  conclu- 
ded a  treaty  with  Bonaparte  at  Copenhagen,  by  which  the  former 
engaged  to  declare  war  against  Sweden,  Russia  and  Prussia, 
and  the  latter  against  Sweden.  Immediately  after,  an  army  of 
12,000  Danes,  under  the  command  of  Frederic  Prince  of  Hesse 
was  joined  to  that  of  Davoust. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  for  the  allies  had  been  settled  in 
the  conference  held  at  Trachenberg  by  the  Emperor  of  Russia, 
the  King  of  Prussia,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden,  and  the  pleni- 
potentiaries of  Austria  and  Great  Britain.  The  forces  of  the 
Coalition  amounted  to  264,000  Austrians,  249,000  Russians, 
277,000  Prussians,  and  24,000  Swedes;  but  not  more  than 
700,000  men  were  engaged  in  the  cam.paign  ;  of  which  192,000 
were  occupied  with  the  sieges  of  Dantzic,  Zamoscz,  Glogau,  Cus- 
trin,  and  Stettin.     These  700,000  men  were  divided  as  follows  : 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  271 

The  Army  of  Bohemia,  composed  of  Austrians,  Russians,  and 
Prussians,  under  the  command  of  Prince  SchAvartzenberg, 
amounted  to  237,700  men,  with  698  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Army  of  the  No7-th,  composed  of  Prussians,  Russians, 
and  Swedes,  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  Swe- 
den, amounting  to  154,000  men,  with  887  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Army  of  Silesia,  composed  of  Prussians  and  Russians, 
under  the  command  of  Blucher,  95,000  strong,  with  356  pieces 
of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  of  Bavaria,  commanded  b}?  Prince  Reuss, 
containing  42,700  men,  with  42  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  in  Italy,  under  Hiller,  50,000  strong, 
with  120  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  Army  of  Reserve,  stationed  between  Vienna 
and  Presburg,  under  the  command  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Wur- 
temberg,  60,000  strong. 

The  Russia7i  Army  of  Reserve  in  Poland,  under  the  command 
of  Bennigsen,  57,000  strong,  with  198  pieces  of  cannon. 

To  these  forces  Bonaparte  opposed  an  army  of  462,000  men, 
including  80,000  who  occupied  thirteen  fortresses  ;  besides  the 
army  of  Bavaria,  which  watched  the  movements  of  the  Prince  of 
Reuss,  and  40,000  men  which  Eugene  Beauharnais  had  in  Italy. 

Hostilities  recommenced  immediately  after  the  termination  of 
the  armistice  ;  Silesia,  Saxony,  and  sometimes  the  frontiers,  be- 
came the  theatre  of  war.  The  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden 
covered  Berlin,  which  was  threatened  by  Marshal  Oudinot. 
The  battle  of  Gross-Beeren  (Aug.  23,)  which  was  gained  by 
the  Prussian  General  Bulow,  saved  the  capital,  in  Silesia, 
Blucher,  pressed  hard  by  Bonaparte,  had  retired  as  far  as  Jauer  ; 
but  the  latter  having  intelligence  of  the  march  of  the  allies  on 
Dresden,  retraced  his  steps  with  a  part  of  his  army,  while  Blucher 
attacked  Marshal  Macdonald  at  the  river  Katsbach,  and  gn ined 
a  signal  victory  (Aug.  26,)  in  which  he  took  10,000  prisoners, 
and  103  pieces  of  cannon.  General  Puthod,  who  commanded  a 
detachment  of  8000  men,  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  Plagwitz 
to  Count  Langeron  (Aug.  29.)  The  array  of  Bohemia  attacked 
Dresden  a  few  hours  after  Bonaparte  had  arrived  v/ith  his  rein- 
forcements. The  battle  was  bloody,  and  lasted  two  days  (Aug. 
26,  27.)  Thirteen  thousand  Austrians  being  cut  off  on  the  left 
wing,  were  obliged  to  lay  down  their  arms  ;  the  allies  retired  in 
good  order,  leaving  6000  men  killed  and  wounded  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  26  pieces  of  cannon  in  the  hands  of  the  French,  who 
had  lost  18,000  men  by  that  victory.  General  Moreau,  who  had 
come  on  the  invitation  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  to  take 
a  part  in  the  struggle  against  Napoleon,  was  mortally  wounded. 


272  CHAPTER  XII. 

Before  the  battle,  Vandamme  had  been  detached  with  30,000 
men  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  allies.  He  encountered  Count 
Ostermann  Tolstoy,  who  was  at  the  head  of  8000  Austrians,  and 
repulsed  him  as  far  as  the  valley  of  Culm.  The  King  of  Prus- 
sia, who  was  at  Toplitz,  apprized  the  Russian  general,  that  un- 
less he  made  haste  to  arrest  the  march  of  Vandamme,  the  latter 
would  succeed  in  cutting  off  the  Emperor  Alexander  from  his 
army.  The  Russians  fought  the  whole  day  (Aug.  29,)  with  the 
most  heroic  determination ;  Count  Ostermann  having  had  his 
left  arm  carried  off  by  a  shot,  the  command  was  taken  by 
Marshal  Milloradowich.  At  length  they  were  reinforced  by 
several  Austrian  and  Russian  armies,  which  the  King  of  Prussia 
had  sent  to  their  assistance,  and  which  enabled  them  to  main- 
tain their  position.  During  the  night,  Barclay  de  Tolly  had 
arrived  with  new  reinforcements,  and  next  day  (Aug.  30,)  the 
famous  battle  of  Culm  was  fought,  which  was  decided  by  the 
arrrival  of  General  Kleist  on  the  heights  of  Nollendorf,  lying 
behind  the  position  of  Vandamme.  The  latter  finding  himself 
thus  intercepted,  a  part  of  his  cavalry  forced  their  passage,  by 
cutting  their  way  through  a  regiment  of  recruits.  Vandamme 
then  surrendered  himself  prisoner,  with  10,000  men  and  81 
pieces  of  cannon. 

The  grand  object  of  Bonaparte  was  to  get  possession  of  Ber- 
lin. Ney,  at  the  head  of  80,000  men,  was  charged  with  the  ex- 
ecution of  this  enterprise.  But  he  sustained  a  complete  rout 
at  Denewitz  (Sept.  6,)  by  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  ;  and 
another  by  BulowandTauenzien.  The  French  there  lost  20,000 
prisoners,  with  80  pieces  of  cannon,  and  all  their  baggage. 
The  plan  of  the  allies  to  withdraw  Bonaparte  from  Dresden,  and 
allure  him  into  the  plains  of  Saxony,  where  they  could  unite 
all  their  forces  against  him,  succeeded  entirely  to  their  wish. 
He  quitted  Dresden  (Oct.  7,)  at  the  head  of  125,000  men,  \vith 
the  hope  of  defeating  the  enemy  in  separate  armies.  But  the 
latter  had  manoeuvred  so  skilfully,  that  the  armies  of  Bohemia, 
the  North,  Silesia,  and  the  Russian  army  of  reserve,  were 
ready  to  effect  a  junction  on  a  given  signal.  The  plains  of 
Leipsic  decided  the  fate  of  Bonaparte.  His  army  there  amount- 
ed to  171,000  combatants.  The  allies  would  have  had  301,000, 
namely,  78,000  Austrians,  69,500  Prussians,  136,000  Russians, 
and  18,000  Swedes,  if  they  had  been  able  to  form  a  union  at 
the  commencement  of  the  battle. 

Several  different  engagements  had  preceded  this  great  battle. 
On  the  16th  October,  the  army  of  Bohemia  alone  fought  three 
several  actions  at  Wachau,  Connewitz,  and  Lindenau.  None 
of  these  were  prod  active  of  any  decisive  result;  but  Blucher 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  ISiO — 1815.  27^? 

had  encountered  Marshal  Marmoiit  on  the  same  day,  and  de- 
feated him  at  Mockern.  On  the  following  day,  there  were  f-ome 
engagements,  but  without  any  decisive  result ;  they  were  fought 
by  the  three  armies  of  Sweden,  Blucher,  and  Bennigsen,  who 
were  on  their  march  to  the  field  of  battle  at  Leipsic.  Bona- 
parte then  began  to  be  aware  of  the  danger  of  his  position. 
For  the  first  time  he  foresaw  the  possibility  of  a  defeat,  and 
sent  General  Bertrand  to  V/eissenfels  to  secure  the  bridge  over 
the  Saal.  On  the  IStb,  at  day-break,  he  made  proposals  of  an 
armistice  and  peace,  through  the  Austrian  General  Meerfeld, 
who  had  fallen  into  his  hands  ;  but  both  the  one  and  the  other 
were  disregarded.  This  was  the  first  day  of  the  battle  of  Leip- 
sic ;  the  French  army  resisted  with  great  heroism,  and  it  \\ns 
not  till  after  the  arrival  of  Blucher  and  the  army  of  Sweden, 
that  they  were  compelled  to  abandon  part  of  their  position,  and 
to  retire  to  the  very  gates  of  Leipsic.  Several  bodies  of  Saxons 
and  Wurtembergers  passed  over  on  that  day  to  the  ranks  of  the 
allies.  During  the  night,  the  French  army  effected  their  retreat 
by  Leipsic  to  Weissenfels.  Macdonald  and  Poniatowski  had 
orders  to  defend  the  city.  It  was  attacked  by  the  allies  next 
day.  The  French  made  a  vigorous  resistance.  At  ten  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  Bonaparte  escaped  among  the  fugitives,  the 
cannon,  and  the  equipage  which  encumbered  the  gate  of  Altran- 
stadt.  The  Elster,  which  runs  by  the  city,  had  only  one  bridge, 
which  they  caused  to  be  blovvn  up  as  soon  as  Bonaparte  had 
passed.  Thus  Macdonald  and  Poniatowski  found  themselves 
fairly  enclosed  with  their  divisions.  The  latter  was  drowned 
in  attempting  to  swim  across  the  Elster.  Macdonald  was  made 
prisoner,  as  well  as  the  King  of  Saxony,  who  had  remained  at 
Leipsic.  Bonaparte,  on  these  two  days,  lost  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  70,000  men,  and  800  pieces  of  cannon.  The 
allies  purchased  that  victory  by  the  death  of  50,000  of  their 
troops. 

Bonaparte  directed  his  flight  with  all  haste  towards  Mayence, 
closely  pursued  by  the  Cossacs,  wdio  made  a  great  many  pri- 
soners, besides  a  rich  booty  in  cannon  and  baggage.  When  he 
arrived  at  Hanau,  he  found  his  passage  intercepted  by  an  enemy 
which  he  did  not  expect.  Since  the  month  of  August,  a  nego- 
tiation had  been  set  on  foot  with  the  King  of  Bavaria,  for  in- 
ducing him  to  abandon  the  cause  of  Bonaparte.  To  this  mea- 
sure he  at  length  agreed,  by  a  convention,  which  Avas  signed  at 
Ried  (Oct.  8,)  which  secured  to  Bavaria  the  possession  of  ab- 
solute and  independent  sovereignty,  and  complete  indemnity  for 
the  restitutions  which  she  was,  in  that  case,  to  make  to  Austria. 

Immediately  after  the  signing  the  convention  at  Ried,  the 


274  CHAPTER    XII. 

Bavarian  General  Wrede,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  between 
45,000  and  50,000  Austrians  and  Bavarians,  began  their  march 
by  Neuburg,  Anspach,  and  Wurtsburg  ;  and  after  taking  this 
latter  city,  they  proceeded  to  Hanan,  of  which  he  took  possession 
(Oct.  24,)  with  36,000  or  40,000  men.  He  encountered  the 
French,  who  in  their  retreat  had  arrived  at  Gelnhausn  ;  there  a 
battle  took  place,  which  lasted  for  several  successive  days.  Bo- 
naparte lost  25,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners  ;  but 
with  the  35,000  that  were  left,  he  forced  a  passage,  and  retired 
to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Marshal  St.  Cyr,  whom  Bonaparte 
had  left  at  Dresden,  was  obliged  to  capitulate  with  27,000  men. 
Dantzic  surrendered  with  20,000  men,  and  Torgau  with  10,000. 

In  the  month  of  May,  Eugene  Beauharnais  had  taken  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Italy,  which  occupied  the  Illyrian  pro- 
vinces. But  he  was  obliged  to  return  beyond  the  Adige,  before 
General  Hiller,  who,  having  made  himself  master  of  the  Tyrol, 
was  threatening  to  cut  off  his  retreat.  This  campaign  neverthe- 
less did  honour  to  the  French  general. 

After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden 
marched  against  Davoust  and  the  Danes,  the  former  of  whom 
was  blocked  up  in  Hamburg,  and  the  Danes  had  retired  into 
Sleswick.  An  armistice  was  granted  them,  from  which  however 
Gluckstadt  and  Fredericsort  were  excepted,  as  they  had  capitu- 
lated during  the  cessation  of  hostilities.  Frederic  VI.  concluded 
a  peace  at  Kiel  in  all  haste  (Jan.  14,  1814 ;)  and  Denmark  en- 
tered into  the  alliance  against  Bonaparte.  We  shall  have  occasion 
to  speak  afterwards  of  the  mutual  cessions  that  were  made  by 
this  treaty.  On  the  same  day  Denmark  signed  a  peace  with 
Great  Britain.  She  promised  to  furnish  10,000  men  to  take  the 
field  against  Bonaparte,  and  Great  Britain  engaged  to  pay  them 
33,333Z.  per  month.  Peace  was  at  the  same  time  established  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Russia,  by  the  treaty  of  Hanover  (Feb.  8;) 
and  between  Denmark  and  Prussia  by  that  of  Berlin  (Aug.  25.) 

Meantime  Bonaparte  had  recalled  Marshal  Soult  from  Spain 
wdth  a  part  of  his  troops.  Lord  Wellington,  the  Generalissimo 
of  the  Spanish  armies,  defeated  Jourdan  at  Vittoria  (June  21, 
1813,)  \vhere  15,000  French  were  left  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
3000  made  prisoners.  Jourdan  lost  the  whole  of  his  artillery. 
Joseph  Bonaparte  then  abandoned  the  throne  of  Spain  for  ever. 
The  activity  of  Marshal  Suchet  defeated  an  expedition  by  sea, 
undertaken  by  Sir  John  Murray  against  Tarragona.  Lord  AVel- 
lington  took  St.  Sebastian  and  Pampeluna  (Aug.  31,)  and  com- 
pelled the  French  army  to  pass  the  Bidassoa,  and  to  retire  on 
Baj^onne.  Soult  again  took  the  command,  and  by  means  of 
reinforcements  increased  the  army  to  40,000  men. 


PERIOD  IX.       A.   D.    1810—1815.  9:75 

In  Germany,  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  had  both  been  dissolved.  The  Electors  of  Han- 
over and  Hesse,  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick  and  Oldenburg-,  were 
restored  to  the  possession  of  their  patrimonies,  and  joined  the 
alliance.  The  King  of  Wurtemberg,  and  the  Elector  of  Baden, 
made  their  peace  with  the  Allies,  by  means  of  special  treaties. 
All  the  princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation  entered  into  the 
Grand  League,  except  the  King  of  Saxony,  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Frankfort,  and  the  princes  of  Isemburg  and  Leyen,  who  were 
excluded  from  it,  and  their  territories  treated  as  conquered 
provinces. 

On  his  return  to  Paris,  Bonaparte  announced  his  intention  of 
continuing  the  war,  and  caused  the  Senate  to  grant  him  a  new 
conscription  of  300,000  men.  Nevertheless  he  appeared  willing 
to  bring  to  a  conclusion  the  negotiations  which  the  Allies  on  the 
Continent  had  set  on  foot.  According  to  the  terms  agreed  on  at 
Toplitz,  the  Rhine  was  to  form  the  frontier  of  France,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Holland  was  to  be  given  to  a-brother  of  Bonaparte; 
but  the  movements  of  Napoleon,  and  the  warlike  preparations 
which  he  had  ordered,  gave  England  an  opportunity  of  changing 
the  sentiments  of  these  monarchs  ;  and  they  determined  to  adopt 
the  scheme  which  Mr.  Pitt  had  contrived  in  1805. 

The  decree  of  the  Senate,  of  November  18,  1813,  completed 
the  immense  number  of  1,260,000  men  ;  all  of  whom,  indepen- 
dently of  the  existing  army,  had  been  sacrificed  to  the  restless 
ambition  of  Bonaparte.  The  forces  with  which  the  Allies  in- 
vaded France,  were  divided  into  three  armies. 

The  Army  of  Bohemia,  commanded  by  Prince  Schwartzenberg, 
and  composed  of  261,000  men,  Austrians,  Russian?,  Prussians, 
and  Germans,  was  destined  to  enter  France  by  way  of  Switzer- 
land. 

The  Army  of  Silesia,  under  the  command  of  Blucher,  consist- 
ing of  137,000  men,  Prussians,  Russians,  and  Germans,  were  to 
pass  the  Rhine  near  Mayence. 

The  Army  of  the  North,  composed  of  174,000  Prussians,  Rus- 
sians, Germans,  Swedes,  Dutch  and  English,  were  to  occupy 
Holland  and  the  Netherlands.  They  were  to  be  commanded  by 
the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden,  and,  in  his  absence,  by  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Weimar. 

Independently  of  these  three  armies,  the  Allies  had  an  army 
of  reserve  of  235,000  men,  and  the  Austrians  had  an  army  of 
80,000  men  in  Italy.  About  the  end  of  December  1813,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1814,  the  two  first  armies  entered 
France.  We  can  only  advert  to  the  principal  events  of  that 
short  campaign.      After   some   actions   of  minor  importance 


276  CHAPTER 

Blucher  attacked  Bonaparte  at  Rothiere  with  a  superior  force, 
and.  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  resistance  which  he  met  with,  he 
gained  a  complete  victory  (Feb.  1.)  Thirteen  days  afterwards, 
Bonaparte  returned  him  the  compliment  at  Etoges  or  Vauchamp, 
Being  enclosed  by  Grouchy,  Blucher  had  to  cut  his  way  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet,  and  lost  6000  men. 

The  Allies,  after  having  received  various  checks,  combined 
their  two  armies  at  Troyes  (Feb.  21  ;)  but  Prince  Schwartzen- 
berg,  not  wishing  to  give  battle  in  that  position,  began  to  retreat. 
Blucher  then  separated  from  him  to  continue  on  the  defensive  ; 
after  being  reinforced,  however,  by  the  divisions  of  Bulow  and 
Winzingerode,  which  had  arrived  from  Belgium  ;  their  junction 
took  place  at  Soissons  (March  3.)  Blucher  took  up  a  position 
behind  the  Aisne.  Bonaparte  having  passed  that  river,  defeated 
two  bodies  of  Russians  under  V/oronzoff  and  Saken  at  Craonc 
(March  7,)  and  attacked  Blucher  at  Laon  (March  10.)  He  was 
there  totally  defeated ;  and  that  victory  induced  Schwartzenberg 
to  abandon  the  defensive,  and  march  on  Paris.  He  engaged 
Bonaparte  at  Arcis-sur-Aube,  where  the  battle,  although  bloody, 
was  not  decisi^-e.  They  were  in  expectation  of  seeing  the  en- 
gagement renevv'ed  next  day,  when  Bonaparte  suddenly  resolved 
to  march  to  St.  Dizier,  to  cat  off  the  allies  from  their  communi- 
cation with  the  Rhine,  as  well  as  to  draw  reinforcements  from 
the  garrisons  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace,  and  thus  transfer  the  the- 
atre of  war  to  Germany. 

But  before  bringing  the  sketch  of  this  campaign  to  a  close, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  take  notice  of  the  Congress  of  Chatillon, 
which  was  opened  on  the  5th  February,  and  v/hich  was  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  negotiations  that  had  taken  place  towards  the 
close  of  the  year  1813.  The  allies  consented  to  allow  Bona- 
parte to  retain  the  crovvai  of  France,  but  the  limits  of  that  king- 
dom to  be  reduced  to  v.'-hat  they  had  been  in  1792.  Bonaparte 
at  first  seemed  willing  to  treat  on  these  terms,  but  his  real  ob- 
ject was  to  gain  time.  Whenever  his  troops  had  gained  any 
advantage  he  immediately  heightened  his  tone ;  and  in  the 
course  of  six  weeks  the  allies  broke  off  the  conference.  During 
the  sitting  of  the  Congress  of  Chatillon,  Austria,  Great  Britain, 
Prussia  and  Russia,  signed  the  famous  Quadruple  Alliance  at 
Chaumont  (March  1,)  which  became  the  basis  of  the  new  politi- 
cal syst>em  of  Europe.  Each  of  the  allies  engaged  to  maintain 
an  army  of  150,000  men  constantly  in  the  field  against  the  com- 
mon enemy.  Great  Britain  promised  to  furnish  to  the  three 
other  powers  a  subsidy  of  5,000,000Z.  sterling  foi  the  year  1814; 
in  such  a  way,  however,  that  she  was  only  to  pay  them  propor- 
tionally until  the  end  of  the  month  in  which  the  peace  should 


PERIOD  .X.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  277 

be  concluded,  adding  to  these  two  months  for  the  return  of  the 
Austrian  and  Prussian  troops,  and  four  for  those  of  the  Eussians. 
The  main  object  of  this  alliance  was  the  re-establishment  of  an 
equilibrium  of  power,  based  upon  the  following  arrangements  : — 
German^  to  be  composed  of  Sovereign  Princes  united  by  a  fed- 
eral bond :  The  Confederation  of  Switzerland  to  be  restored  to 
its  ancient  lim.its  and  its  former  independence  :  Italy  to  be  divi- 
ded into  Independent  States,  lying  between  the  Austrian  pos- 
sessions in  that  peninsula  and  France  :  Holland  to  be  a  free 
and  independent  State,  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  with  an  increase  of  territory. 

Blucher  had  made  hinriself  master  of  Chalons  and  Chateau 
Thierry,  when  the  allies  learned,  by  an  intercepted  letter,  wdiat 
were  the  plans  of  Bonaparte.  In  order  to  persuade  him  that 
they  had  taken  the  alarm  at  his  m.arch,  and  were  resolved  to 
follow  him,  they  sent  Count  Winzingerode  after  him  at  the  head 
of  a  body  of  8000  cavalry,  which  he  might  easily  m.istake  for 
the  vanguard  of  the  allies.  By  this  manoeuvre  he  was  deceived, 
and  continued  his  route  eastwards  while  the  allies  directed  their 
march  on  Paris.  Schwartzenberg  attacked  and  beat  the  two 
divisions  of  Marmont  and  Mortier,  at  Sonde  St.  Croix  (March 
25,)  v/hile  the  army  of  Silesia  compelled  Puthod  and  Amey  to 
surrender  near  Lafere  Champenoise.  This  double  encounter 
cost  the  French  5000  killed,  10,000  prisoners,  and  80  pieces  of 
cannon.  Marmont  and  Mortier  retreated  to  Paris,  but  they 
were  defeated  at  Montmartre  and  Belleville  (March  30.)  The 
heights,  which  on  that  side  overlook  Paris,  were  taken  by  the 
allies,  who  purchased  that  victory  bv  the  loss  of  9000  men.  A 
capitulation  for  Paris  was  signed  the  same  night. 

The  entrance  of  the  allies  into  the  capital  of  France  took 
place  next  day.  The  Emperor  x'Vlexander  immediately  declared 
in  his  own  name,  and  in  that  of  his  allies,  that  they  could  treat 
no  more  with  Napoleon,  or  w4th  any  of  his  family.  He  invited 
the  Senate  to  establish  a  provisional  government, — a  measure 
which  was  necessary,  as  the  Count  D'Artois,  who  was  appoint- 
ed the  King's  Lieutenant-General,  had  not  yet  arrived.  He 
likewise  invited  that  body  to  prepare  a  constitution,  that  is  to 
say,  to  submit  their  counsel  and  advice  to  the  King,  as  to  the 
modifications  to  be  made  in  the  government ;  for  the  French 
constitution  which  is  based  on  the  Salic  law  has  been  in  exis- 
tence for  centuries.  The  Emperor  Alexander  made  that  propo- 
sal to  the  Senate,  as  being  the  only  order  of  the  State  then  in 
existence  ;  but  that  monarch  did  not  know  that  the  Senate  was 
the  last  authority  to  which  the  public  opinion  would  have  granted 
any  influence,  as  to  the  settlement  of  the  condition  of  France 

VOL.  IT.  L*-l 


!?78  CHAPTER  XII. 

The  General  Council  of  the  Department  of  the  Seine,  and  the 
Municipal  Council  of  Paris,  demanded  the  return  of  Louis 
XVIIL,  their  legitimate  sovereign  (April  1.)  In  pronouncing 
the  deposition  of  Bonaparte  next  day,  the  Senate  exercised  a 
right  which  did  not  belong  to  them.  As  that  body  owed  its 
existence  to  Napoleon,  its  functions  should  have  ceased  with  his. 

On  the  seventh  day  of  his  march  the  Emperor  of  the  French 
discovered  his  error.  He  then  returned  in  all  haste  towards 
Fontainbleau.  After  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  either  to 
regain  his  power  or  to  transmit  it  to  his  son,  he  was  obliged  to 
sign  his  abdication  (April  10.)  Next  day  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Russia,  drew  up  a  convention  with  his  delegates  Ney,  Macdon- 
ald,  and  Caulincourt,  by  which,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Empe- 
ror of  Russia,  they  secured  him  the  possession  of  the  Island  of 
Elba,  with  full  sovereignty  ;  and  the  States  of  Parma  for  his 
wife  and  son.  Great  Britain  acceded  to  that  arrangement,  to 
which  the  King  of  France  yet  remained  a  stranger.  Bonaparte 
soon  after  embarked  at  St.  Rapheau,  to  repair  to  his  place  of 
exile. 

The  narrow  space  to  which  we  must  confine  our  observations, 
obliges  us  to  pass  in  silence  over  the  military  events  which  took 
place  in  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  on  the  side  of  Lyons.  But 
we  must  say  a  word  or  two  on  the  war  in  the  Pyrenees  and  in 
Italy.  Anticipating  the  resolutions  of  the  Allied  Sovereigns, 
Lord  Wellington,  with  whom  the  Duke  D'Angouleme  then  v/as, 
invited  the  French,  by  a  proclamation  dated  January  27th,  to 
replace  Louis  on  the  throne.  Within  a  month  after,  he  defeated 
the  army  of  Soult  at  Orthes  (Feb.  27.)  and  compelled  that  Gen- 
eral to  retire  to  Tarbes,  To  satisfy  the  wishes  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Bourdeaux,  Marshal  Beresford  conducted  the  Duke 
D'Angouleme  to  that  place,  which  was  the  first  city  in  France 
that  proclaimed  Louis  XVIIL  (March  13.)  The  allies  had 
already  entered  Paris,  and  Bonaparte  had  abdicated  his  crown, 
when  Lord  Wellington,  who  was  ignorant  of  these  events,  fought 
his  last  battle  with  Soult  at  Toulouse  (April  10.)  In  that  san- 
guinary but  fruitless  engagement,  the  French  vrere  totally  de- 
feated. 

In  Italy,  an  event  not  a  little  extraordinar}^  had  happened. 
Murat  had  turned  his  back  on  his  benefactor,  who  had  raised 
nim  from  the  dust  to  encircle  his  brow  with  a  diadem.  From 
the  commencement  of  the  year  1813,  he  had  endeavoured  to 
have  his  title  acknowledged  by  the  House  of  Austria.  After 
the  battle  of  Leipsic,  he  abandoned  the  Continental  system,  from 
a  wish  to  please  England,  and  throw  open  the  ports  of  his  king- 
dom to  all  sorts  of  merchandise.     He  entered  into  a  nesrotiation 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  279 

with  the  Courts  both  of  London  and  Vienna,  with  a  view  to  be 
admitted  into  the  grand  alliance  ;  at  the  same  time,  he  set  on 
foot  an  army  of  34,000  men,  who  entered  Rome-  and  directed 
their  march  towards  Ancona.  Austria  concluded  an  alliance 
with  him  (Jan.  11,  1814,)  which  guaranteed  to  him  the  posses- 
sion of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  with  the  reservation  of  an  in- 
demnity for  the  King  of  Sicily.  Immediately  after,  Murat  an- 
nounced the  change  in  his  political  conduct.  He  blockaded  the 
citadel  of  Ancona,  took  possession  of  Florence,  where  his  sister- 
in-law,  the  Grand  Dutchess,  escaped  to  save  her  life,  and  pushed 
on  as  far  as  Modena.  Lord  Bentinck,  who  commanded  the 
British  forces  in  Sicily,  then  concluded  an  armistice  with  Murat. 
Eugene  Beauharnais,  v/ho  had  supposed  that  the  Neapolitan 
armj'-  would  come  to  his  succour,  was  at  length  undeceived,  and 
obliged  to  retreat  on  the  Mincio  ;  but  he  fought  a  battle  with 
Field-Marshal  Bellegarde  who  commanded  the  Austrians  in  the 
room  of  Hiller  (Feb.  8.)  which  cost  the  latter  the  loss  of  8,500 
men,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  Fouche,  who  was  at 
Lucca  as  Commissary-general  of  Bonaparte,  concluded  a  con- 
vention with  the  Neapolitans,  in  virtue  of  which  Tuscany  was 
restored  to  them.  The  Viceroy,  seeing  himself  pressed  on  the 
one  hand  by  the  Austrians,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Neapolitans  ; 
and  having  received  intelligence  of  the  entrance  of  the  allies 
into  Paris,  negotiated  an  armistice,  which  was  signed  at  Schia- 
rino  Rizzino  (April  16.)  A  feu^  days  after,  his  friends  made  an 
attempt  to  have  him  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  by  the  people  of 
Milan.  But  the  hatred  which  the  Italians  had  for  the  French 
prevailed  over  their  attachment  to  the  Viceroy,  who  wisely  adopt- 
ed the  resolution  of  surrendering  all  the  places  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  to  the  Austrian  troops,  and  retired  with  his  family  to 
Germany. 

The  Senate  of  France  had,  with  all  expedition,  completed  and 
published  a  pretended  constitution  (April  6,)  in  which  two  things 
especially  shocked  the  opinion  of  the  public,  viz.  the  care  which 
the  q.uthors  of  that  production  had  taken  to  secure  the  continu- 
anc,  of  their  own  authority  with  the  revenues  thereto  attached, 
and  the  violation  of  the  first  principle  of  monarchy  of  which  they 
had  been  guilty,  by  arrogating  to  themselves  the  right  of  con- 
fcr''ing  the  crown  of  France  on  him  to  whom  it  belonged  by 
birth-right,  and  wdio,  far  from  renouncing  it,  had  taken  care  to 
se'^ure  his  riofhts  by  formal  protestations.  Within  six  days  after, 
th°  Count  D'Artois,  the  King's  Lieutenant-general,  arrived  in 
P'ris,  and  concluded  a  convention  with  the  allies  (April  23,)  as 
a  »;)relude  to  a  general  peace.  They  engaged  to  evacuate  the 
I  critory  of  France  ;  and  they  settled   the  terms  on  which  the 


2S0  CHAPTER  XII. 

places  possessed  by  the  French  troops  not  within  their  owti 
territories,  were  to  be  delivered  up.  The  King  of  France  had 
landed  at  Calais  (April  25,)  and  was  slo^vly  approaching  his 
capital.  A  declaration,  which  he  published  at  St.  Ouen  (May 
2,)  annulled  the  constitution  of  the  Senate,  and  promised  the 
nation  a  charter,  the  principles  of  which  were  announced  in  that 
same  declaration.  Next  day  Louis  XVIII.  made  his  solemn 
entry  into  Paris. 

The  first  care  of  Louis  was  to  conclude  peace  with  the  Allies. 
A  military  convention  was  signed  (May  28,)  regulating  differ- 
ent points  regarding  the  maintenance  and  march  of  the  troops, 
hospitals,  magazines,  &c.  ;  and  immediately  treaties  of  peace 
were  concluded  with  the  four  grand  powers  (May  30,)  to  which 
the  others  acceded.  France  was  to  return  to  her  ancient  limits 
of  January  1,  1792,  with  an  augmentation  of  territory  on  the 
north  side".  She  likewise  retained  Avignon  and  the  County  of 
Yenaissin.  Louis  XVIII.  adhered  to  the  principles  of  the  al- 
liance of  Chaumont,  as  to  the  political  system  to  be  established 
in  Europe.  England  retained  Malta,  but  gave  up  the  French 
colonies,  with  the  exception  of  Tobago,  St.  Lucia,  and  the  Isle 
of  France,  with  their  dependencies.  Guiana,  which  had  been 
taken  from  Portugal,  was  restored.  Certain  secret  articles 
pointed  out  the  manner  in  which  the  Allied  Powers  were  to  dis- 
l)0se  of  the  territories  surrendered  by  France  ;  and  annulled  the 
endowments  and  donations  made  by  Bonaparte  in  these  territo- 
ries. Certain  special  articles  were  added  with  regard  to  Prus- 
sia, which  annulled  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  all  its  consequences. 

In  the  month  of  June,  the  Emperor  Alexander,  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  Prince  Metternich,  repaired  to  London,  where  they 
concluded  a  new  quadruple  alliance,  by  which  the  contracting 
powers  engaged  to  keep  on  foot  an  army  of  75,000  men  each, 
until  the  restoration  of  order  in  Europe.  The  sovereigns 
agreed  also,  during  their  stay  in  London,  that  Belgium  should 
be  united  to  Holland,  with  which  it  was  to  form  one  and  the 
same  State. 

Immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  Louis  XVIII. 
published  the  charter  or  Constitution  which  he  proposed  to  the 
nation.  This  was  not  a  constitution  in  the  sense  which  had 
been  attached  to  that  word  since  the  year  1789  ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
body  of  laws  or  regulations,  fully  and  finally  settling  the  prero- 
gative of  the  King,  and  the  powers  of  the  different  authorities, 
as  well  as  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  citizens.  It  was  a 
declaration  by  which  the  King,  in  conformity  with  the  principles 
which  had  prevailed  for  a  century,  modified  the  Royal  poAver 
in  certain  respects,  and  promised  never  to  exercise  it  in  future 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1810—1815.  281 

pxcept  according  to  the  established  forms.  Thus  the  Ro3ral 
authority,  which  Louis  XVIII.  derived  from  his  ancestors,  and 
which  was  founded  on  the  ancient  order  of  succession,  remained 
inviolate  and  entire  in  all  its  branches. 

The  peace  of  Paris  gave  rise  to  a  multitude  of  treaties  be- 
tween the  different  powers  of  Europe.  Of  these  we  can  only- 
notice  a  small  number,  which  we  shall  do  when  we  come  to 
speak  of  the  history  of  these  countries.  Meantime,  we  must 
confine  our  remarks  to  general  affairs,  and  more  particularly  to 
those  in  which  France  is  concerned. 

An  article  in  the  treaty  of  Paris,  of  May  30th,  had  stipulated 
that  within  the  space  of  two  months,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  all 
the  powers  who  had  taken  part  in  the  late  events,  France  in- 
I'luded,  should  meet  in  a  general  Congres-s  at  Vienna,  to  concert 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  completing  the  conditions  and 
regulations  of  the  treaty.  The  reconstruction  of  Germany  into 
a  body  politic  ;  the  replacing  of  Prussia  and  Austria  on  a  foot- 
ing analogous  to  the  power  which  they  had  enjoyed  in  1806 
and  1805 ;  the  fate  of  Poland ;  the  establishment  of  an  inde- 
pendent state  between  France  and  Germany  ;  the  neutrality  of 
Switzerland ;  the  organization  of  Italy,  which  had  been  com- 
pletely subverted  by  Bonaparte  ;  the  regulating  of  the  indem- 
nities which  might  be  claimed  by  the  different  States  who  had 
taken  a  part  in  the  war  ;  and  the  settling  of  th^  territorial  ex- 
changes to  which  these  claims  might  give  rise,  were  the  im- 
portant objects  about  which  the  plenipotentiaries  were  neces- 
sarily to  be  employed.  To  these  England  added  one  subject 
which  might  appear  foreign  to  the  business  of  that  Congress, 
viz.  the  question  as  to  the  abolition  of  Negro  Slavery  ;  ano- 
ther arose  from  the  most  unexpected  event  of  Napoleon's  return, 
which  compelled  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  again  to  take  arms, 
and  to  conquer  France  a  second  time. 

Owing  to  different  causes,  the  opening  of  the  Congress  did 
not  take  place  till  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  We  ma}'  men- 
tion, with  regard  to  the  form  of  the  Congress,  that  althoagh  it 
was  composed  of  the  plenipotentairies  of  all  the  allies,  great  and 
small,  they  never  held  any  general  Session,  The  affairs  of 
Germany  were  kept  distinct  from  those  of  the  rest  of  Europe  ; 
theCongresSjConsisting  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  five  great 
powers,  namely,  Austria,  France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  and 
Russia  ;  and  the  other  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of  these  and 
the  remaining  powers;  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Sweden,  being* 
added  to  the  first  five.  The  questions  relating  to  Germany, 
w^ere  discussed  at  first  by  Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Hanover, 
ar.d  Wurtemberg  ;  although,  afterwards,  all  the  sovereigns  of 

VOL.  II.  5>4  ^ 


232  ClIAPTKR  XII. 

Germany  were  called  into  these  deliberations.  There  were 
certain  affairs  which  were  prepared  and  discussed  by  special 
commissions. 

The  subject  which  occasioned  the  gTeatest  difficulty,  and 
which  was  even  on  the  point  of  disturbing  the  unanimity  of  the 
Cabinets,  was  the  reconstruction  of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 
Prussia  was  to  be  restored  to  all  that  she  had  possessed  in  1S05, 
except  the  principalities  of  Franconia,  which  were  in  the  pos- 
session of  Bavaria  ;  the  district  of  Bialystock  which  was  an- 
nexed to  Russia  ;  and  the  grand  dutchy  of  Posnania,  which 
Alexander  had  declared  his  intention  of  comprehending  in  the 
kingdom  of  Poland  which  he  proposed  to  restore.  Frederic 
William  promised  to  cede  to  Flanover  a  territory  inhabited  by 
between  three  and  four  hundred  thousand  souls.  For  these 
losses  he  claimed  an  indemnity  ;  and  as  Saxony  was  the  only 
kingdom  which  could  offer  him  compensation,  Great  Britain, 
Russia,  and  Austria,  had  consented  to  an  acquisition  which 
seemed  to  be  justified  by  the  conduct  of  the  King  of  Saxony, 
who  in  1807  had  shared  the  spoils  of  Prussia,  and  in  1813  had 
made  common  cause  with  Bonaparte. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  thus  put  Prussia  in  possession  of 
Saxon}^  which  her  troops  had  till  then  occupied.  The  man- 
ner, hov/ever,  in  which  public  opinion  in  England  and  in  Eu- 
rope generally  had  expressed  itself  against  the  designs  of  Prus- 
sia, and  the  insinuations  of  the  French  minister  at  Vienna, 
induced  Austria  and  the  Cabinet  of  London  to  oppose  the  exe- 
cution of  this  plan,  not  only  by  interesting  themselves  for  the 
preservation  of  Saxony,  but  by  disputing  the  claims  advanced 
by  Prussia,  and  refusing  to  allow  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw  to  fall 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  Russia,  The  Emperor  Alexander, 
who  concurred  entirely  with  Prussia,  supported  it  with  all  his 
efforts.  Being  apprized,  however,  that  Austria,  France,  and 
Great  Britain  had  just  concluded  an  alliance  or  agreement  which 
appeared  to  have  some  reference  to  the  fate  of  Saxony,  anc! 
wishing  to  remove  every  ground  of  misunderstanding,  he  offerea 
to  augment- the  portion  of  Prussia  on  the  side  of  Poland,  and 
rtd vised  her  to  be  content  with  the  moiety  of  Saxony  which  was 
offered  her,  and  to  accept  the  provinces  beyond  the  Rhine,  which 
were  also  destined  for  her. 

The  five  powers  having  come  to  an  agreement  on  these  points 
(Feb.  12,)  the  king  of  Saxony  was  invited  to  come  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Vienna.  Ever  since  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  that 
Prince  had  remained  in  a  kind  of  captivity  at  Fredericsfeldt  near 
Berlin,  He  accepted  the  invitation  and  repaired  to  Vienna,  but 
he  refused  to  consent  to  the  cessions  Vv^hich  they  demanded  of 


PERIOD  IX.   A.  D.  ISIO— 1S15.  2S3 

him.  His  refusal  induced  the  five  great  powers  to  go  to  greater 
excess ;  "ihey  ordained  that,  until  the  King  should  have  come  to 
a  determination,  Prussia  should  remain  in  possession  of  the 
whole  of  Saxony.  Frederic  Augustus  was  obliged  to  yield  to 
the  course  of  events,  and  ratified  a  treaty  whicJi  was  signed  at 
Vienna  (May  18.)  That  part  of  his  kingdom  which  was  ceded 
to  Prussia  was  named  the  Dutchy  of  Saxony. 

The  organization  of  Germany  into  a  Confederacy,  to  be  com- 
posed of  sovereign  States,  was,  next  to  the  settlement  of  Prussia, 
the  object  which  occasioned  the  greatest  embarrassment.  But 
as  France  and  Russia  took  no  direct  part  in  it,  and  as  for  that 
reason  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  belong  to  the  class  of  general 
affairs,  we  shall  not  now  speak  of  it.  The  same  must  be  done 
with  regard  to  all  the  negotiations  concerning  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  of  which  we  shall  speak  elsewhere. 

Great  Britain  had  introduced  the  question  as  to  Negro  Sla- 
very, of  which,  in  the  name  of  humanity  and  religion,  she  de- 
manded the  entire  abolition,  by  a  decree  of  all  Europe.  Den- 
mark had  prohibited  that  traffic  long  before  England.  Neither 
Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  nor  Sweden,  had  any  motive  for 
favouring  it ;  but  it  was  not  the  case  with  Portugal,  Spain,  and 
France,  who  referred,  with  reason,  to  the  example  of  England 
herself,  for  resisting  the  introduction  of  any  sudden  change 
which  would  be  pernicious  to  the  state  of  their  colonies,  and 
might  ruin  the  fortune  of  their  subjects.  These  powers  readily 
agreed  to  combine  with  England  for  the  abolition  of  the  trade  ; 
but  they  wished  that  it  should  be  left  to  each  of  them  to  fix  the 
term  on  which  they  could  do  so  to  the  most  advantage.  This 
question  was  made  the  subject  of  discussion  in  the  conferences 
between  the  eight  powers  at  Vienna.  Lord  Castlereagh  de- 
manded, in  'the  name  of  the  British  government,  that  all  the 
powers  should  announce  their  support  of  the  general  principle 
of  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  their  wish  to  carry  that 
measure  into  effect  with  the  shortest  possible  delay.  This  pro- 
position was  unanimously  adopted  ;  but  the  other  proposal  which 
he  made,  to  inquire  into  the  possibility  of  an  immediate  aboli- 
tion, or  at  least,  into  the  period  vv^ien  each  of  the  powers  might 
be  able  to  fix  its  ultimate  abolition  ;  and  a  third  by  which  he 
v/ished  to  obtain  an  immediate  partial  abolition  of  that  traffic,  met 
with  the  most  decided  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  three  States 
who  had  foreign  colonies.  As  the  four  other  powers  had  no 
right  to  interfere  in  the  internal  legislation  of  these  States,  the 
Declaration  which  the  Congress  published  (Feb.  S,)  proclaimed 
the  principle  recognised  by  them  all,  viz.  that  the  determination 
of  the  period  when  the  trade  was  to  cease  generally  should  be 
left  to  the  negotiations  of  the  contracting  powers. 


284  CHAPTER  XII. 

Europe  was  in  the  enjo3^ment  of  apparent  tranquillity,  when 
Bonaparte  quitted  Elba,  landed  with  a  thousand  adA^enturers  on 
the  shores  of  France  (March  1,)  invited  his  former  friends  to  join 
him,  and  deceiving  the  inhabitants  by  pretending  to  be  supported 
by  Austria,  marched  towards  Paris,  which  he  entered  within 
twenty  days  after  his  landing.  The  King  and  the  Royal  Family 
were  again  obliged  to  retire  to  Lille.  When  Louis  arrived  in 
that  city,  he  signed  an  order  for  disbanding  the  army  ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  troops  had  already  sworn  allegiance  to  Napo- 
leon. Finding  himself  insecure  at  Lille,  the  King  retired  to 
Ghent  (March  30.)  Bonaparte  published  a  new  constitution 
(April  22,)  under  the  title  of  The  Additional  Act  to  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  Emfpire.  One  of  the  articles  which  it  contained, 
pronounced  the  perpetual  banishment  of  the  Bourbons.  In  order 
to  flatter  the  partisans  of  the  sovereign  people,  this  act  was  sub- 
mitted for  their  acceptance,  and  Bonaparte  summoned  an  assem- 
bly of  extraordinary  deputies,  to  meet  in  the  Champ  de  Mai.  He 
likewise  summoned  a  Chamber  of  the  Representatives,  or  Legis- 
lative Body.  The  meeting  of  the  Champ  de  Mai  was  held  ;  and 
two  days  after,  a  Chamber  of  Peers,  created  by  Bonaparte,  and 
a  Chamber  of  the  Representatives  of  the  Nation,  opened  their 
sessions. 

So  soon  as  the  news  of  the  landing  of  Bonaparte  in  France 
was  received  at  Vienna,  the  eight  contracting  powers  published 
a  declaration,  importing,  that  as  Bonaparte  had  thus  broken  the 
convention  which  had  placed  him  in  the  Island  of  Elba,  he  had 
destroyed  the  only  legal  title  on  which  his  existence  depended; 
and  had  thus  forfeited  all  relations,  civil  and  social.  The  allied 
sovereigns  refused  to  receive  the  letters  by  which  he  announced 
to  them  that  he  had  again  taken  possession  of  the  throne  of 
France.  Being  of  opinion,  that  the  time  was  come  for  executing 
the  engagements  they  had  contracted  at  Chaumont,  the  four 
powers  who  were  parties  to  that  treaty,  renewed  their  engage- 
ments by  new  treaties  of  alliance  (March  25.)  They  proinised 
to  combine  all  their  forces  for  maintaining  the  treaty  of  Paris  of 
May  30th  1814,  and  to  set  on  foot,  each  of  them,  an  army  of 
180,000  men.  By  an  additional  convention.  Great  Britain  un- 
dertook to  pay  to  the  three  others,  subsidies  to  the  amount  of 
5,000,000Z.  Sterling  "per  annum.  All  the  princes  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation. — Portugal,  Sardinia,  the  Netherlands,  Switzer- 
land, and  Denmark,  acceded  to  this  alliance  ;  and  Great  Bri- 
tain granted  subsidies  to  them  all,  proportioned  to  the  forces 
which  they  might  send  into  the  field.  Of  all  the  powers  having 
plenipotentiaries  at  Vienna,  Spain  and  Sweden  only  declined 
entering  into  this  alliance.     The  King  of  Spain  refused  his  3C- 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810— 1815.  285 

cession,  as  being  contrary  to  his  dignity  ;  he  would  have  had  no 
objections  to  have  become  a  principal  party,  and  he  co-operated 
as  such  in  the  war.  Sweden  was  too  much  occupied  with  the 
conquest  of  Norway  to  take  any  part  in  the  deliverance  of  France. 

There  was  still  another  monarch  who  had  not  joined  the  alli- 
ance of  Vienna,  and  that  was  Murat.  The  King  of  France  had 
refused  to  acknowledge  him  as  King  of  TSiaples,  and  Lord  Cas- 
tlereagh  had  declared  at  Vienna,  that  Great  Britain  could  not 
treat  with  Murat,  as  he  had  not  fuHilled  his  engagements  ;  and, 
therefore,  that  it  depended  on  the  Congress  to  decide  as  to  the 
fate  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  These  declarations  induced 
Murat  to  take  arms  ;  nevertheless,  he  continued  to  dissemble, 
until  he  learned  that  Bonaparte  had  arrived  at  Lyons.  Then 
it  was  that  he  threw  off  the  mask.  He  marched  at  the  head  of 
his  army  towards  the  Fo,  and  issued  a  proclamation  (March  80,) 
by  which  he  proclaimed  liberty  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Italy. 
The  Austrian  army  in  that  peninsula,  immediately  put  them- 
selves in  motion  to  oppose  him.  Being  defeated  at  Tolentino  by 
General  Bianchi  (May  2,)  he  retreated  first  to  Naples,  and  after 
a  short  stay  there,  he  took  refuge  in  France.  The  government 
of  Ferdinand  IV.  was  again  restored. 

Meantime,  as  the  partisans  of  Bonaparte,  and  the  revolution- 
ists every  where,  were  at  great  pains  to  propagate  and  cherish 
doubts  as  to  the  determination  of  the  allied  sovereigns  to  follow 
up  the  act  of  the  13th  March,  which  had  been  adopted  at  a 
time  when  it  was  hoped  that  France  would  have  no  more  need 
of  foreign  aid ;  the  allied  sovereigns  deemed  it  necessary  to 
make  known  the  expression  of  their  principles  by  a  solemxU  act ; 
to  which  they  gave  the  form  of  a  vToces-verhal.,  or  edict,  signed 
by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  eight  powers.  The  publication 
of  that  act  was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  against  Bona- 
parte. It  opened  the  eyes  of  those  credulous  followers  who  had 
till  then  believed  that  Austria  and  Russia  were  on  friendly 
terms  with  him. 

All  the  negotiations  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  being  termi- 
nated by  the  signing  of  the  Act  of  the  Germanic  Confederation, 
which  took  place  on  June  Sth,  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  eight 
contracting  powers  next  day  signed  the  Act  of  Congress,  which 
was  a  recapitulation  or  abstract  of  all  their  preceding  regula- 
tions, either  by  particular  treaties  or  by  declarations  and  edicts, 
(or  protocols,  as  they  are  sometimes  called  at  Vienna,)  relative 
to  Poland,  the  territorial  arrangements  in  Gernian}^  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation,  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  Portugal,  the  navigation  of  rivers,  the  rank  of  dip- 
lomatic agents,  and  the  form  of  accessions  aiid  ratifications  of 


2S6  CHAPTER  XII. 

the  act  itself.  Thus  did  this  august  assemhly  terminate  its 
labours. 

All  army  of  1,365,000  men  were  preparing  to  invade  France, 
but  the  struggle  against  Bonaparte  was  decided  by  about 
200,000  ;  and  not  more  than  500,000  foreigners  set  foot  on  the 
soil  of  France.     The  allies  had  formed  four  armies,  viz. 

The  Army  of  the  Netherlands,  commanded  by  Lord  Welling- 
ton, consisting  of  71,000  English,  Hanoverians,  and  Bruns- 
wickers,  with  the  troops  of  the  Netherlands  and  Nassau. 

The  Army  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  consisting  of  140,000  Prus- 
sians, under  the  command  of  Blucher. 

The  Army  of  the  Upper  Rhi7ie,  commanded  by  Schwartzen- 
berg,  and  consisting  of  130,000  Austrian,  and  124,000  German 
troops. 

The  Ar?ny  of  the  Middle  Rhine,  168,000  strong,  under  the 
command  of  Barclay  de  Toll)^  They  were  to  be  stationed  be- 
tween the  two  preceding  armies,  but  they  were  unable  to  arrive 
in  time  at  the  scene  of  action,  and  the  campaign  was  decided 
by  the  first  two  armies  alone. 

The  forces  of  Bonaparte  amounted  to  213,000  men,  exclusive 
of  147,000  of  the  national  guard  to  be  employed  in  garrison. 
He  had  divided  them  into  eight  armies.  That  of  the  north, 
which  he  commanded  himself,  consisted  of  108,000  men. 

Bonaparte  opened  the  campaign  on  the  15ih  June,  by  de- 
taching a  second  corps  across  the  Sambre,  to  attack  the  Prussian 
General  Zieten,  who  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  superior 
strength  of  the  enemy,  and  retire  towards  Fleurus.  Next  day 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  had  left  Brussels  at  the  head  of 
12,000  men  to  support  the  Prussians,  was  killed  at  Quatre  Bras  ; 
Marshal  Ney,  who  commanded  the  French,  sustained  a  consi- 
derable loss ;  on  the  same  day  Marshal  Blucher  was  defeated 
at  Ligny,  but  he  retired  in  the  greatest  order  to  Brie.  Bona- 
parte from  that  moment  resolved  to  attack  Wellington,  who 
gave  him  battle  at  Waterloo,  or  Mont  St.  Jean.  The  combat 
Vi^as  continued,  with  various  success,  from  morning  till  four 
o'clock,  when  the  Prussians,  consisting  of  General  Bulow's  di- 
vision, and  commanded  by  Blucher  in  person,  approached  the 
field  of  battle,  and  fell  suddenly  on  the  right  wing  of  the  French, 
while  Bonaparte  supposed  that  the  whole  Prussian  army  was 
engaged  with  Grouchy,  whom  he  had  sent  against  them  with  a 
detachment  of  40,000  men.  On  the  fii-^t  appearance  of  the 
Prussians,  Bonaparte  supposed  that  it  was  General  Grouchy, 
who  after  having  defeated  the  Prussians,  was  marching  to  the 
support  of  his  right  wing.  The  fact  is,  that  General  Thiel- 
mans,  having  been  attacked  by  Grouchy  near  Wavre,  Blucher 


,   PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  287 

had  sent  him  word  to  defend  himself  the  best  way  he  could, 
and  did  not  allow  himself  to  be  diverted  from  his  orig-inal  plan 
of  falling  upon  the  right  wing  of  Bonaparte.  When  Bonaparte 
at  length  discovered  his  error,  he  lost  all  resolution.  His  army- 
were  panic-struck,  and  fled  in  all  directions.  He  was  himself 
nearly  taken  prisoner,  having  escaped  with  great  difficulty. 
The  Germans  have  given  this  battle  the  name  of  Belle  Alliance, 
from  the  house  where  Blucher  and  "Wellington  met  after  the 
action.  Of  120,000  French,  60,000  were  either  taken  or  killed 
in  the  two  days  of  the  16th  and  18ih  June  1815;  64,000  Eng- 
lish, and  50,000  Prussians  were  engaged  in  the  battle.  The 
English  lost  14,000  men  on  the  18th,  and  the  Prussians  33,000 
in  the  two  engagements  of  the  16th  and  18th. 

Bonaparte  made  his  escape  to  Paris,  but  the  Chamber  of 
Representatives,  composed  of  the  partisans  of  the  Revolution  of 
1789,  and  of  Republicans  who  had  no  wish  to  promote  the  in- 
terest of  Bonaparte,  except  as  an  instrument  for  the  execution 
of  their  own  plans,  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the  con- 
tempt into  which  he  had  fallen  to  get  rid  of  his  presence.  They 
required  him  to  abdicate,  which  he  did  June  22d,  in  favour  of 
his  son.  The  Chambers  appointed  a  government  commission, 
at  the  head  of  which  they  placed  Fouche,  who  sent  deputies  to 
Heidelberg,  where  the  head-quarters  of  the  Allied  Sovereigns 
then  were,  with  a  commission  to  treat  with  them  on  the  basis 
of  the  national  independence,  and  the  inviolability  of  the  soil 
of  France.  But  as  there  was  no  mention  made  in  the  proposi- 
tions about  the  restoration  of  the  King,  the  allies  refused  to 
treat  until  Bonaparte  should  first  be  delivered  up  to  them, 

Bonaparte  had  demanded  of  Wellington  and  Blucher,  pass- 
ports for  quitting  France  ;  and  on  being  refused,  the  govern- 
ment commission  conveyed  him  to  Rochefort,  where  he  was  to 
embark  on  board  a  frigate  and  go  to  America.  Bat  Captain 
Maitland,  who  was  cruising  off  that  port  with  an  English  ves- 
sel, prevented  him  from  leaving  the  place  unless  he  would  sur- 
render to  the  English,  on  which  condition  he  promised  to 
guarantee  his  life.  The  danger  becoming  every  day  more 
pressing,  he  at  length  saw  himself  compelled  to  submit.  The 
Bellerophon,  with  Bonaparte  on  board,  arrived  in  Torbay  (July 
24,)  but  the  English  government  would  not  permit  the  General 
to  set  foot  on  land.  By  a  convention  signed  by  the  allies  at 
Paris  (Aug.  2,)  England  took  upon  herself  the  charge  of  keep- 
ing guard  over  him  at  St.  Helena.  He  was  accordingly  trans- 
ported to  that  island,  where  he  remained  till  his  death,  which 
happened  May  5th,  1821. 

After  the  battle  of  the  18th  June,  Wellington  and  Blucher 


28S  •  CHAPTER  XII. 

marched  immediately  to  Paris,  as  did  also  the  army  of  Schwart- 
zenberg  by  way  of  Nancy.  Davoust  had  joined  the  fugitives  ; 
and  as  Grouchy  had  had  the  good  fortune  to  save  his  division,  they 
were  enabled  to  form  a  new  army  of  60,000  men,  which  made 
some  attempts  to  defend  Paris.  Several  engagements  took  place 
at  Sevres  and  Issy ;  after  which  Marshal  Davoust  announced  to 
the  two  Field-Marshals  that  Paris  w^as  on  the  point  of  surren- 
dering. A  capitulation  was  signed  at  St.  Cloud  (July  3,)  and 
the  French  army  retired  behind  the  Loire. 

The  allies  occupied  Paris  on  the  7th  July,  and  Louis  XVIIL 
entered  on  the  following  day.  Within  two  days  after,  the  Allied 
Sovereigns  arrived.  A  decree  of  24th  July  declared  twenty- 
nine  individuals,  named  in  1S14,  unw'orthy  of  their  countr}?', 
as  having  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Bonaparte,  and  sworn  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  Bourbons.  Nineteen  persons  accused  of  having 
betrayed  the  King  before  the  23d  March,  were  remitted  to  the 
tribunals  ;  thirty-eight  other  individuals  were  ordered  to  quit 
Paris.  These  latter  were  in  general  relapsed  regicides,  that  is. 
persons  who,  after  having  obtained  pardon  in  1814,  had,  in  1815; 
signed  the  banishment  of  the  Bourbons  ;  for  the  King  never 
broke  his  word  of  honour  given  to  the  primar}'-  regicides,  to 
leave  them  to  the  remonstrances  of  their  own  conscience.  Some 
months  after  (Jan.  12,  1816,)  the  decree  of  July  24th  was 
changed  into  a  law ;  with  this  modification,  that  the  relapsed 
regicides  were  to  be  exiled  from  the  soil  of  France.  Of  the  in- 
dividuals arraigned  before  the  tribunals,  two  only  were  executed, 
Marshal  Ney  and  Colonel  Labedoyere  ;  a  third  (Lavalette,)  was 
saved  by  the  courage  of  his  wdfe.  The  clemency  of  the  King 
threw  a  veil  over  all  other  crimes. 

The  army  of  the  Loire  submitted  to  the  King  ;  but  the  war 
continued,  nevertheless,  for  some  time  on  the  frontiers  of  France, 
as  it  was  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  allies  to  occupy  all  the  for- 
tresses ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the  commandants  refused  to  re- 
ceive them.  The  allies  were  at  length  convinced,  that  in  order 
to  secure  the  tranquillity  of  France,  it  was  necessary  to  take 
more  vigorous  measures  than  they  had  done  in  1814 ;  but  it 
was  not  until  the  month  of  September  that  their  plan  was  suf- 
ficiently matured  to  enable  them  to  open  negotiations  with  France. 
They  had  many  difficulties  to  encounter  ;  and  the  treaty  be- 
tween France  and  the  Allies  was  not  signed  until  the  20th  No- 
vember. According  to  that  treaty,  France  made  several  terri- 
torial cessions  to  the  Netherlands,  Prussia,  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Switzerland,  and  the  King  of  Sardinia. 

It  was  agreed,  that  France  should  pay  to  the  allies  a  pecuni- 
ary indemnity  of  seven  hundred  millions  of  francs  ;  that  150,000 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  ISlO — 1815.  2S9 

of  the  allied  troops  should  occupy  certain  places  in  France  foi 
6ve  years ;  and  that  they  should  be  paid  and  maintained  by 
France.  By  an  additional  article,  they  engaged  reciprocally  to 
concert  measures  for  obtaining  the  entire  and  final  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade. 

The  same  day,  Austria,  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia, 
concluded  an  alliance  for  the  following  purposes: — (1.)  The 
maintenance  of  the  treaties  and  conventions  which  had  just  been 
concluded:  And,  (2.)  The  perpetual  exclusion  of  Napoleon  Bo- 
naparte and  his  family  from  the  sovereignty  of  France  ;  the 
maintenance  of  tranquillity  in  that  country  ;  and  the  suppression 
of  revolutionary  principles,  so  that  they  might  never  again  dis- 
tract France,  or  threaten  the  repose  of  Europe.  For  this  two- 
fold object,  the  allies  agreed  to  furnish  their  contingents  as  de- 
termined by  the  alliance  of  Chaumont ;  finally,  they  agreed  to 
have  another  personal  conference  in  the  course  of  the  year  1818. 

Prior  to  this  quadruple  alliance  which,  by  securing  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  on  the  throne  of  France,  forms 
one  of  the  bases  of  the  new  political  system  of  Europe,  the  Em- 
perors of  Austria  and  Russia,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  signed 
at  Paris  (Sept.  26,)  an  Act,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Alliance,  \y\\\q\\  forms  the  second  basis  of  the  same  system.  The 
real  object  of  this  alliance  was  doubtless  a  mutual  guarantee 
against  any  encroachments  which  might  be  made  on  their  sov- 
ereign power  ;  to  disguise  this,  it  set  forth  their  firm  determina- 
tion to  take  no  other  rule  for  their  conduct  than  the  precepts  of 
the  Christian  religion.  They  promised  to  continue  in  the  in- 
dissoluble bonds  of  brotherly  union,  and  to  be  ready  on  all  occa- 
sions, and  in  all  places,  to  succour  and  assist  each  other — to 
consider  themselves  but  as  members  of  the  same  Christian  na- 
tion, and  as  delegated  by  Providence  to  govern  three  branches 
of  the  same  family  ;  and  finally,  to  receive  into  the  same  alliance 
all  other  powers  who  were  willing  to  profess  the  same  principles 
which  had  dictated  that  act.  All  the  Christian  powers  in  Eu- 
rope acceded  to  the  treaties  and  conventions  of  the  20th  Novem- 
ber 1815,  except  Sweden,  who  had  taken  no  share  in  the  war. 
They  all  entered  into  the  Holy  Alliance,  except  the  King  of 
Great  Britain,  who,  while  he  fully  sanctioned  the  principles  set 
forth  in  that  Act,  was  prevented  from  signing  it,  because,  accord- 
ing to  the  constitutional  custom  of  England,  the  Sovereign  signs 
nothing  without  the  countersigning  of  a  responsible  minister. 

Here  it  will  be  necessary  briefly  to  point  out  the  more  impor 
tant  events  w^hich  happened  since  1811  in  the  other  European 
States,  and  the  changes  which  were  produced  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna. 

VOL.  IT  25 


290  CHAPTER  xir. 

Portugal  seemed  destined  to  be  nothing  more  in  future  than 
a  dependency  of  Brazil,  in  a  political  point  of  view,  as  she  al- 
ready was  of  England  with  respect  to  agriculture,  industry,  and 
commerce.  The  latter  power  attached  so  great  an  importance 
to  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  that  by  a  treaty  signed  during 
the  conferences  at  Vienna,  she  had  purchased  the  effective  co- 
operation of  Portugal  in  this  measure,  by  giving  up  all  the  ad- 
vantages which  she  had  reserved  to  herself  by  the  treaty  of  Rio 
Janeiro  of  February  19th  1810,  which  she  consented  to  annul ; 
nevertheless,  Portugal  only  prohibited  her  subjects  conditionally 
from  carrying  on  the  slave  trade  in  that  part  of  Africa  lying  to 
the  north  of  the  Equator. 

In  Spain,  the  Extraordinary  Cortes  then  assembled  at  Cadiz, 
after  having  published  a  decree,  January  1,  1811,  importing  that 
they  could  make  no  treaty  with  France  until  the  King  enjoyed 
full  liberty,  and  that  he  could  not  be  regarded  as  at  liberty  until 
he  had  taken  the  constitutional  oath,  finished  the  work  which 
they  alleged  had  been  intrusted  to  their  hands.  Their  constitu- 
tion, which  was  founded  on  the  principle  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people,  intrusted  the  legislative  power  to  a  popular  assembly, 
and  the  execution  of  the  laws  to  a  functionary  with  limited  au- 
thority, decorated  with  the  title  of  a  King,  was  published  on  the 
18th  of  March  1812.  In  violation  of  historic  truth,  it  was  an- 
nounced to  the  world  as  the  genuine  ancient  constitution  of  Spain. 
The  Cortes  terminated  their  session  on  the  20th  September 
1813.  The  nev/  or  ordinary  Cortes,  convened  in  the  constitu- 
tional form  at  the  rate  of  one  deputy  for  every  70,000  inhabitants, 
without  distinction  of  fortune  or  estate,  transferred  their  sitting 
to  Madrid  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  It  was  this  extraordi- 
nary meeting  of  the  Cortes  that  concluded  a  treaty  of  friendship 
and  alliance  (July  28,  1813)  with  the  Emperor  of  Russia  at 
Weliki-Louki,  where  he  had  then  his  head-quarters.  Alexan- 
der there  acknowledged  the  Cortes  and  their  constitution.  That 
acknowledgment  was  extremely  simple.  Alexander  could  no* 
treat  except  with  the  government  then  established.  That  gov- 
ernment acted  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  their  acts 
were  to  be  regarded  as  legitimate  so  long  as  that  prince  had  not 
disavowed  them.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  had  neither  the  will 
nor  the  power  to  lend  his  sanction  to  an  order  of  things  which 
had  not  the  approbation  of  a  King,  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  lib- 
erty It  was  in  this  same  sense  that  the  King  of  Prussia  enter- 
ed into  an  alliance  with  the  Spanish  government,  by  a  treaty 
which  was  signed  at  Basle  (Jan.  20,  1814.) 

After  returning  from  the  campaign  of  1813,  Bonaparte  con- 
sidering Spain  as  lost,  resolved  to  set  Ferdinand  VII.  at  liberty  , 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1810—1815.  291 

but  in  the  hope  of  turning  that  tardy  act  of  justice  to  his  advan- 
tage by  making  that  prince  his  friend,  he  represented  Spain  as 
overrun  with  Jacobinism,  which  was  labouring  to  overturn  the 
throne,  and  to  substitute  a  republic  in  its  place  ;  and  he  accused 
England  as  having  favoured  that  project.  Ferdinand  VII.  de- 
manded that  a  deputation  of  the  Regency  should  be  admitted  to 
a  personal  interview  w^th  him,  who  might  inform  him  as  to  the 
real  state  of  matters.  Bonaparte,  who  executed  with  despatch 
whatever  he  had  once  resolved,  found  this  mode  of  proceeding 
too  slow.  He  empowered  M.  de  la  Foret,  whom  he  had  sent  to 
Valencay  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  his  captive,  by  which  the 
latter  was  acknowledged  King  of  Spain ;  and  promised,  on  his 
part,  to  cause  the  English  troops  to  evacuate  the  whole  of  that 
kingdom. 

Ferdinand  VII.  sent  his  minister,  the  Duke  of  San  Carlos,  to 
Madrid,  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  communicating  that  treaty 
to  the  Regency,  but  in  reality  to  take  cognizance  of  the  state  of 
affairs.  The  Regency  refused  to  acknowledge  the  treaty  of 
Valencay,  because  the  King  was  not  at  liberty.  Bonaparte  being 
apprized  of  this  difficulty,  immediately  released  Ferdinand  (Mar. 
7,  1814.)  He  set  out  on  his  return  to  his  dominions,  but  per- 
formed his  journey  slowly,  that  he  might  have  leisure  to  obtain 
personal  information,  as  to  the  spirit  which  reigned  among  the 
Spaniards.  He  was  soon  convinced,  that  the  people,  attached 
to  their  religion,  and  to  the  family  of  their  lawful  prince,  were 
very  indifferent  about  the  constitution  of  the  Cortes,  and  that 
that  assembly  enjoyed  very  little  influence  or  authority.  Sixty 
members  of  the  Cortes  had  even  protested  against  an  Act  which, 
by  degrading  the  Royal  Dignity,  was  preparing  the  way  for  es- 
tablishing a  democracy.  On  his  arrival  at  Valencia,  Ferdinand 
abrogated  ihe  constitution  of  1812,  and  directed  his  course  to- 
wards Madrid,  which  he  entered  on  the  17th  May.  The  people 
every  where  expressed  their  attachment  to  a  prince,  whose  ar- 
rival they  hailed  as  the  return  of  justice  and  order  ;  though  it 
is  foreign  to  our  purpose  to  narrate  why  that  hope  has  not  been 
realized. 

Great  Britain  was  the  power  which  acted  the  most  conspicuous 
part  during  the  era  of  which  we  have  given  the  preceding  his- 
torical sketch.  The  fortitude  and  perseverance  with  which  she 
had  prosecuted  her  system  of  policy,  after  the  breaking  of  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  was  crowned  with  the  most  complete  success ; 
and  the  plan  conceived  by  Mr.  Pitt,  but  which  that  great  states- 
man had  despaired  ever  to  see  carried  into  execution,  became 
the  corner-stone  of  the  future  policy  of  Europe.  Great  Britain 
was  the  mainspring  of  the  alliance,  which  in  1813  undertook  the 


292  CHAPTER  XII. 

deliverance  of  Europe.  She  made  the  most  extraordinary  efforts 
in  raising  armies,  and  granting  supplies  for  maintaining  the 
troops  of  the  Continental  nations. 

A  mental  calamity,  with  which  George  III.  had  been  afflicted 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  1810,  obliged  the  Parliament  to 
establish  a  regency.  That  important  charge  belonged  of  right 
to  the  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown  ;  but  as  the  ministry  were 
apprehensive  that  the  Prince  of  Wales  might  in  some  respects 
change  the  system  of  the  existing  Government,  the  Parliament 
passed  an  Act  (Dec.  31,)  which  restricted  the  authority  of  the 
Regent  to  one  year.  The  Prince  Regent  submitted  to  these 
modifications.  He  exercised  the  regency  at  first  with  a  limited 
power  ;  but,  after  the  year  1812,  wnen  the  prospects  of  his  Ma- 
jesty's recovery  were  considerably  diminished,  he  continued  to 
exercise  the  Royal  authority  until  his  father's  death,  which  hap- 
pened January  29,  1820,  when  the  Prince  then  assumed  the 
title  of  George  IV.  The  Regent  found  the  kingdom  at  war  with 
Russia  and  Sweden ;  bat  it  was  only  in  appearance,  and  without 
effective  hostilities.  Lord  Castlereagh,  who,  since  the  year 
1812,  had  been  at  the  head  of  foreign  affairs,  listened  with  eager- 
ness to  the  first  advances  which  these  two  powers  made  towards 
a  mutual  accommodation.  Peace  was  signed  at  Orebro  (July 
12,)  first  with  Sweden,  and  a  few  days  after  with  Russia.  The 
former,  in  indirect  terms,  abandoned  the  principles  of  the  armed 
neutrality  of  the  North.  We  shall  have  occasion  hereafter  to 
revert  to  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  signed  with  Russia. 

She  was  now  assailed  by  a  new  enemy.  A  misunderstand- 
ing had  existed  for  years,  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  consequence  of  the  various  restrictions 
she  had  imposed  upon  the  commerce  of  Neutrals,  the  humilia- 
ting conditions  to  which  she  wished  to  subject  it,  and  the  im- 
pressment of  seamen.  The  Government  of  the  United  States 
had  sought  by  various  retaliatory  measures,  to  operate  upon  her 
interests  and  induce  her  to  abandon  her  system  of  arbitrary  do- 
minion over  the  great  highway  of  nations.  From  1806  to  1812 
the  pacific  disposition  of  the  American  Government  was  mani- 
fested by  the  several  expedients  of  'Non-Importation^  Embargo^ 
and  Non-Intercourse,  to  which  they  had  resorted,  to  prevent  an 
open  rupture,  but  as  none  of  these  resulted  in  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  her  rights  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  an  appeal  was 
made  at  last  to  the  Ultima  ratio  Regum.  On  the  18th  of  June, 
1812,  an  Act  of  Congress  was  passed,  declaring  War  against 
Great  Britain  ;  the  reasons  for  this  measure,  as  stated  in  the 
President's  manifesto,  were  "  The  impressment  of  American 
seamen  by  the  British,  the  blockade  of  her  enemies'  ports  sup 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  293 

ported  by  no  adequate  force,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Ame- 
rican commerce  ha-d  been  plundered  in  every  sea,  and  the 
British  Orders  in  Council." 

The  remoteness  of  the  two  contending  nations  from  each 
other,  rendered  it  impossible  for  them  to  bring  together  great 
armies  to  meet  in  a  general  conflict.  On  the  one  side,  the  Ca- 
nadas  were  attacked  by  the  Americans  in  many  points  with 
various  success,  and  on  the  other,  the  cities  and  settlements 
along  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic,  were  subjected  to  constant  an- 
.noyance  and  depredation  from  the  British  maritime  forces.  In 
acts  of  hostility  of  this  kind,  and  in  naval  combats,  the  war 
was  continued  for  nearly  three  years,  during  which  abundant 
proofs  were  given  that  the  veteran  forces  of  Great  Britain  could 
claim  no  other  superiority,  than  that  of  experience,  either  in 
officers  or  soldiers,  to  her  enemy.  Many  of  the  land,  and  all 
the  sea  battles  were  fought  with  great  skill  and  bravery,  and 
gallantry  by  the  Americans.  The  last  important  occurrence  of 
the  war,  was  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  where  the  American 
forces,  under  the  command  of  their  heroic  leader  General  Jack- 
son, gained  a  brilliant  victory. 

The  situation  of  Europe  was  now  so  entirely  changed,  that 
die  grievances  of  which  America  had  complained,  and  for  the 
redress  of  which  she  had  fought,  must  naturally  cease,  and  as 
neither  party  deemed  it  expedient  to  continue  the  Avar  for  ab- 
stract rights,  a  peace  was  settled  at  Ghent,  between  the  pleni- 
potentiaries of  the  two  nations,  Dec.  24th,  1814,  w^hich  restored 
friendship  and  amity,  without  settling  an}^  of  the  great  points  in 
dispute  which  had  induced  a  resort  to  arms. 

The  financial  system  of  Great  Britain  underwent  an  essen- 
tial alteration,  by  the  adoption  of  a  plan  presented  by  Mr.  Van- 
sittart.  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  introducing  certain  modi- 
fications relative  to  the  accumulation  of  the  sinking  fund.  The 
expenditure  of  the  government  in  1815,  amounted  to  77,337,475/. 
sterling,  of  which  Ireland  cost  8,651,335/.  sterling.  The  inter- 
est of  the  national  debt  amounted  to  36,607,128/.  sterling,  of 
which  13,182,510/.  were  applied  to  the  sinking  fund.  Great 
Britain  paid  to  the  States  of  the  Continent,  in  1813,  11,400,000/. 
sterling,  under  the  name  of  subsidies  ;  24,107  ships,  and 
105,030  seamen,  were  employed  in  commerce.  In  1814,  these 
numbers  were  augmented  one- seventh  more.  At  this  latter  pe- 
riod, their  navy  consisted  of  1044  ships  of  war,  100,000  sailors, 
and  32,600  marines  ;  the  land  forces  amounted  to  302,490  men, 
including  63,000  militia. 

Holland,  and  the  other  powers  which  had  ancientlj^  formed 
the  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces,  after  having  been  for 

VOL.  11.  25  "^ 


294  CHAPTER  XII. 

two  years  united  to  France,  resumed  once  more  their  national 
mdependence.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  when  the  corps  ot 
Generals  Bulow  and  Winzingerode  approached  that  country, 
ihe  partisans  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  at  the  Hague,  with  M.  de 
Hogendorps  at  their  head,  mounted  the  ancient  cockade,  estab- 
h'shed  a  provisional  government  (Nov.  17,  1813,)  and  invited  the 
heir  of  the  last  Stadtholder  to  return  and  place  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  government.  The  French  troops,  finding  themselves  too 
weak  to  defend  the  country  at  once  against  the  allies  and 
against  the  inhabitants,  quietly  took  their  departure.  The 
Prince  of  Orange  having  arrived  at  Amsterdam  (Dec.  1,)  was 
proclaimed  Sovereign  Prince  of  the  Low  Countries  ;  but  he  ac- 
cepted that  dignity,  on  the  condition  that  his  power  should  be 
limited  by  a  constitution  ;  a  plan  of  which  he  caused  to  be 
drawn  up,  which  was  adopted  and  sworn  to  in  an  assembly  of 
the  Representatives. 

During  the  sojourn  of  the  allied  sovereigns  in  England,  it 
was  agreed,  that  in  order  to  oppose  a  barrier  to  France  on  the 
side  of  the  North,  Holland  and  Belgium  should  be  united  under 
the  same  government.  A  treaty,  concluded  at  the  same  time 
■]n  London  (Aug.  13,  1814,)  restored  to  the  Dutch  all  their  an- 
cient colonies,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Essequibo,  Berbice,  and  Demarara.  According  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  bishopric  of  Liege,  and  the 
dutchy  of  Luxemburg  were  ceded  to  the  sovereign  prince,  on 
condition  that  he  should  m.ake  a  part  of  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation. It  was  at  this  time  that  he  received  the  title  of  King 
of  the  Netherlands.  By  the  second  treaty  of  Paris,  this  new 
kingdom  obtained  a  slight  increase  of  territory,  and  a  sum  of 
sixty  millions  of  francs,  for  constructing  a  line  of  fortresses. 
The  superficial  extent  of  that  kingdom,  with  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
emburg, amounted  to  1164  German  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  5,460,000  souls  ;  besides  the  population  of  its  colonies, 
amounting  to  1,726,000  inhabitants. 

Switzerland  vainly  flattered  herself,  when  the  allies  approach- 
ed the  Rhine,  about  the  end  of  1813,  that  they  would  grant 
her  the  privilege  of  neutrality.  The  allied  troops  had  to  tra- 
verse the  territory  of  the  Confederacy,  in  order  to  enter  France. 
The  public  opinion  then  declared  itself,  by  annulling  the  Act 
of  Mediation  which  united  Switzerland  to  France  ;  but  this 
opinion  was  not  unanimous  as  to  the  future  constitution  of  the 
country.  Of  the  thirteen  ancient  cantons,  eight  concluded  a 
Confederation,  on  the  principle  which  granted  an  equality  of 
rights  to  every  component  part  of  the  union  ;  and  to  this  the 
new  cantons  gave  in  their  adherence.     Berne,  Friburg,  and 


PERIOD  TX.     A.  D.  1810 — 1815.  296 

Underwalden,  refused  to  take  a  part  in  it.  The  Grisons  re- 
established their  ancient  form  of  government.  The  interven- 
tion of  foreign  powers  quashed  the  civil  war  with  which  that 
country  was  threatened  ;  and,  after  many  difficulties,  a  nev»'  Con- 
federaiion  of  the  nineteen  cantons  was  signed  at  Zurich  (Sept- 
8,  1814.)  There  still  remained,  however,  several  litigated 
poinis  to  be  decided,  which  w^re  settled  by  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna, who  declared  that  the  perpetual  neutrality  of  Switzerland 
should  be  acknowledged  by  all  the  other  powers  ;  and  that  the 
Valais,  the  territory  of  Geneva,  and  the  principality  of  Neuf- 
chatel,  should  make  a  part  of  the  Confederation,  as  three  addi- 
tional cantons.  The  Swiss  States  having  acceded  to  this  de- 
claration (May  27,  1815,)  it  was  renewed,  confirmed,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  Allied  Powers,  in  a  second  declaration  signed 
at  Paris  (Nov.  20.) 

In  consequence  of  a  convention  concluded  at  Turin  with 
Prince  Borghese,  Governor-General  of  the  French  provinces 
beyond  the  Alps,  Field-Marshal  Bellegarde  had  taken  posses- 
sion of  Piedmont  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Sardinia.  Soon 
after,  Victor  Emanuel  took  the  reins  of  goverament  into  his 
own  hands.  By  the  first  peace  of  Paris,  he  recovered  Nice, 
and  about  two-thirds  of  Savoy.  A  secret  article  of  that  treaty 
secured  him  the  possession  of  the  State  of  Genoa,  which  was 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna ;  but  he  ceded  to  the  canton 
of  Geneva,  certain  districts  in  Savoy.  The  second  peace  of 
Paris  restored  him  that  part  of  the  province  which  had  been 
given  to  France  in  1814.  The  Sardinian  monarchy  thus  com- 
prehended an  extent  of  1277  German  square  miles,  with  3,700,000 
inhabitants. 

The  convention  of  Fontainbleau  had  disposed  of  the  dutchies 
of  Placentia,  Parma  and  Guastalla,  in  favour  of  the  Archdutchess 
Maria  Louisa,  and  her  son  Napoleon.  This  disposition  was 
keenly  opposed  at  Vienna  by  the  House  of  Bourbon,  who  es- 
poused the  interest  of  the  young  King  of  Etruria,  the  lawful 
heir  to  these  estates.  Nevertheless  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ad- 
judged the  States  of  Parma  to  the  Archdutchess,  without  making 
mention  of  her  son,  or  deciding  the  question  as  to  their  rever- 
sion ;  a  point  w^hich  was  not  determined  till  the  treaty  of  Paris 
of  June  10,  1817,  between  Austria  and  Spain.  After  the  death 
of  the  Archdutchess,  the  States  of  Parma  are  to  pass  to  the 
Queen-Dowager  of  Etruria  and  her  son.  They  contain  about 
102  German  square  miles,  and  380,000  inhabitants. 

The  Archduke  Francis,  the  heir  of  Hercules  111.^  the  last 
Duke  of  Modena  of  the  House  of  Este,  was  restored  to  the 
iutchy  of  Modena  and  its  appurtenances,  about  the  beginning 


296  CHAPTER    XIT. 

of  1814.      The  whole  c-omprehends  a  surface  of  96  German 
square  miles,  with  388,000  inhabitants. 

According  to  an  article  of  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Lucca,  un- 
der the  title  of  a  dutchy,  was  given  up,  not  to  the  young  King 
of  Etruria,  the  lawful  heir  of  the  States  of  Parma,  but  to  his 
mother,  and  her  descendants  in  the  male  line.  Besides,  the 
Emperor  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  were  bound  to  pay 
her  a  supplementary  annuity  of  500,000  francs  until  the  death 
of  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Louisa,  when  the  Dutchess  of  Lucca, 
or  her  heirs,  are  to  have  the  States  of  Parma  ;  and  the  dutchy 
of  Lucca  is  to  devolve  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  on  con- 
dition of  ceding  to  the  Duke  of  Modena  certain  districts  con- 
tiguous to  his  estates.  The  dutchy  of  Lucca  is  the  most  popu- 
lous country  in  Europe.  It  contains  about  137,500  inhabitants 
within  191  German  square  miles. 

The  grand  dutchy  of  Tuscany,  which  Murat's  troops  had  oc- 
cupied about  the  beginning  of  the  year  1814,  was  restored  to 
its  lawful  sovereign,  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  IIL  (May  1,) 
who  then  gave  up  the  Principality  of  Wurtzburg  to  the  King  of 
Bavaria.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  that  prince  obtained  the 
State  of  Presidi,  part  of  the  island  of  Elba,  and  the  Imperial 
fiefs  included  in  these  States  ;  containing  395  German  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  1,178,000  souls.  The  property  of 
Piombino  was  restored  to  the  family  of  Buoncompagni,  whom 
Bonaparte  had  dispossessed.  The  Grand  Duke  is  to  succeed 
to  the  dutchy  of  Lucca  ;  but  he  must  then  give  up  his  territo- 
ries in  Bohemia  to  his  brother  the  Emperor,  which  are  very 
considerable,  and  destined  for  the  young  Duke  of  Reichstadt, 
son  of  the  Archdutchess  Maria  Louisa. 

Bonaparte  having  found  it  impossible  to  overcome  the  per- 
severance of  Pius  VII.,  had  set  him  at  liberty  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  1814.  The  Sovereign  Pontiff  returned  to  his 
Estates  amidst  the  general  acclamations  of  the  people,  and  re- 
stored every  thing  to  the  footing  in  which  they  had  been  before 
the  usurpation  of  the  French.  Nobody  was  molested  on  the  score 
of  his  political  conduct.  The  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  suppressed  in 
1772,  was  restored  by  a  Bull,  as  a  necessary  barrier  to  oppose 
the  doctrines  of  the  Revolution.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  re- 
stored to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  the  Marches  and  Legatines, 
with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  territory  situated  to  the  north 
of  the  Po,  which  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Venetian 
Lombardy.  The  Ecclesiastical  States  at  present  contain  a  sur- 
face of  714  German  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  2,424,150. 

The  extravagant  conduct  of  Murat,  promoted  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  to  the  throne  of  Naples.     This  was  effected 


PERIOD  IX.     A.  D.  1810—1815.  297 

by  the  expedition  which  Austria  had  despatched  in  1815  against 
Murat,  in  consequence  of  the  alliance  offensive  and  defensive 
which  that  Court  had  concluded  at  Vienna  wi\h  Ferdinand  IV. 
(April  29,  1815,)  who  made  his  entry  into  Naples  on  the  17th 
June.  A  short  time  after,  Murat,  at  the  head  of  a  small  band 
of  adventurers,  thought  of  imitating  the  example  of  his  brother- 
in-law.  He  landed  at  Pizzo,  in  Calabria  (Oct.  9,)  where  he 
hoped  to  be  welcomed  by  his  former  adherents  ;  but  the  peasantry 
combined  against  him ;  he  was  arrested,  tried  by  a  court-martial, 
and  shot  (Oct.  10.)  The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  has  an  ex- 
tent of  2,034  German  square  miles,  and  6,600,000  inhabitants. 

After  Ferdinand  IV.  had  retired  into  Sicily,  that  Island  was 
put  under  the  protection  of  the  English,  who  had  there  an  army 
of  15,000  men,  with  a  considerable  fleet.  General  Lord  Ben- 
tinck,  who  commanded  the  English  troops,  used  all  his  influence 
to  introduce  the  British  constitution  into  that  island.  The  Queen, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  the  opposite  party,  w^as  obliged  to  leave 
her  family.  From  that  moment  the  English  remained  masters 
of  Palermo.  But  after  the  first  peace  of  Paris,  Ferdinand  IV. 
resumed  the  reins  of  government;  and  before  embarking  for 
Naples,  he  annulled  the  constitution  of  1812. 

Corfu,  the  only  one  of  the  Ionian  islands  which  was  not  yet 
in  the  power  of  the  English,  was  given  up  to  them  by  the  Con- 
vention of  Paris  (April  23, 1814.)  The  fate  of  these  islands  was 
decided  by  a  treaty  concluded  at  the  same  place  between  Aus- 
tria and  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Eussia.  They  were  com- 
bined into  a  free  and  independent  State  (Nov.  5,)  under  the 
name  of  the  United  States  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  placed 
under  the  immediate  and  exclusive  protection  of  Great  Britain. 

By  the  events  of  the  years  1813  and  1814,  the  House  of  Aus- 
tria gained  possession  of  all  that  belonged  to  her  in  Italy,  either 
before  or  in  consequence  of  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio.  A 
small  portion  of  Ferrara  to  the  north  of  the  Po  was  ceded  to  her, 
as  were  the  Valteline,  Bormio,  Chiavenna,  and  the  ancient  re- 
public of  Ragusa.  The  Emperor  constituted  all  these  posses- 
sions into  a  separate  and  particular  State,  under  the  title  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Venetian  Lombardy.  Independently  of  these,  Aus- 
tria recovered  the  Illyrian  provinces,  of  which  she  also  formed  a 
distinct  kingdom.  By  a  treaty  signed  at  Vienna  with  Russia, 
she  likewise  gained  possession  of  the  part  of  eastern  Galicia 
which  she  had  ceded  to  Alexander  in  1809,  and  the  exclusive 
property  of  Wieliczka,  which  was  then  divided  between  her  and 
the  dutchy  of  Warsaw.  The  Austrian  monarchy,  in  its  present 
state,  contains  a  surface  of  12,000  German  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  twenty-nine  millions. 


298  CHAPTER   XII. 

It  was  a  more  difficult  matter  to  reorganize  the  monarchy  t 
Prussia.  We  have  mentioned  the  negotiations,  in  consequence 
of  which  she  acquired  about  a  half  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  restored  to  her  not  only  a  part  of  an- 
cient Prussia,  now  called  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Posnania,  and 
all  the  other  possessions  which  she  had  lost  by  the  convention 
of  Vienna,  (Dec.  15,  1805,)  and  the  peace  of  Tilsit  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Bialystock,  Anspach,  Baireuth,  Westfriesland,  and 
Hildesheim,)  but  also  a  considerable  territory  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  the  Grand  Dutchy  of  Berg,  the  Dutchy  of  Westpha 
lia,  Swedish  Pomerania,  and  the  sovereignty  of  several  other 
principalities  and  counties.  These  territorial  arrangements 
were  not  concluded  till  1819.  The  Prussian  monarchy  contains 
a  surface  of  4882  German  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
nearly  11  millions. 

The  sovereign  princes  and  free  cities  of  Germany  were  uni- 
ted by  an  Act  signed  at  Vienna,  under  the  name  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation.  All  the  members  of  the  Confederacy  enjoy 
full  sovereignty,  and  all  take  part  in.  the  deliberations  of  the 
Diet  in  matters  relating  to  the  general  interests  of  the  Union. 
The  thirty-nine  members,  however,  in  ordinary  cases,  have  only 
seventeen  votes ;  eleven  of  the  States  have  each  a  vote,  while 
six  collective  votes  belong  to  the  other  twenty-eight.  Never- 
theless, in  constitutional  questions,  the  thirty-nine  members  have 
in  all  seventy  votes  ;  each  State  having  at  least  one,  and  several 
of  them  two,  three,  and  four  votes.  The  members  have  the 
right  of  concluding  every  kind  of  alliance,  provided  these  are 
not  directed  against  the  safety  of  the  Union  or  of  its  constituent 
members.  The  equality  of  civil  and  religious  rights  was  secured 
to  all  who  professed  the  Christian  religion. 

Various  States,  forming  the  Germanic  Confederation,  under- 
went certain  changes  in  their  territorial  possessions ;  but  the 
negotiations  by  which  they  were  definitively  settled  did  not  take 
place  till  1819.  The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  received  indemnity 
for  the  various  restitutions  which  had  been  made  to  the  Court 
of  Vienna.  Its  superficial  extent  amounts  to  1505  square  miles, 
and  3,300,000  inhabitants.  The  grand  dutchy  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt obtained  considerable  augmentations  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  has  a  surface  of  214  German  square  miles,  and 
six  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Olden- 
burg, the  Duke  of  Saxe  Cobourg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Homberg,  and  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau,  obtained  territorial 
indemnities  on  the  Rhine.  The  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel  obtained 
the  grand  dutchy  of  Fulda ;  his  dominions  consisted  of  200  Ger- 
man square  miles,  and  540,000  inhabitants.      The  King  of 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  ISIO — 1815.  299 

Hanover  lost  Lauenburg,  and  obtained  Hildesheim  and  Wesj- 
fresland.  That  kingdom  contains  700  German  square  miles, 
and  one  million  three  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  The  grand 
dutch y  of  Saxc- Weimar,  with  its  additional  districts,  contains  66 
German  square  miles,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety-three  thou- 
sand inhabitants. 

Such  is  the  composition  of  the  German  Confederation,  an 
association  which  was  formed,  as  we  have  mentioned,  by  th'- 
act  of  June  8th  1815.  In  1820,  it  was  declared  a  fundamental 
law  of  the  Union. 

As  Russia  and  Austria  were  not  likely  to  come  to  an  agree- 
ment, as  to  the  possession  of  the  city  of  Cracow,  the  former  de- 
manding it  as  an  appurtenance  of  the  ci-divant  dutchy  of  Warsaw, 
while  the  latter  claimed  it  as  having  been  deprived  of  it  by  the 
peace  of  Schoenbrun  ;  it  was  agreed  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna 
(May  13,  1815,)  that  that  city,  with  the  territory  which  had  been 
assigned  it,  should  form  an  independent  and  neutral  Republic, 
under  the  protection  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia.  Besides 
the  city  of  Cracow,  a  district  containing  eight  or  nine  thousand 
inhabitants  was  dismembered  from  the  dutchy  of  Warsaw,  which 
was  conferred  on  Prussia,  under  the  title  of  the  Grand  Dutchy 
of  Posnania.  The  remainder  was  united  to  the  Empire  of  Rus- 
sia as  a  distinct  State,  under  the  name  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland, 
having  its  own  constitution  and  a  separate  administration.  That 
State  contained  2215  German  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  two  millions  and  a  half. 

We  have  already  observed,  by  what  fatal  mischance  Denmark 
had  been  dragged  into  the  war  of  Napoleon  against  the  allies. 
The  treaty  of  peace  at  Kiel,  (Jan.  14,  1814,)  deprived  her  of 
Norway,  in  lieu  of  which  she  obtained  the  paltry  compensation 
of  Swedish  Pomerania  ;  and  even  that  acquisition  proved  nuga- 
tory. According  to  arrangements  agreed  on  at  Vienna  with 
Prussia,  the  King  of  Denmark  accepted  the  dutchy  of  Lauen- 
burg  instead  of  Pomerania,  which  was  abandoned  to  Prussia. 
The  Danish  monarchy  thus  lost  one-third  of  its  subjects,  and 
was  reduced  to  an  extent,  including  Iceland,  of  2420  German 
square  miles,  and  1,700,000  inhabitants. 

The  Norwegians,  who  cherished  a  national  hatred  against  the 
Swedes,  refused  to  submit  to  their  destiny.  They  chose  for  their 
King  Prince  Christian  Frederic,  who  was  their  Governor-Gene- 
ral a.;d  heir  to  the  throne  of  Denmark  (May  17, 1814,)  and  they 
published  a  representative  constitution  at  Eidswold.  The  King, 
and  the  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden,  marched  at  the  head  of  an 
army  to  reduce  them  to  submission.  After  some  hostile  manceu- 
vres,  the  Prince  of  Denmark  resigned  the  sovereignty,  by  a  con- 


3(jQ  CHAPTER  XII. 

vention  which  was  signed  at  Moss  (Aug^  16  )  The  National 
A.semblv  convened  at  Christiana  (Oct.  20,  decreed  the  union 
ot  Norway  to  the  crown  of  Sweden,  as  an  independent  kingdom, 
.luder  one  monarchy,  and  with  a  ^^F^^^^^^^^^y^^^^^'^J^JX';- 
•They  adopted  the  order  of  succession  as  estabhshed  m  Swe^,len 
:n  1809  Charles  XIII.  was  proclaimed  King  of  Norway  (xNov 
4;]  and  the  relations  between  Sweden  and  ^^^^'Y%'11V^\'^: 
by  an  act  signed  between  the  two  kingdoms  (July  31,  1W1£>.)  ^} 
the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Sweden  ceded  to  Prussia  her  part  oi  To- 
merania,  and  thus  was  separated  from  Germany  of  which  she 
had  been  a  constituent  member  since  the  time  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  The  Swedish  monarchy  contains  an  extent  ot  lb,lW 
German  square  miles,  with  3,330,000  inhabitants. 

Russia  acted  so  conspicuous  a  part  during  the  period  of  which 
we  have  spoken,  that  we  can  scarcely  mention  any  event  o 
general  interest  in  which  she  was  not  concerned.     She  was  at 
?var  with  Great  Britain,  Turkey,  and  Persia  when  Bonaparte 
commenced  hostilities  against  her  in  1811.   Ihe  Russians  acted 
on  the  defensive  against  the  Turks  ;  Prmce  Kutusoff,  who  had 
the  command,  having  been  obhged  to  send  five  divisions  of  his 
army  into  Poland,  caused  Silistria  to  be  demolished,  preservmg 
only  Rudschuk  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.    The  indolent 
JusufF  Pacha,  who  had  never  stirred  from  his  camp  at  bchumla 
was  replaced  by  Achmet  Aga,  an  active  and  enterprising  Gene- 
ral who  sent  for  a  reinforcement  of  35,000  men,  mostly  composed 
of  excellent  cavalry,  and  supported  by  a  formidable  artillery 
served  by  French  officers.     Achmet  marched  against  Kutu soil 
and  their  first  encounter  took  place  two  leagues  from  Rudschuk 
(July  4.)     Eight  thousand  Russians,  who  were  opposed  to  the 
vann-uard  of  the  Ottomans,  under  the  command  of  Ah  Pacha, 
werS  driven  back  to  their  entrenchments.     Two  days  after  the 
Grand  Vizier  attacked  the  Russian  entrenchments  and  dislodged 
the  troops,  who  threw  themselves  into  Rudschuk.  It  was  chiefly 
the  infantry  of  the  Russians  who  suffered  in  that  battle,  owing 
to  the  superiority  of  the  Turkish  cavalry,  who  would  have  cut 
them  to  pieces,  but  for  a  bold  manoeuvre  of  Count  Langeron, 
who  sallied  from  Rudschuk,  at  the  head  of  the  garrison,  and  pro- 
tected the  fugitives.     The  Grand  Vizier  advanced  under  the 
very  cannon  of  the  fortress.     He  attempted  three  times  m  one 
day  to  carry  it  by  force,  but  was  repulsed  each  time  (July  9.) 
Durino-  the  following  night  the  Russians  quitted  Rudschuk  and 
passed"  the  Danube.     But  the  Turks  having  got  intelligence, 
entered  the  town,  and  prevented  them  from  carrying  off  all  their 
artillery  and  ammunition. 

The  army  of  Kutusoff,  weakened  by  disease  was  unable  to 


PERIOD  IX.      A.  D.  1810—1815.  301 

prevent  the  Grand  Vizier  from  taking  possession  of  the  islands 
<jf  the  Danube,  where  they  constructed  bridges,  by  means  of 
rrhich  they  made  frequent  incursions  into  Wallachia.  A  body 
of  lo,000  troops,  commanded  by  Ismael  Bey,  took  up  the  same 
post  on  the  right  bank,  so  that  the  Grand  Vizier  passed  the  river 
ot  the  head  of  the  main  body  of  the  forces  (Aug.  3.)  But  the 
face  of  affairs  soon  changed.  General  OuwarofF  having  brought 
a  reinforcement  of  50,000  men  to  Kutusoff,  the  latter  detached 
Markoff,  with  a  consiilerable  body,  who  passed  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  marched  in  ail  haste  against  the  Turkish  reserve 
before  Rudschuk,  seized  their  camp,  and  thus  cut  off  the  retreat 
of  the  Grand  Vizier.  The  latter  found  means  to  enter  Rudschuk 
in  a  small  bark,  leaving  his  army  in  Wallachia,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Seraskier  Tchaban-Oglou,  who  was  blockaded  at  Slo- 
bosia  by  Kutusoff,  and  after  being  reduced  to  25,000  men,  they 
were  obliged  to  capitulate  and  lay  down  their  arms  (Dec.  8.) 

The  Grand  Vizier  then  demanded  a  suspension  of  arms, 
which  was  signed  at  Guirdesov.  Negotiations  w^ere  opened  at 
Bucharest,  but  the  Turks  refused  for  a  long  time  to  make  the 
smallest  cession  of  territory.  At  length  the  mediation  of  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  Russia,  overcame  the  obstinacy  of  the  Divan, 
and  peace  was  signed  (May  28,  1812.)  The  Porte  ceded  to 
Russia  about  one-third  of  Moldavia,  as  far  as  the  Pruth,  the  for- 
tresses of  Choczin  and  Bender,  and  the  whole  of  Bessarabia, 
with  Ismael  and  Kilia  ;  an  amnesty  was  granted  to  the  Servians. 

Although  England  had  appeared  at  Bucharest  as  a  mediating 
power,  nevertheless  her  treaty  of  peace  with  Russia  was  not  de- 
finitively signed,  although  actual  hostilities  had  long  ceased  be- 
tween the  tv/o  powers.  The  treaty  was  at  length  concluded  at 
Orebro  (July  18,)  the  stipulations  of  which  are  not  all  known. 
The  peace  with  Persia  was  signed  in  the  Russian  camp,  near 
the  river  Seiwa,  under  the  mediation  of  England,  and  confirmed 
the  following  year  at  Teflis  (Sept.  15,  1814.)  Persia  ceded  to 
Russia  Daghistan,  Shirvan,  Derbent,  and  in  general  the  whole 
western  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  renounced  her  pretensions  on 
Georgia,  Imirete,  Guriel,  and  Mingrelia,  and  recognised  the  ex- 
clusive right  of  Russia  to  the  navigation  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

At  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the  Emperor  of  Russia  had  ob- 
tained the  kingdom  of  Poland,  as  we  have  already  noticed.  In- 
dependently of  that  acquisition,  the  Russian  Empire  had  an 
extent  of  345,000  German  square  miles,  80,000  of  which  are  in 
Europe,  the  population  of  which  amounts  to  thirty-eight  mil- 
lions. The  population  of  the  whole  Empire  is  estimated  at  forty- 
six  millions. 

A  concurrence  of  fortunate  circumstances  has  saved  the  Otto- 

voL.  ir.  28 


•502  CHAPTER  XII. 

man  Empire  from  thfit  niin  with  which  it  has  more  than  once 
been  threatened,  and  for  which  the  total  dissolution  of  social 
order  in  the  provmces  has  a  long  time  prepared  the  way.  If  u 
«ull  survives  these  evils,  its  preservation  is  perhaps  to  be  ascri- 
bed to  that  Holy  Alliance  which  has  sometimes  been  the  obj'^c.i 
of  terror  to  the  Porte,  he  having  been  persuaded  that  that  Chris- 
iiHO  League  was  directed  against  Mahometanism.  It  is  this 
.saspicion.  the  oifspring  of  ignorance  and  weakness,  which  at  a 
recent  date  had  nearly  precipitated  him  into  imprudent  mea- 
sures. If  the  wisdom  of  his  powerful  neighbour  had  known,  m 
these  circumstances,  to  unite  his  own  glory  with  the  maintenance 
nf  public  tranquillity,  of  which  Europe  stands  so  much  in  need, 
the  Porte,  enlightened  as  to  his  true  interest  by  Austria,  Great 
Britain,  and  his  other  allies,  will  feel  that  he  cannot  prolong  his 
own  existence,  except  by  substituting  the  reign  of  justice,  and 
ihe  principles  of  humanity,  to  despotism  and  cruelty. 


A.   D.    1815— 1830.— FRANCE.  303 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

From  the  Second  Rest-yration  of  the  Bourbons,  A,  D.  1815,  to 
the  Revolution  in  Poland .^  A.  I).  1830. 

France  had  undergone  a  complete  change  since  the  Revolu- 
tion, which  the  Bourbons,  on  their  return  could  not  understand. 
Their  unfitness  to  reign  over  this  people,  was  immediately  per- 
ceived,  and  gave  rise  to  a  prevalent  saying,  that  "  the  Bourbons, 
in  their  misfortunes,  had  learned  nothing,  and  had  forgotten 
nothing." 

The  open  acknowledgment,  made  by  Louis  XVIII.,  that  he 
owed  his  throne  to  the  Prince  Regent  of  England,  was  a  dis- 
honor,  and  a  source  of  deep  mortification,  to  the  pride  of  France ; 
and  the  country  was  farther  humiliated,  by  tlie  presence  of  the 
Allied  troops,  occupying  two-thirds  of  its  territory  to  enforce 
tranquiUity. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris,*  concluded  November  20th,  1815,  be- 
tween Louis  XVIII.  and  the  three  Allied  powers,  France  was  to 
pay  700  million  francs,  give  up  seventeen  citadels  for  a  pe- 
riod of  three  to  five  years,  and  support  one  hundred  and  fifly 
thousand  foreign  troops,  within  her  territories  ;  besides  satisfy- 
ing all  public  and  private  claims,  to  the  countries  belonging  to 
the  Allied  sovereigns,  and  restoring  the  productions  in  the  arts, 
and  the  treasures  of  literature,  with  which  as  spoils,  Napoleon 
had  enriched  the  capital.  This  last  requisition  was  enforced, 
while  the  Allied  troops  were  in  possession  of  Paris. 

Richlieu,  the  new  minister,  signed  this  treaty  in  September, 
1815,  which  occasioned  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  French  na- 
tion. The  King  opened  the  new  chamber,  November,  4,  1816, 
with  a  speech  which  disclosed  the  unfavorable  condition  ot 
France. 

February  5,  1817.  The  lilierals  and  independents  obtained 
the  law  of  election  ;  and,  on  March  6,  1818,  the  recruiting  law  ; 
but  were  not  successful  in  their  attacks  on  the  laws  of  excep- 
tion, which  prevented  the  complete  operation  of  the  charter. 
The  machinations  of  the  ultras,  led  to  troubles  in  Grenoble,  in 

*  See  pages  2b8  and  2b9,  vol.  u. 


G04  ciiA'."rp:R  xiii. 

181G,  and  in  Lyous  1817.  July,  1818,  their  intrigues  were 
discovered,  which  were  nothing  less  than  to  engage  the  Allies 
to  assist  them  in  abolishing  the  charter.  The  ministry  tlien 
inclined  towards  the  liberals,  and  national  party.  A  loan  of  24 
millions  was  required  to  eifect  the  evacuation  of  the  Allied  troops 
stationed  in  France,  in  the  autumn  of  1818,  wliich  was  deter- 
mined upon  by  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Chape!ie,  October  9, 
1818  ;  and  for  the  payment  of  foreign  claims  for  tlic  expenses 
of  the  war,  and  claims  of  individuals.  Here  was  a  successful 
cxliibition  of  French  diplomacy :  in  these'  settlements,  in  the 
matter  of  liquidations,  the  payment  of  the  debt  acknowledged  by 
the  treaty,  of  1815,  reduced  from  1600  to  1390  millions  was 
postponed  till  the  year  1818 — when,  in  payment  of  these  1390 
miihons,  a  rent  of  18,040,000  francs,  equivalent  to  a  capital  of 
275  million  francs,  was  accepted.  Tliis  was  about  a  seventh 
part  of  the  lawful  claim  ;  and  a  rent  of  three  millions  was  grant- 
ed, in  a  separate  'article,  to  satisfy  the  claims  of  British  subjects. 
The  remaining  280  millions  wei-e  fartlier  reduced  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
peile,  to  2G5  million  francs. 

jNovember  12.  France  was  admitted  into  the  Quadruple  alii 
ance  of  the  great  European  powers.  The  prime  minister,  Rich- 
lieu,  declared  himself  against  the  existing  mode  of  election,  and 
against  the  operation  of  the  constitutional  system,  which  led  to 
a  division  in  the  ministry,  when  in  December,  Decazes  was  vie- 
torious  over  the  ultras,  in  the  law  of  election,  and  liberal  princi- 
ples. A  new  ministry  was  named  by  Louis  XVIII.  the  third 
since  1815.  'I'he  Marquis  Dessoles  was  made  president  of  the 
ministerial  council,  which  wa^  overthrown,  Nov.  19, 1819  ;  Des- 
soles, St.  Cyr  and  Louis,  the  defenders  of  the  charter,  resigned. 
Decazes  now  became  prime  minister.  In  the  controversy  res- 
pecting the  construction  of  the  charter  and  the  censorship  of  the 
press,  Benjamin  Constant,  Comte,  and  Dunoyer,  were  writers 
for  the  liberals ;  Chateaubriand,  Bonald,  and  Fievee  for  the 
ultras. 

The  session  from  1819  to  1820,  was  one  of  continued  conflict 
of. the  most  violent  kind;  the  influence  of  the  royalists  succeed- 
ed iir  excluding  Gregoire  from  the  chamber  :  Decazes,  presi- 
dent of  the  ministry,  attempted  to  follow  a  moderate  course,  by 
sjveral  judicious  bills.  In  the  midst  of  these  agitations,  Febru- 
ary 13,  1820,  the  Duke  Of  Berry  was  assassinated.  A  new  law 
of  election,  and  two  of  exception  were  lost,  and  Decazes  resign- 
ed. A  fifth  ministry,  with  Richlieu  as  president  was  formed, 
Feb.  20,  1820.  The  royalists  gradually  increased  their  power 
and  influence,  mainly  indebted  after  1822,  to  the  talents  of 
Villele. 


A.  D.   1815—1830. FRANCE.  305 

Attempts  were  made  for  continuing  restrictions  of  the  press, 
till  the  close  of  the  session  of  1826,  and  to  in^ipose  further  res- 
trictions, which  met  with  decided  opposition,  and  ended  in  the 
resignation  of  the  ministry,  December  17,  1821,  when  a  sixth 
Ministry  was  formed  in  which  ultra-royalism  was  triumphant. 
The  censorship  of  the  press  ceased  February  5,  1822. 

A  conspiracy  in  favor  of  young  Napoleon,  was  discovered  in 
1821,  and  the  followmg  year  several  revolts  were  projected  in 
different  garrisons.  Yillele,  minister  of  finance,  displayed 
great  adroitness  in  the  management  of  affairs,  and  was  appoint- 
ed president  of  the  ministry,  having  great  influence  over  pubhc 
opinion.  The  ultras  were  dissatisfied  with  his  moderation  ;  he 
is  represented  to  have  perfectly  seen  that  France  could  no  longer 
be  governed  by  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  most  important 
events  of  the  session  of  1822,  were  relative  to  the  new  tariff, 
and  the  foreign  policy  in  regard  to  Greece  and  Spain.  The 
liberal  part}'^  were  defeated  on  the  great  question,  whether 
France  should  by  force  suppress  democratic  principles  in  Spain 
On  the  28th  January,  1823,  the  King  announced  in  tiie  opening 
of  the  session,  the  march  of  an  army  of  100,000  French  troops 
for  Spain.  This  expedition  evinced  the  determination  of  the 
fanatic  party,  to  put  down  liberal  principles,  and  restore  Ferdi- 
nand to  despotic  power.  In  this  attempt,  they  v/ere  but  too  suc- 
cessful. 

A  Loan  of  100  millions  was  required  for  the  extraordinary 
expenses  of  1823.  The  Spanish  campaign  of  six  months 
tended  to  strengthen  legitimacy,  and  cost  France  207,827,000 
francs. 

In  1824,  the  estimate  of  expenditure  amounted  to  900  mil- 
lions. This  was  owing  to  the  paym.ent  by  government  of  the 
clergy,  now  become  dependent  upon  the  state.  The  greatest 
efforts  were  now  made  by  the  ecclesiastics,  to  regain  for  the 
church  its  former  splendor,  in  spite  of  the  feelings  and  habits  of 
the  people.  They  wielded  their  immense  power,  in  tiie  most 
arbitrary  and  bigoted  manner ;  but  with  all  their  zeal,  were  un- 
able to  check  the  diffusion  of  knowledge — and  so  far  from  re- 
tarding the  march  of  liberty,  they  hastened  the  overthrow  of 
despotism  and  bigotry,  and  eventually  brought  on  their  own 
downfall. 

Louis  XYIII.  died  September  16,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Charles  X.  We  have  now  hastily  sketched  the  events 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVIII.,  enough  to  show  t!)e  temper  of 
the  French  people,  and  the  obnoxious  measures  which  tended 
to  bring  about  a  new  revolution  in  France. 

Charles  X.  commenced  his  reign  by  a  declaration  of  his  inten- 

VOL.  TI.  26* 


VAfO  CHAPTER  XIII. 

tions  Ox^  coiifirming  the  cliarter.  He  appointed  as  a  member  of 
the  ministerial  council,  the  Duke  d'Angouleme^  and  suppressed 
the  censorsliip  of  the  journals,  Sept.  29.  Appointed  the  Count 
dc  Clermont-Tonnere,  minister  of  war.  Yillele  gained  tlie  con- 
fidence of  tlie  King,  by  his  prudent  measures,  while  Chateau- 
briand  proved,  in  the  Journal  des  Debats,  (his  paper,)  a  power- 
ful and  eloquent  opponent.  In  the  session  of  lb25,  Yillele  was 
triumphant :  a  bill  granting  1,000,0(K),000  francs  in  rents,  as  an 
indemnification  to  the  emigrants,  proved  a  source  of  great  dis- 
satisfaction to  the  nation,  which  became  opposed  to  the  course 
now  pursued.  The  civil  list  of  the  King  was  established  at 
25,000,000  francs,  annually,  for  life,  and  that  of  the  royal  fami- 
ly  at  7,000,000.  On  the  29th  May,  the  splendid  coronation  of 
Charles  X.  took  place  at  Rheims,  at  which  time  he  took  the 
oath  to  govern  according  to  the  charter.  In  the  session  of  1826, 
thirty-one  new  peers  were  created  to  strengthen  the  ministr}'. 

In  August,  1824,  General  Lafayette  landed  in  New  York, 
upon  an  invitation  of  James  Monroe,  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  received  with  the  warmest  expressions  of  grati- 
tude, a  nation  could  bestov/  ;  and  passed  through  the  twenty- 
four  states  of  the  union,  with  more  than  the  splendor  of  a  tri- 
umphal procession.  He  sailed  hence,  in  the  Brandywine,  a 
United  States  ship,  Se^Jtember  7,  1825,  and  arrived  at  Havre, 
where  every  demonstration  of  attachment  and  Tespect  was  shown 
liim.  The  following  particulars  respecting  the  "  Nation's  Guest," 
on  his  return  to  France,  in  1825,  cannot  fail  to  be  interesting, 
it  shows  that  the  affectionate  and  enthusiastic  Avelcome  of  him 
by  his  countrymen,  on  his  return  to  France,  and  portrays  the 
sidlen  hatred  of  the  Bourbons  to  every  thing  that  partook  of 
liberty.  At  Rouen,  the  "Guest  of  the  American  people,"  the 
veteran  defender  of  liberty  in  the  two  hemispheres,  was  honor- 
ed with  a  public  dinner,  accompanied  by  his  family  and  friends. 
In  .the  evening,  a  great  concourse  of  citizens,  among  whom 
\yere  many  females,  repaired  to  tiie  house  of  M.  Cabanon,  where 
Lafayette  appeared  on  the  balcony,  and  the  greatest  tranquillity 
reigned.  Notwitlistanding  the  crowd,  a  serenade,  given  to  the 
General,  was  heard  with  perfect  silence.  At  this  juncture  there 
arrived,  from  two  opposite  directions,  a  detachment  of  the  guard 
royal,  and  a  detachment  of  gendarmes.  The  former  conduct- 
ed itself  with  moderation  ;  the  latter  proceeded  to  disperse  the 
peaceable  citizens,  whose  meeting  had  occasioned  no  distur- 
bance, and  made  a  charge  upon  the  populace,  treating  them  as 
rioters  ;  when  many  were  thrown  down  and  murdered  ;  and  the 
whole  assembly  was  put  to  flight,  by  the  sabres  and  bayonets  of 
the  gendarmes  ;  and  by  them  many  were  arrested.     To  justify 


A.  D.    1815— 1830.— FRANCE.  307 

this  proceeding,  the  Prefect  at  Rouen  issued,  in  a  public  journal, 
a  note,  in  which  he  said,  "  That  the  citizens  groaned  to  see  the 
tranquillity  menaced  by  the  presence  of  a  man  whose  sad  celeb- 
rity connects  itself  with  the  most  disastrous  period  of  the  Revo- 
lution !" 

On  tlie  return  of  Lafayette  to  La  Grange,  the  villagers  united 
in  a  public  festival  on  the  occasion  ;  and  addresses  were  pre- 
sented although  the  government  took  every  opportunity  to  pre- 
vent any  demonstration  of  respect  being  shown  to  him.  Not 
less  than  0,000  persons  assembled  on  this  joyous  occasion,  to 
commemorate  the  return  of  him,  whom  they  designated  the 
"American  Nation's  (luest." 

The  Jesuits  commenced  prosecutions  against  tvvo  of  the  libe- 
ral papers.  This  led  to  much  hostiiit}^  between  the  liberals  and 
the  royalists ;  and  soon  after,  a  law  against  the  Jesuits  was  at- 
tempted to  be  passed,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  carried, 
April  27,  1827.  The  national  guards  of  Paris,  45,000  in  num- 
ber, were  disbanded,  a  measure  highly  obnoxious  to  the  people. 
This  was  followed  by  a  rigorous  censorship  of  the  press,  (June 
24,  1827,)  which  tended  still  more  to  irritate  the  state  of  public 
feeling  against  the  ministry.  The  papers  of  the  opposition  fre- 
quently appeared  with  whole  columns  blank. 

A  war  commenced  this  year  with  Algiers,  said  to  have  arisen 
from  a  controversy  res})ecting  a  debt  for  corn,  purchased  for  the 
French  government  in  1739.  The  ministry  dissolved  the  cham- 
ber which  had  still  three  years  to  run.  In  the  new  chamber,  a 
majority  was  gained  by  the  hberals  ;  out  of  8,000  votes  in  Paris, 
only  1114  were  on  the  ministerial  side  ;  the  same  decided  result 
took  place  in  the  different  departments.  This  occasioned  great 
joy  in  Paris,  and  led  to  some  disasters  :  about  fifty  persons  v;ere 
killed  by  the  gendarmes.  By  an  ordinance  of  November  5, 
1827,  seventy-six  new  peers  were  created.  Of  these  scarcely 
any,  Soult  excepted,  were  entitled  by  services,  to  the  honor. 
Three  others  were  added,  Jan.  4,  1828 — these  were  ViJlele, 
Peyronnet,  and  Corbiere. 

(,)n  opening  the  session,  February  5,  1828,  Charles  X.  con- 
gratulated the  nation  on  the  occasion  of  the  victory  of  Navari- 
no.  In  1828,  the  French  troops  returned  from  Spain  ;  and  in 
August,  (shortly  afterwards.)  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  for 
the  delivery  of  Greece  from  Turkish  thraldom.  The  command 
of  the  expedition  was  given  to  General  Maison.  The  number 
of  troops  amounted  to  14,000.     (See  Revolution  in  Greece.) 

The  appx)intments  announced,  August  9,  1829,  were  the  fol- 
lowing :  Prince  Jules  de  Polignac,  minister  of  foreign  affiiirs : 
M.  Courvoisier,  keeper  of  the  seals,  and  minister  of  justice , 


308  CHAPTER  XIII. 

Count  Bourmont,  minister  of  war  ;  Admiral  Rigny,  minister  of 
marine  ;  Count  de  la  Bourdonnaye,  minister  of  the  interior  ; 
Baron  de  Montbel,  minister  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  public 
instruction ;  Count  Chabrol  de  Crousol,  minister  of  finance. 
Admiral  Rigny  declined  the  offered  port  folio,  which  was  given 
to  M.  d'Haussez,  Prefect  of  the  Gironde.  This  was  an  ultra- 
royalist  ministry.  Bourmont  had  been  a  soldier  under  Napo- 
leon, declared  for  Louis  XVIII. — again  took  office  under  Napo- 
leon, and  deserted  him  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  fled  to  the 
Bourbons  at  Ghent,  was  elevated  to  the  peerage,  and  entrusted 
v.ith  the  command  of  the  army  of  occupation  in  Spain,  after  the 
return  of  the  Duke  d'Angouleme. 

Prince  Polignac  was  one  of  the  old  royalists,  and  was  early 
attached  to  Charles  X.  He,  with  his  brothers  Armand,  was 
imphcated  in  Pichegru's  conspiracy,  and  received  the  pardon 
of  Napoleon.  Since  1823,  he  had  been  ambassador  at  the  British 
court,  and  his  elevation  was  said  to  have  been  through  Eng- 
hsh  influence,  more  especially  that  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 
He  professed  a  great  fondness  for  England  ;  but  however  this 
may  be,  certain  it  is,  he  was  no  favorite  with  the  French  peo- 
ple. The  minister  of  the  interior.  La  Bourdonnaye,  had  distin- 
guished himself  for  his  violence,  and  active  measures  for  the  ul- 
tras. No  sooner  was  the  ministry  formed,  than  La  Bourdonnaye 
was  disposed  to  dissolve  the  chamber,  as  Villele  had  done  to 
secure  a  majority ;  trusting  for  success,  to  the  activity  of  the 
royalists,  and  the  aid  of  the  clergy.  When  this  hazardous 
proposition  was  rejected,  La  Bourdonnaye  resigned,  and  Polig- 
nac was  made  president  of  the  ministerial  council.  Baron  Mont- 
bel was  transferred  to  the  department  of  the  interior,  and  Count 
G.  de  Rainville  was  made  minister  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  An 
ordinance  to  this  effect  was  issued  on  the  17th  November,  1829. 
Such  was  the  organization  of  the  ministry  at  the  end  of  that 
year. 

The  efforts  of  the  Bourbons  to  build  up  aristocracy  and  abso- 
lute monarchy,  had  failed — their  measures  having  had  an  oppo- 
site effect ;  and  the  poverty  of  the  nobles  having  impaired  their 
former  influence,  they  now  followed  instead  of  leading  the  nation. 
The  French  were  now  too  much  enlightened  to  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  deprived  of  their  privileges.  The  country  was,  at 
this  time,  in  a  state  of  prosperity.  The  struggle  that  follovred, 
was  for  the  protection  of  their  liberties,  and  not  the  result  of 
suffering  and  want.  This  noble  regard  for  the  cause  of  free- 
dom, gave  new  glory  to  France,  and  to  liberty,  a  fresh  impulse 
throughout  the  world. 

1830,  March  2.      The  speech  from  the  throne  announced  that 


A.    I,.    1815—1830. FRANCE.  3W9 

Ur'ar  had  been  couuirjiicoJ  v.itli  Algiers,  and  ended  with  thieae 
words  :  "  Peers  of  France,  deputies  of  the  departments,  I  do 
not  doubt  your  co-operation  in  the  good  I  desire  to  do.  You 
will  repel,  with  contempt,  the  perfidious  insinuations  which  ma- 
levolence is  busy  in  propagating.  If  guilty  intrigues  sliouid 
throw  any  obstacles  in  tlie  way  ot'my  government,  which  I  can- 
not and  will  not  anticipate,  I  should  find  force  to  overcome  them, 
in  my  resolution  to  preserve  the  public  peace  ;  in  the  confidence 
I  have  in  the  French  nation,  and  in  tlie  love  which  they  have 
always  evuiced  for  tlieir  kings." 

As  soon  as  this  speech  was  made  public,  tlie  funds  fell,  and 
the  ministers  had  a  decided  majority  opposed  to  them  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  Royer-Collard  w^as  re-elected  president. 
On  the  18th,  a  deputation  of  the  chamber  presented  an  answer 
to  the  King's  speech.  This  address  respectfully  but  frankly 
informed  him,  "  That  a  concurrence  did  ;iot  exist  between  the 
views  of  the  government,  and  the  wishes  of  the  nation  ;  that  the 
administration  was  actuated  by  a  distrust  of  the  nation  ;  and  that 
the  nation,  on  the  other  hand,  was  agitated  with  apprehensions, 
which  would  become  fatal  to  its  prosperity  and  repose."  "Sire, 
(continued  the  address,)  France  does  not  wish  for  anarchy,  any 
more  than  you  wish  for  despotism."  'i'his  was  a  firm  and  pru- 
dent w^arning  here  given  to  the  King  ;  who,  in  reply  expressed 
his  regret,  that  the  concurrence  which  he  had  a  right  to  expect 
from  the  deputies,  did  not  exist.  He  declared  his  resolutions 
were  fixed,  and  that  the  ministers  would  make  known  his  inten- 
tions. The  answer  of  the  peers  to  the  King's  speech,  on  the 
10th,  was  a  mere  echo  of  the  same.  Chateaubriand  made  a  bold 
attack  on  the  ministers.  Both  cham.bers  were  convoked  for 
the  19th,  when  they  were  declared  to  be  prorogued  to  the  1st 
of  September  of  the  same  year — a  measure  that  was  immediately 
productive  of  great  public  excitement  throughout  France.  Roy- 
alists and  Jesuits  blindly  exulted  in  this  measure ;  w^hile  the 
liberal  journals  increased  their  activity,  and  boldly  predicted 
the  course  of  events  that  speedily  followed.  Prince  Polignac 
and  the  ministry  were  contemned  for  their  imbecility.  In  Paris, 
a  society  furnished  the  printing  of  journals,  where  they  were 
destitute  through  the  efforts  of  the  government ;  and  in  Brittany 
an  association  was  formed,  determined  to  refuse  the  payment  of 
taxes,  not  regularly  granted  by  the  chamber  of  deputies. 

But  it  is  now  time  to  turn  to  the  war  with  Algiers,  a  city  that 
nad  long  been  the  seat  of  the  most  extensive  piracy.  The  main 
object,  however,  of  the  ministry  in  prosecuting  this  w^ar,  was 
evidently  popularity.  Knowing  the  inordinate  fondness  of  the 
nation  for  militaiy  glory,  it  was  anticipated  that  the  subjugation 


310  CHAPTER  XIII. 

of  Algiers  would  establish  Charles  X.  and  his  ministry  in  the 
affections  of  the  people,  and  secure  a  favorable  majority  in  the 
chamber.  In  this  hope  they  were  disappointed ;  for  though  the 
success  of  the  army  was  announced  during  the  election,  it  did 
not  silence  the  opposition  :  a  strong  majority  being  elected. 

The  army,  commanded  by  Count  Bourmont,  consisting  of 
37,577  infantry,  and  4,000  horse,  embarked  on  the  10th  of  May, 
at  Toulon.  The  fleet  consisted  of  97  vessels,  of  which  eleven 
were  ships  of  the  line,  and  24  frigates.  On  the  14th  of  June, 
the  army  began  to  disembark  at  Sidi  Ferrajh,  on  the  African 
coast ;  and  on  the  5th  of  the  following  month,  Algiers  surren- 
dered. This  event  was  made  known  in  Paris  on  the  9th  of  July, 
by  a  telegraphic  despatch.  The  treasure  found  in  Algiers 
amounted  to  90,000,000*  of  francs  in  money,  and  10,000,000  f 
m  gold  and  silver  bullion  and  plate  ;  besides  about  25,000,000:}: 
not  in  the  inventory,  stated  subsequently  in  the  Journal  du 
Commerce,  to  be  43,000,000  francs. 

Having  given  very  briefly  the  successful  issue  of  the  French 
arms,  over  barbarism  in  Africa,  we  now  return  to  our  narrative 
of  the  events  in  France. 

The  success  attendant  on  the  French  arms  in  Africa,  occa- 
sioned  great  exultation  in  France  ;  but  it  did  not  divert  the  pub- 
lic from  struggling  for  their  liberty,  against  a  detested  ministry. 

The  chamber  was  dissolved  on  the  17th  of  May,  by  a  royal 
ordinance,  and  new  elections  ordered ;  and  the  two  chambers 
convoked  for  August  3d. 

The  elections  fc^-  the  new  chamber  took  place  in  June  and 
July.  The  opposition  displayed  great  activity  and  talents,  in 
this  momentous  struggle  ;  and  it  was  soon  seen,  by  men  of  intel- 
ligence, that  a  change  of  ministry  would  be  the  result.  Tney, 
however,  were  determined  not  to  jaeld,  and  had  the  infatuation, 
rather  to  violate  the  charter,  and  expose  France  to  civil  war, 
than  to  retire.  The  King  appears  to  have  been  blinded  by  a 
bigoted  priesthood,  and  the  ministers  utterly  regardless  of  the 
sacred  rights  of  the  people,  expressed  by  their  representatives. 
In  the  new  chamber  270  were  liberals,  145  for  ministers,  and 
15  undecided.  In  consequence  of  this  result,  the  ministry  made 
a  report  to  the  King,  July  26,  on  the  dangers  of  a  free  press. 
In  the  chamber  of  deputies,  convoked  March  2d,  there  were 
221  members  hostile  to  government,  on  which  account  the  King 
had  prorogued  both  chambers,  and  had  appointed  the  23d  of  June, 
and  third  of  July,  for  the  election  of  new  members,  to  assemble 
on  the  third  of  August.  The  elections  were  not  all  finished,  till 
the  19th  of  July ;  before  which  time,  it   was  sufficiently  appa- 

*  $16,655,000.  t  $1,874,100.  i  $8,058,630 


A.  D.   1830. FRANCE.  .311 

rent,  how  the  electrons  would  terminate.  When  the  list  waa 
completed,  the  opposition,  was  found  to  have  increased  from  221. 
to  270.  It  will  now  be  seen,  how  affairs  stood  in  France  between 
the  crown  and  the  people  :  the  ministry  represented  the  former, 
and  the  chamber  of  deputies  the  latter.  The  ministers  whos« 
auty  It  was  to  have  withdrawn,  resolved  upon  the  mad  projp-ci 
of  setting  the  voice  of  the  nation,  and  the  constitutional  chartei 
at  defiance  ;  in  other  words,  of  annulling  the  late  elections.  This 
plan  seems  to  have  been  arranged  about  the  middle  of  July.  It 
was  subsequently  stated  on  the  trial  of  ministers,  that  these 
measures  were  concerted  between  the  10th  and  15th  of  that 
month.  M.  Montbel  in  a  pamphlet  which  he  has  published,  say» 
the  ordmances  were  presented  to  the  King,  in  a  council  held  on 
the  21st.  They  were  signed  at  the  next  council  held  on  Sunday 
the  25th,  the  day  previous  to  their  public  appearance. 

The  report  made  to  the  King,  signed  by  seven  ministers  and 
published  at  the  same  time  with  the  ordinances,  was  intended 
to  justify  themselves  for  the  couree  they  had  resolved  upon.  In 
this  flimsy  document  they  called  for  the  suspension  of  the  press, 
remarking,  "  At  all  epochs,  the  periodical  press  has  only  been, 
and  from  its  nature  must  ever  be,  an  instrument  of  disorder  and 
sedition." 

By  the  first  ordinance,  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  suspended. 
By  the  second  ordinance  the  chamber  of  deputies  was  dissolved. 
And  a  third  ordinance  abrogated  the  existing  law  of  election 
Itself,  reducing  the  number  of  members  from  480  to  258,  and 
sweeping  off  three-fourths  of  the  former  constituency,  abolishing 
the  ballot  and  nearly  extinguishing  the  representative  system! 
In  defiance  of  these  ordinances,  the  conductors  of  all  the  liberal 
journals  determined  to  publish  their  papers. 

The  only  papers  allowed  by  government  to  appear  were  the 
Momteur  Universal,  Quotidienne,  Gazette  de  France,  and  Dra- 
peau  blanc.  The  seizure  of  the  liberal  journals  on  the  morning 
of  the  27th  July,  was  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary 
drama.  These  ordinances  were  nothing  less  than  a  determi- 
nation  on  the  part  of  the  crown  to  deprive  the  nation  of  its 
liberty,  and  to  establish  despotism.  The  audacious  attempt 
however  failed.  Had  the  French  ministry  succeeded  in  silencing 
the  press,  and  bringing  the  representation  to  a  state  of  subser- 
viency,  they  might  for  a  time  perhaps  have  succeeded  in  their 
mad  projects.  Nothing  shows  more  strikingly  the  rashness  and 
entire  want  of  discernment  of  the  ministry,  at  the  time  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  than  the  issuing  of  ordinances  so  obnoxious, 
without  even  anticipatmg  resistance  of  any  kmd,  much  less  a 
revolution. 


312  CHAFfEK  Xill. 

li  was  on  Sunday,  the  25th  of  July,  the  fatal  ordinances  were 
siiTiied  by  Charles  the  Tenth  and  his  ministers,  and  at  11  P.  M. 
M.  Sauvo,  principal  editor  of  the  Moniteur,  received  froni 
CLantelauze,  and  Montbel,  at  the  house  of  the  former,  the 
manuscript  for  publication  on  the  following  morning.  As 
Sauvo  glanced  over  the  contents,  Montbel  remarked,  he  seemed 
agitated  ;  his  reply  was,  "  God  save  tlie  King,  God  save 
France."  M.  Montbel  and  Chantelauze  answered,  "  we  hope 
he  will."  At  an  early  hour  on  ^Monday  morning  the  26th,  the 
obnoxious  ordinances  appeared  in  the  Moniteur,  and  Bulletin 
des  Lois.  The  prefect  of  the  Seine  was  astounded  at  seeing 
them,  about  5  o'clock,  not  having  apprehended  any  thing  of 
the  kind,  nor  does  Marshal  Marmcnt,  appear  to  have  had  any 
knowledge  of  these  measures :  the  first  intimation  he  received 
of  the  fatal  ordinance  was  by  Komierowski,  one  of  his  aids, 
while  he  v/as  breakfasting  at  St.  Cloud.  He  exclaimed  that  it 
was  not  possible  the  report  could  be  true.  At  half  past  seven, 
he  set  out  for  Paris,  not  having  seen  a  newspa])er  till  his  arrival 
in  the  city.  He  then  went  to  the  Institute  where  he  met  his 
friend  M.  Arago — "  Well,"  said  he  to  him,  "  you  perceive  that 
things  arc  proceeding  as  1  had  foreseen  ;  the  fools  have  driven 
matters  to  extremities.  You  have  only  to  mourn  in  your  capa- 
city of  a  citizen  and  a  good  French m.an  ;  but  how  much  greater 
cause  have  I  to  lament,  who  as  a  soldier  shall  perhaps  be  obliged 
to  throw  away  my  life  for  acts  which  I  abhor,  and  for  people 
who  seem  for  a  long  time  to  have  studied  onl}'  how  to  overwhelm 
me  with  disgust." 

The  ordinances  spread  but  slowly  in  Paris,  among  the  pub- 
lie  :  this  however  was  owing  to  the  Moniteur  being  principally 
read  by  those  connected  with  government.  For  several  hours 
no  unusual  excitement  was  manifested.  That  class  who  first 
felt  its  effects  were  the  journalists.  It  has  been  stated,  that  at 
this  period  thirty  thousand  persons  were  engaged  in  pnnting 
in  Paris.  The  effect  of  the  ordinances  was  to  throw  them  out 
of  employment.  The  conductors  of  journals  represented  to 
their  vvorkmen,  that  they  had  no  longer  any  employment  for 
them,  they  must  go  and  ask  it  at  their  good  King.  The  jour- 
nalists, on  this  euiergency,  displayed  great  courage  :  seeing  the 
ordinances  would  be  ruinous  to  their  business,  and  destroy  their 
rights,  they  fearlessly  set  them  at  defiance,  by  publishing  second 
editions  of  their  papers,  the  same  afleinoon,  in  order  to  make 
them  more  generally  known.  At  five  o'clock,  the  prefect  of 
police,  Mangin,  issued  injunctions  to  the  printing  offices,  to 
stop  any  further  publications,  except  in  conformity  to  the  new 
law  ;    and  caused  a  printed  proclamation  to  be  circulated  emd 


Street f gilt  before  the  Church  <f  St.  Rorh, 
July  2S>h,  1830. 


riace  du  Chatekt,  July  2St/'j  1830.     Vo'.  2,  p.  318. 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  x^IONDAY,  JULY  26,  1830.      813 

j>asteci  on  the  walls  with  the  penalties  to  the  keepers  of  reading 
rooms,  &;c. 

The  journalists  assembled  and  drew  up  in  great  haste  an 
tiddress  to  their  countrymen ;  this  was  signed  and  published. 
it  was  a  noble  display  of  courage  and  patriotism :  they  stated. 
"  as  they  were  first  called  on  to  obey,  so  they  ought  to  give  the 
first  example  of  resistance  to  authority,  now  that  it  had  strij;ped 
itself  of  the  character  of  law.  This  day,  the  government  has 
violated  all  law,  we  are  set  free  from  obedience ;"  and  declared 
their  determination  to  publish  their  journals,  regardless  of  the 
ordinances.  "  We  will  do  our  endeavors,  that  for  one  day 
more,  at  least,  they  may  be  circulated  over  all  France.  It  be- 
longs  not  to  us  to  point  out  its  duties  to  the  chamber,  which  has 
been  illegally  dissolved.  But  we  may  supplicate  it  in  the  name 
of  France,  to  take  its  stand  on  its  manifest  rights,  and  resist,  as 
far  as  it  shall  have  the  power,  the  violation  of  the  laws.  Its 
rights  are  equally  certain,  with  those  on  which  we  ourselves 
rest.  The  charter  (article  50,)  says  the  King  may  dissolve' the 
chamber  of  deputies,  but  for  that  power  to  be  exercised,  the 
chamber  must  have  met  and  been  constituted — nay,  must  surely 
have  done  something  to  warrant  its  dissolution.  Before  the 
chamber  has  met  and  been  constituted,  there  is  no  chamber  to 
dissolve.  There  are  only  elections  to  annul :  now  no  passage 
in  the  charter  gives  the  King  the  right  of  doing  this.  The  ordi- 
nances which  have  this  day  appeared,  do  only  in  fact  annul  the 
elections,  and  are  therefore  illegal  ;  as  doing  that  which  the 
charter  does  not  authorize. 

"  We  assume  the  attitude  of  resistance  in  so  far  as  we  are 
ourselves  concerned  :  it  belongs  to  France  to  consider  to  what 
extent  she  will  adopt  the  same  course."  This  address  was  signed 
with  the  names  of  forty-four  of  the  journalists. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  agitation  had  already  begun  in  the 
streets  ;  the  crowd  assembled  at  the  Palais  Royal,  to  hear  the 
papers  and  news  discussed,  was  continually  increasing,  till  their 
increased  numbers,  and  violence  of  language,  alarmed  the 
authorities,  who  sent  a  party  of  gendarmes  to  watcii  over  them. 
By  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  crowd  spread  from  the  square 
of  the  palace,  to  the  adjoining  streets.  They  then  began  to 
assail  the  gendarmes,  who  kept  their  stations,  making  as  yet  no 
attempt  to  drive  the  people  back. 

About  8  o'clock,  there  was  a  great  addition  to  tlic  crowd 
about  the  Palais  from  the  printing  and  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. Their  masters,  in  dismissing  their  hands,  after  their 
day's  work,  had  notified  them  they  should  have  no  further  em- 
ployment for  them.     Here  then  was  a  great  addition  of  men 

VOL.  II.  27 


314  CHAPTER  XIII. 

under  high  excitement,  determined  upon  resistance,  which  was 
now  spoken  of  openly. 

The  fearless  began  to  harangue  the  people,  drawn  together 
by  sympathy,  and  each  speech  was  received  with  loud  cries  n£ 
bravo,  clapping  of  hands,  and  cries  of  "  down  with  the  mmis- 
ters" — "  The  charter  forever."  The  shops  were  now  closed^ 
and  a  sudden  alarm  spread  through  the  throng. 

The  police  and  gendarmes  advanced  upon  the  crowd  in  the 
Palais,  and  succeeded  for  a  moment  in  clearing  it,  without 
inflicting  any  wounds.  The  mob  proceeded  to  the  hotel  of 
Prince  Polignac,  on  the  Boulevard  dcs  Capuchins,  who  was 
at  this  time  at  St.  Cloud.  On  learning  this  fact,  many  went  on 
purpose  to  hitercept  him  ;  but  mistaking  his  carriage,  he  was 
enabled  to  return  without  injury,  under  the  escort  of  two  gen- 
darmes. The  windows  of  his  hotel  were  broken,  and  his 
carriage  assailed  with  stones.  As  he  entered  the  court,  the 
mob  threatened  to  return  with  reinforcements  to  set  fire  to  his 
hotel.  During  the  night,  the  lamps  in  several  of  the  streets 
were  demolished,  and  the  lights  extinguished,  and  the  windows 
of  some  public  buildings  broken.  All  these  acts  sufficiently 
indicated  the  preparation  for  the  morrow.  This  day  the  King 
liad  passed  in  tbie  amusements  of  the  chase  at  Rambouillet,  and 
did  not  return  till  late  to  St.  Cloud. 

The  whole  effective  military  force  stationed  at  Paris,  the  Sun- 
day  previous  to  the  publication  of  the  ordinances,  was  11,550 
men,  8  cannon,  and  4  howitzers  ;  1850  men  of  this  number, 
includes  the  guards  and  gendarmes  daily  stationed  at  the  posts 
in  the  Capital,  St.  Cloud,  and  other  places  near.  These  were 
all  seized  and  disarmed  in  detail.  The  disposable  force,  there- 
fore, did  not  at  most  exceed  9,700  men,  and  of  this  number,  but 
three  regiments  of  guards,  two  of  cavalry,  and  a  few  artillery, 
4,200,  were  all  that  could  be  depended  upon.  There  were 
besides,  1000  cavalry,  and  300  infantry,  belonging  to  St.  Cloud, 
Versailles,  and  St.  Germain,  but  these  were  never  engaged.  A 
staff  officer  of  the  guards,  who  was  engaged  during  the  conflict, 
stated  if  suitable  precautions  had  been  taken  a  fortnight  previous, 
that  it  would  have  been  easy  to  have  assembled  from  thirty  to 
forty  thousand  men,  with  fifty  cannon,  in  Paris. 

On  the  morning  of  the  27th  (Tuesday)  several  of  the  jour- 
hals  were  printed  and  distributed,  so  determined  were  the  jour- 
nalists to  discharge  their  duty  to  the  public.  The  Constiiiitionel 
was  prevented  from  the  distribution  o-f  its  papers  by  the  police 
having  stationed  a  sentinel  at  the  door  of  the  office.  The 
National,  the  Tcmjts,  and  the  Figaro,  were  printed  at  an  early 
liour    and  thrown  from  the  windows  among  the   people,  and 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  TTTESDAY,  JULY  27,  1830.  315 

rapidly  dispersed  through  the  city.  These  papei-s  contained 
the  ordinances,  and  the  noble  protests  of  the  journaUsts.  The 
authorities  commenced  their  operations  against  the  printing 
offices  that  had  set  the  ordinances  at  defiance,  and  part  of  their 
printing  presses  were  taken  away,  so  as  to  render  them  useless. 
The  National  distributed  to  the  crowd  7,000  copies  in  less  than 
an  hour.  Thus  far  the  journalists  had  manlully  discharged 
their  duty.  This  day  a-  considerable  number  of  the  newl}^ 
elected  members  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  assembled  at  2 
P.  M.  at  the  house  of  M.  Casimir  Perrier ;  when  a  protest  was 
drawn  up  and  signed. 

The  King  this,  morning  appointed  Marshal  Marmont,  com- 
mander in  chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris.  He  immediately  esta- 
blished his  head  quarters  at  the  Tuileries.  At  half  past  four, 
an  order  was  issued  at  the  barracks  for  several  regiments  to 
march  to  different  stations.  One  battalion  of  guards,  and  two 
pieces  of  artillery,  were  stationed  on  the  Boulevard  des  Capu- 
chins,  in  front  of  Polignac's  hotel,  the  interior  of  which  v/as 
protected  with  soldiers  of  the  5th  regiment  of  the  line.  A 
squadron  of  lancers  protected  this  part  of  the  'Boulevard. 
Several  battalions  of  the  line  occupied  the  portion  of  the  Boule- 
vards from  the  porte  St.  Martin  towards  the  place  de  la  Bastile, 
and  also  the  place  Vendome.  Three  battalions  of  the  guard 
were  placed  in  the  Carrousel,  and  the  place  of  the  Palais  Royal : 
and  two  battalions  of  the  guards,  with  two  cannon,  v/ere  sta- 
tioned in  the  place  Louis  XV. 

While  these  dispositions  of  the  troops  were  making,  the  streets 
were  filled  with  the  multitude,  as  yet  unarmed  :  they  now  began 
to  supply  themselves  with  arms  from  the  shops  of  gunsmiths ; 
and  were  s^on  in  actual  conflict  with  the  military. 

The  battalions  of  the  regiments  of  the  line,  stationed  in  front 
of  the  Palais  Royal,  were  received  by  the  crowd  with  cries  of, 
"the  line  forever,  the  line  does  not  fire,  the  line  is  on  our  side." 
Both  men  and  officers,  were  averse  to  firing  upon  the  people. 
But  the  guards  considered  themselves  obliged  to  remain  taithful 
to  the  government.  The  mob  had  already  begun  in  several 
instances  to  attack  the  soldiers  with  stones,  and  every  kind  of 
missile  :  these  they  carried  to  the  upper  stories,  and  roofs  of 
houses,  and  hurled  them  on  the  soldiers  beneath.  They  now 
began  to  barricade  the  streets,  and  thus  sheltered,  they  were 
enabled  to  oppose  the  patroles. 

This  night  the  remaining  lamps  were  demolished,  a  judicious 
precaution  and  not  proceeding  from  mere  wantonness  ;  as  it 
enabled  them  to  erect  barricades  during  the  night,  and  rendered 
their  operations  more  secure  from  the  vigilance  of  the  mill- 


3  It)  CHAPTER  Xlll. 

tijry.  Marshal  Marmont  had  written  to  the  King,  informing 
him  that  pubhc  tranquiUity  was  restored,  and  therefore  made 
no  preparations  during  the  night,  nor  sent  dispatclies  for  more 
troops.  lie  did  not  even  guard  the  great  depots  of  arms  and 
ammunition. 

During  the  night,  the  greatest  activity  prevailed  on  the  part 
of  the  people.  The  inhabitants  were  enrolled  into  bands,  and 
arrangements  made  for  supplying  them  with  muskets,  ammu- 
nition, &c.  Tlie  telegraphs  iiad  been  rendered  useless  in  the 
night ; — this  was  an  effectual  means  of  preventing  signals  for 
further  succors.  Bands  of  men  supplied  themselves  freely  from 
the  gunsmiths  shops,  and  the  arms  used  at  the  different  theatres, 
and  in  fact,  every  kind  of  offensive  weapon  was  seized  and 
pressed  into  service. 

Wednesday,  2Sth. — At  an  early  hour,  the  throng  assembled 
in  the  streets,  and  directed  their  march  upon  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
soon  filling  the  square  in  front  of  that  building.  This  morning 
the  national  guard  appeared  in  their  uniform,  among  the  throng. 
^^easures  were  soon  taken  to  organize  this  favorite  corps  ;  a 
commission  was  nominated  to  proceed  to  Gen.  Lafayette,  and 
receive  his  orders.  He  did  not  however  assume  the  command 
of  the  guards,  till  the  morning  of  the  29th.  The  re-organiza- 
tion of  the  national  guard  went  on  promptly  during  the  day ; 
the  number  that  appeared  was  considerable,  mostly  in  uniform, 
and  witli  them  appeared  the  famous  Tri-colored  flag,  so  dear  to 
the  hearts  of  all  Frenchmen.  By  nine  o'clock  it  waved  on 
the  pinnacles  of  Notre  Dame,  and  at  eleven,  it  surmounted  the 
central  tower  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  which  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  populace,  and  who  immediately  stationed  themselves 
at  the  windows  with  fire-arms.  The  tocsin  had  been  ringing 
from  the  bells  of  Notre  Dame,  and  the  church  of  St.  Gervais,  with 
ail  other  means  that  could  be  devised,  to  give  the  greatest  pub- 
lic excitement;  and  to  fill  the  populace  with  courage,  vehement 
speeches  were  made,  and  placards,  with  imprecations  against 
the  ministr}^  were  stuck  up  in  all  the  public  thoroughfares. 

At  eight  o'clock  this  mornin^y,  the  different  regiments  left  the 
barracks,  and  at  nine  took  their  stations  at  the  following  places  : 
six  battalions  of  French  guards,  about  1320  men,  with  three 
squadrons  of  lancers,  of  100  men  each,  and  8  guns,  were  drawn 
up  in  the  place  du  Carrousel.  500  cuirassiers  were  quartered 
in  the  barracks,  near  the  Bastile,  and  were  in  communication 
with  the  5th,  50th,  and -53d  regiments  of  the  line,  who  occupied 
nearly  the  whole  extent  of  the  northern  Boulevards  and  place 
Vendome. — The  15th  light  infantry,  were  ordered  to  the  place 
de  Greve,  Pantheon,  and  Palais  de  Justice.     The  place  de  Grevo 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  WEDNESDAY,  JULY  28,   1880.  817 

had,  from  an  early  hour,  been  filled  with  the  armed  populace  ; 
a  detachment  of  soldiers  no  sooner  arrived  there,  than,  accord, 
ing  to  the  testimony  of  Lieut.  St.  Germain,  seven  or  eight  hun- 
dred persons,  most  of  whom  bore  fire-arms,  rushed  upon  them, 
with  a  loud  outcry,  and  fired  a  volley,  by  which  two  men  were 
killed,  and  most  of  the  detachment  wounded,  with  the  officer  in 
command.  The  soldiers  then  fired,  and  several  of  the  people 
fell.  They  immediately  retreated,  pursued  by  the  crowd.  At 
the  place  de  Chatclet,  which  was  also  filled  with  people,  a  body 
of  soldiers  were  drawn  up  in  the  order  of  battle  :  here  the  liar- 
rassed  detachment  of  Lieut.  St.  Germain,  found  a  reinforcement 
in  a  platoon  of  grenadiers,  a  few  shots  from  whom  drove  back  the 
assailants.  A  heavy  fire  was  now  commenced  upon  the  batta- 
lion, from  the  Pont  au  Change,  from  the  adjoining  quay,  and 
from  all  the  windows  near.  Many  of  the  soldiers  were  wound- 
ed, and  forced  to  retire  to  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  got 
to  the  Tuileries  at  three-quarters  past  10,  where  some  addi- 
tional troops  had  arrived  from  St.  Dennis,  Vir.cennes,  and  Ver- 
sailles. 

It  does  not  appear,  that  Marshal  Marmont  had  formed  any 
regular  or,  effective  plan  of  proceeding  :  the  troops  were  marched 
and  countermarched,  about  the  streets  and  quays,  assailed  by 
every  kind  of  missile,  thrown  from  windows  and  tlie  tops  of 
houses  :  the  time  was  lost,  when  any  thing  effective  could  be 
accomplisiied.  The  warfare  had  now  became  general,  and 
the  events  are  so  confusedly  related,  that  it  is  difficult  to  give 
to  them  a  systematic  arrangement.  We  shall  therefore  endea- 
vor to  describe  the  most  prominent  facts,  as  related  by  the 
different  writers  at  this  meniorable  epoch.  Wherever  the  mil- 
itary took  their  stand,  the  increasing  crowds  that  surrounded 
them,  and  the  constant  accession  of  arms,  rendered  the  situation 
of  the  soldiers  extremely  galling ;  barricades  were  also  thrown 
up  on  every  side,  which  rendered  their  situation  still  more  dis- 
heartening. 

A  column  consisting  of  a  battalion  of  guards,  half  a  squadron 
of  lancers,  with  two  pieces  of  cannon,  was  sent  to  occupy  the 
Hotel  de  Ville.  Their  force  was  joined  by  one  of  the  battalions 
of  the  15th  regiment ;  this  column  then  crossed  the  bridge,  Pont 
Neuf,  and  advanced  along  the  Quai  de  I'Horloge,  &c.,  and  pre- 
pared to  recross  the  river  to  march  upon  the  Hotel  de  Vi'lle,  by 
the  Pont  Notre  Dame,  a  few  hundred  paces  west  of  the  Greve. 
The  people  now  advanced  in  great  force,  and  tolerable  order, 
with  drums  beating,  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  bridge,  to  oppose 
their  passage.  The  two  cannon  were  now  planted  on  t]w.  centre 
of  the  bridge ;  a  field  officer  of  the  guards  here  advanced  and 

YOL.  11.  37* 


318  CHAPTER  xni. 

warned  tiie  people  of  their  danger,  by  pointing  to  the  guns,  and 
assured  them  they  were  marching  to  certain  destruction.  This 
had  the  effect  of  causing  the  people  to  withdraw ;  but  while  so 
doing,  some  shots  were  tired,  and  an  adjutant  killed.  The  can- 
non fire<:l  one  shot  each,  and  the  column  passed  over  and  occu- 
pied the  Quays  de  Greves  and  Pelletier  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river.  In  the  mean  time,  a  smaller  force  attempted  to  pass  the 
new  suspension  bridge,  directly  opposite  the  Greve,  where  they 
were  received  with  a  galling  fire,  from  the  house-tops,  windows, 
and  quays  along  the  Seine.  The  rest  of  the  column  coming  up 
to  their  assistance,  the  place  was  taken.  The  guards  had  no 
sooner  taken  their  position,  than  they  learned  with  deep  conster- 
nation that  a  battalion  of  tlie  15th  light  infantry  stationed  along 
*.he  quays  had  revolted.  The  general  in  command  of  the  guards 
was  soon  apprised  of  this,  by  the  falling  of  his  men.  The  Quai 
de  Citi  was  filled  with  sharp  shooters  of  the  insurgents,  who  pro- 
tected by  the  presence  of  the  15th  regiment,  kept  up  a  continued 
fire  upon  the  guards  in  the  place. 

By  this  time  the  50th  regiment,  stationed  in  the  morning  at 
the  Boulevards,  and  afterwards  marched  to  the  place  de  Greve, 
determined  to  lay  down  their  arms  :  they  wished  to  return  to 
their  barracks,  but  finding  these  were  already  in  possession  of 
the  people,  they  joined  40  cuirassiers,  then  departing  from  the 
Bastiie,  for  the  Flotel  de  Ville.  The  latter  had  many  difficulties 
to  encounter,  marching  through  back  streets,  and^at  length 
reached  the  Hotel,  but  the  50th  regiment  took  no  part  in  the 
fighiing,  by  which  the  cuirassiers  made  their  way.  On  their 
arrival  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  officer  commanding  the  .guards 
was  apprised  that  he  could  not  depend  on  receiving  the  reinforce- 
ment from  the  Bastiie,  as  he  fully  expected ;  and  what  rendered 
his  situation  more  trying,  his  cartridges  were  now  about  spent. 
Two  detachments  were  sent  in  quest  of  ammunition,  but  did  not 
return.  A  message  succeeded  in  gaining  the  Tuileries ;  this 
was  by  a  party  of  cuirassiers  ;  200  Swiss  were  sent  to  the  place 
de  Greve  ;  when  they  arrived  there,  the  guards  220  strong,  had 
been  engaged  five  hours,  and  had  forty  men  liors  de  combat^ 
(about  5  o'clock,)  and  had  gained  an  entrance,  with  a  part  of 
their  forces,  into  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  The  populace  having  now 
returned,  the  cavalry  and  artillery  sheltered  themselves  in  the 
stable  yards  from  the  severe  fire,  directed  against  them,  from 
the  o})posite  bank  of  the  river.  The  50th  regiment  was  also 
protected  in  the  inner  court  of  the  Hotel. 

The  hardest  fighting  yet,  had  been  at  the  entry  of  Rue  du 
Mouton,  a  street  that  opens  into  the  place  de  Greve,  from  the 
north.     When  the  ti*oops  had  established  themselves  in  the  place 


FRENCH    REVOLUTION,  WEDNESDAY,  JULY  28,   1830.  33  9 

de  Greve,  a  severe  fire  was  kept  up  against  them  from  both 
angles  of  the  street,  and  from  behind  a  barricade  there  thrown 
up,  but  which  was  soon  taken  and  retaken,  on  the  arrival  of 
the  Swiss,  during  a  movement  ill  executed  ;  its  loss  led  to  the 
severest  conflict  of  the  day,  from  the  determination  of  the  sol- 
diers  to  regain  this  post,  in  which  they  finally  succeeded,  and 
drove  the  popular  forces  away.  The  troops  at  length  were 
withdrawn  into  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  except  a  detachment  of  light 
infantry,  that  held  the  barricade  in  the  Rue  du  Mouton.  The 
sharp-shooters  of  tlie  guards,  kept  up  a  destructive  fire  from 
the  windows  of  the  Hotel,  having  now  received  a  supply  of 
cartridges  from  the  regiments  of  the  line,  which  refused  to  fire 
upon  the  people. 

After  the  Hotel  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  t;roops,*  they 
kept  it  during  the  day's  fight. 

Wednesday  was  the  usual  day  on  which  the  King  held  a 
council  ;  but  the  state  of  atfairs  in  Paris,  prevented  the  routine 
of  business,  and  the  ministers  for  safety,  had  taken  up  their 
quarters  at  the  Tuileries. 

The  celebrated  M.  Arago,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  who 
was  on  terms  of  great  intimacy  with  Marmont,  sought  an  inter- 
view :  for  this  purpose,  he  exposed  himself,  in  company  with 
his  son,  to  all  risks,  to  gain  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries.  It 
was  2  o'clock,  P.  M.  when  he  arrived,  where  he  was  ushered 
into  the  presence  of  Marmont,  in  a  saloon  looking  towards  the 
Carrousel.  He  found  him  with  many  ofiicers,  and  other  per- 
sons not  ill  uniform.  ?vl.  Arago,  taking  the  Marshal  aside,  in 
a  conversation  insisted  on  the  rights  of  resistance  on  the  part 
of  the  people — that  the  ordinances  should  be  immediately  with- 
drawn— and  the  dismissal  of  the  ministers,  &c.  During  this 
discussion,  an  aid-de-camp  brought  intelligence  that  General 
Quinsenas  could  no  longer  maintain  his  position,  which  put  an 
end  to  this  interview.  Immediately  after,  the  arrival  of  several 
members  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  was  announced  ;  and 
these  were  introduced  to  the  presence  of  the  Marshal.  These 
deputies  were  M.  M.  Lafitte,  Casimir  Perrier,  General  Gerard, 
Lobau,  and  Mauguin.  They  represented  the  dangers  which 
threatened  the  throne  ;  the  convulsed  and  frightfiil  state  of  the 
Capital ;  and  demanded  that  the  ministers  should  be  dismissed, 
and  the  ordinances  withdrawn,  as  the  only  means  to  stop  the 
effusion  of  blood.     The   Marshal  communicated  the  substance 

*  There  appears  to  be  some  discrepancy  in  the  statements  of  diff'erent 
writers  about  the  taking  and  holding  the  Hotel  ;  but  the  fact,  as  stated 
above,  is  established  by  the  narration  of  the  staff-officer  and  others,  given, 
during  the  trial  of  the  ministers. 


320  CHAPTER  xiir 

of  this  message  to  the  ministers.  The  reply  of  M.  Polignae 
was,  It  ^was  useless  for  him  to  see  them.  They  immediately 
withdrew.  Lafitte,  the  chief  speaker,  said,  the  question  could 
only  be  decided  by  the  chance  of  arms ;  and  henceforward,  the 
deputies  determined  to  exert  themselves  in  the  revolutionary 
cause — seeing  there  was  no  hope  of  an  accommodation. 

In  the  conflict  maintained  this  day,  in  the  place  de  Greve, 
the  populace  displayed  the  utmost  perseverance,  and  the  most 
unshrinking  courage.  The  rapidity  and  excellent  judgment  of 
their  movements,  the  readiness  to  seize  on  every  advantage  to 
annoy  the  enemy,  shows,  they  must  have  had  leaders  possessed 
of  much  practical  military  knowledge.  Nor  did  they  shrink 
from  the  sanguinary  contest,  where  any  thing  could  be  gained 
by  the  sacrifice  of  life.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  this 
struggle  was  also  carried  on,  under  a  most  oppressive  heat, 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer  ranging  at  95°. 

The  iron  suspension-bridge  was  the  theatre  of  many  daring 
feats  of  valor  ;  and  has  since  been  called,  in  commemoration, 
the  bridge  of  Arcole,  {le  Pont  (V  Arcole.) 

The  wounded,  during  the  day,  were  carried  in  carts  and  lit- 
ters, to  the  hospitals  ;  and  the  dead  to  the  Morgue,  amidst  the 
most  respectful  silence  of  the  crowd. 

The  royal  troops,  though  they  were  in  possession  of  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  without  any  hopes  of  receiving  further  reinforce- 
ments, were  now  exceedingly  anxious  to  quit  it.  They  accord- 
ingly effected  a  retreat,  during  the  stillness  of  the  night,  to  the 
Tuileries.  Of  wounded  men,  they  had  between  50  and  60 — 
though  another  statement  makes  the  number  much  higher, 
these  they  carried  with  them.  The  people  had  generally  left 
the  streets  and  windows,  during  the  night.  The  troops  at 
length  reached  the  Tuileries,  without  any  obstruction  except 
a  barricade  they  had  to  take  down,  to  get  their  cannon  along : 
this  made  some  noise,  and  occasioned  some  shots  to  be  fired 
about  them. 

In  the  Boulevard  St.  Denis,  a  great  crowd  had  assembled  at 
an  early  hour,  and  among  these  was  seen  the  uniform  of  the 
national  guard.  This  crowd  was  not  generally  armed  with 
muskets.  About  8  o'clock,  a  detachment  of  cuirassiers  made 
a  charge  upon  the  crowd,  at  full  gallop.  They  were  then  en- 
gaged in  tearing  up  the  pavement,  and  carrying  the  stones  to 
the  top  of  the  Port  St.  Denis.  They  stood  firm,  and  with  long 
poles  threw  the  cuirassiers  from  their  saddles  at  the  first  encoun- 
ter, and  seized  their  arms,  suffering  none  to  escape.  With  these 
new  equipments,  the  offensive  was  now  assumed  by  them.  At 
9,  a  guard  of  20  soldiers  of  the  line  surrendered  their  arms ; 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  WEDNESDAY,  JULY  28,   1830.  ^Zx 

the  guard-house  was  demoHshed,  and  of  the  materials,  a  barri- 
cade  was  constructed  across  the  Boulevard.  A  furious  encoun- 
ter took  place  with  the  guards,  at  the  gate,  where  stones  were 
hurled,  and  a  brisk  fire  kept  up. 

The  people  now  commenced  erecting  barricades  on  a  great 
scale,  along  the  Boulevard,  at  the  suggestion  of  Ambrose  Meno- 
ret,  a  carpenter  :  for  this  purpose,  the  fine  trees,  planted  by 
Louis  the  Grand,  were  levelled  by  the  axe.  It  ^vns  done  with 
expedition  and  great  science,  under  the  direction  of  Menoret, 
who  suppHed  them  with  tools  from  his  shop.  This  was  a  most 
fortunate  idea.  These  barriers  were  so  numerous,  as  to  be 
insurmountable,  and  cut  otf  all  communication  with  the  troops. 
This  line  of  barricades  extended  from  the  Rue  du  Temple,  in  the 
east,  to  the  Rue  de  Richelieu,  west.  An  eminent  arcliit.ect,  Mr. 
Crccy,  had  a  large  quantity  of  timber,  scaffold  poles,  pick-axes, 
crow-bars,  &c.  carried  away  ;  all  these  were  afterwards  returned 
with  scrupulous  exactness. 

From  a  subsequent  report,  it  appears  that  during  the  revo- 
lutionary struggle,  4055  barricades  were  thrown  up,  consisting 
of  trees  felled,  carriages  of  every  description  overturned,  and 
the  pavements  taken  up.  The  number  of  paving  stones  torn 
up,  for  this  purpose,  were  3,125,000.  The  expense  of  paving 
the  streets  again,  was  250,000  francs.  Paris  is  paved  with 
large  square  stones.  The  gutters  are  in  the  middle  of  the  streets, 
and  they  flowed  with  blood  during  these  sanguinary  conflicts. 

The  immense  importance  of  these  numerous  barricades, 
thrown  up  with  such  unparalleled  rapidity,  will  be  best  illus- 
trated by  the  following  details.  A  strong  column  arrived  at  the 
Bastile,  and  began  to  fire  upon  the  people  ;  these  discharges 
were  kept  up  without  intermission,  and  returned  by  the  people, 
who  were  forced  to  retire ;  and  were  pursued  by  tlie  troops,  as 
far  as  the  Rue  de  Reuilly,  which  meets  the  Rue  du  Faubourg, 
St.  Antoine.  Here  the  troops  were  again  assailed  with  a  sharp 
fire,  and  had  several  barricades  to  overcome.  The  column 
remained  m  the  Rue  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  till  half  past  three, 
and  when  about  to  retire,  were  again  assailed  with  firing,  and 
missiles  from  the  houses.  On  the  return  of  this  body  of  troops 
to  the  Bastile,  the  commander,  M.  St.  Chamans,  found  he  could 
not  return  by  the  northern  Boulevards,*  from  the  numerous  bar- 
*  The  total  number  of  streets  in  Paris,  exclusive  ofCuls  de  Sac,  are  1142, 
mostly  narrow.  The  18  Boulevards  are  broad  streets,  planted  on  both 
sides  with  trees,  and  formin<^'  beautiful  promenades.  Those  outside  of  the 
walls  are  called  the  exterior  Boulevards.  The  interior  Boulevards  are 
divided  into  the  old,  or  northern,  and  the  new,  or  southern,  and  are  of  great 

length,  with  many  streets  running  into  them Enc.  Am.  Vol.  IX.  p.  524. 

a  work  from  which  we  have  derived  many  important  facts. 


822  CHAPTER  XIII. 

ricades,  that  had  risen  as  if  by  magic.  The  attempt  to  force  a 
passage  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  by  the  Rue  St.  Antoine,  also 
failed,  from  the  same  cause ;  while  the  troops  were  exposed  to 
a  heavy  fire  from  all  the  windows,  and  their  ammunition  was 
now  exhausted.  Under  all  these  dangers,  M.  St.  Chamans 
returned  as  well  as  he  could,  with  his  column,  over  the  bridge 
of  Austerlitz,  and  by  a  circuitous  way  to  tlie  Tuileries,  by  the 
southern  Boulevards.  The  column  arrived  at  the  place  Louis 
XV.  between  10  and  11  at  night.  After  this,  no  more  troops 
were  seen  in  the  place  de  la  Bastile  or  neighborhood. 

The  23th  closed  with  the  retirement  of  the  royal  forces  froir 
every  position  in  which  they  had  attempted  to  establish  them, 
selves  during  the  day.  During  the  night,  the  citizens  did  not 
cease  from  their  exertions,  but  availed  themselves  of  this  respite, 
to  complete  the  erection  of  barricades,  in  every  part  of  the 
city.  In  this  great  work,  all  ranks  of  citizens,  the  aged  and 
tlie  young,  were  alike  ardently  employed.  These  barriers  were 
erected  at  about  forty  or  fifty  paces  asunder,  breast  high,  and 
four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  the  work  was  carried  on  by  torch 
light,  the  lamps  having  been  broken.  The  dreadful  tocsin  con- 
tinued ringing  during  the  night.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Louvre, 
and  the  Tuileries,  a  patrol  of  guards,  continued  to  walk  during 
the  night,  and  fired  upon  all  who  came  within  reach  of  their 
muskets. 

Thursday,  29th,  the  drums  beat  the  reveille,  and  the  hurrying 
crowds  as  they  assembled,  cried,  "  To  arms,  to  armsV  Several 
distinguished  military  characters,  were  thi5  day  to  act  as  lead- 
ers. Among  them  were  Generals  Gerard  and  Dubourg.  The 
entire  failure  of  the  plans  of  IMarmont  had  induced  him  to  adopt 
this  day  a  different  mode  of  warfare.  Instead  of  marching  his 
troops  through  the  streets  to  no  purpose,  he  had  sent  for  further 
reinforcements,  and  no^v  intended  to  concentrate  all  his  strength 
in  the  Tuileries,  and  keep  up  a  communication  with  St.  Cloud. 
The  following  places  were  in  possession  of  tlie  royal  troops,  this 
morning  :  the  Tuileries,  Carrousel  and  Garden,  the  Louvre,  the 
Bank,  and  Palais  Royal,  place  Vendome,  the  Champs  Elysees, 
Rue  St.  Honore,  and  several  streets. 

There  was  an  addition  to  the  royal  forces  of  6,700  men,  that 
had  arrived  since  yesterday,  so  that  the  total  number  of  the 
guards  amounted  to  11  battalions  of  infantry,  and  13  squadrons 
of  cavalry,  in  all  4,300  men.  The  eight  battalions  of  the  line, 
amounting  to  2,400,  were  of  no  service  to  the  royal  cause — 
one  battalion  of  guards  occupied  the  military  school.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  military  were  this  day  to  be  put  on  the  defen- 
sive ;  it  remained  therefore  with  the  popular  forces,  to  make  the 


FRENCH   REVOLUTION,  THURSDAY,  JULY  29,  1830.  323 

attack,  ^vho  were  this  day  strengthened  by  the  students  of  the 
celebrated  Polytechnic  school,  about  60  of  whom  scaled  the 
walls,  and  headed  the  civic  columns  by  whom  they  were  hailed 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm. 

The  bands  from  the  Faubourgs  had  poured  into  the  Rue  St. 
Honore,  by  its  eastern  extremity,  and  a  fiece  and  murderous 
warfare  was  carried  on,  and  here,  the  Polytechnic  scholars  led 
the  citizens  to  the  charge.  The  battle  began  to  rage  fiercely 
at  several  points  near  Rue  St.  Honore. 

But  before  any  important  engagement  had  occurred,  to 
decide  the  fate  of  the  day,  the  defection  of  troops  occupying 
important  stations,  led  to  important  results.  About  half  past 
eleven,  the  troops  of  the  line,  at  the  place  Vendome,  and  the 
Palais  Bourbon,  negotiated  with  the  leaders  of  the  populace, 
when  new  barriers  rose  in  all  directions  round  these  stations. 
The  5th  and  53d  regiments  of  the  line,  stationed  in  the  place 
Vendome,  fraternized  with  the  people  :  this  ceremony  was  per- 
formed by  taking  off  their  bayonets,  and  shouldering  their 
muskets,  with  the  butts  in  the  air.  Marshal  Marmont  was 
immediately  apprized  of  the  defection  of  the  troops,  and  sent 
a  battalion  of  Swiss  guards  from  the  Louvre,  to  supply  their 
posts.  By  some  strange  oversight,  the  battalion  was  v/ithdrawn, 
that  defended  the  whole  position,  the  Colonnade  and  gallery 
of  the  Louvre.  The  populace  soon  found  their  way  into  the 
garden,  called  L'Enfant,  in  front  of  the  Louvre,  and  there  meet- 
ing with  no  obstacles,  entered  the  lower  windows,  and  glass 
doors,  and  took  immediate  possession  of  the  interior  of  this  noble 
pile. 

From  the  windows  of  the  inner  court  the  Parisians  fired  upon 
the  battalion  beneath,  and  soon  every  window  in  the  great  gal- 
lery  of  paintings  was  filled,  whence  they  fired  on  the  troops  in 
the  place  du  Carrousel,  and  soon  drove  the  Swiss  guards  away 
in  great  disorder.  There  were  also  two  squadrons  of  lancers  in 
the  inclosure  of  the  Tuileries,  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  popu- 
lace. The  Swiss  rushed  to  the  Triumphal  Arch,  and  getting 
through  it  with  great  irregularity,  threw  themselves  among  the 
lancers.  The  egress  from  this  railed  space  was  blocked  up  by 
the  latter,  but  through  it  the  troops  escaped  as  soon  as  possible. 
It  is  said,  two  platoons  of  firm  soldiers  might  have  driven  the 
popular  forces  away,  who  were  not  numerous  at  this  time.  It 
was  at  this  spot  (the  Triumphal  Arch)  that  Marshal  Marmont 
had  established  his  head  quarters  ;  and  so  unexpected  was  the 
attack  that  he  retreated  precipitately,  leaving  behind  him  120,000 
francs  (5,000/.)  in  bags.  His  retreat  was  by  the  Rue  de  Revoli, 
and  thence  round  into  the  garden  of  the  Tuileries.     From  the 


^  H  CHAPTER  XIII. 

''h\  race,  two  cannon  shot  were  fired  on  the  Parisians.  The 
r'^w.ss  formed  again,  but  only  to  retire  immediately,  by  order  of 
\he  Marshal,  upon  St.  Cloud.  Thus  terminated  the  capture  of 
;he  Louvre  and  the  Tuilcrics. 

In  this  attack  on  the  Louvre,  the  strongest  column  was  com- 
manded by  General  Gerard  ;  while  the  pupils  of  the  Polytechnic 
school  served  under  him,  advancing  at  the  head  of  their  respec- 
itivc  companies.  It  was  one  of  these  youths  that  led  the  attack 
on  one  of  its  gates  and  drove  it  in,  v/hen  the  forces  rushed  im- 
petuously on  the  guards.  Many  interesting  facts  are  related, 
showing  the  courage  and  noble  bearing  of  these  youths,  whose 
services  were  so  conspicuous  during  the  revolution.  It  was 
about  1  o'clock  when  the  Tuileries  were  captured.  In  the 
famous  gallery  of  the  Louvre,  the  splendid  coronation  picture 
of  Charles  X.  Vvith  another  painting,  was  instantly  destroyed. 
The  rest  of  this  precious  collection  of  paintings  was  left  un- 
touched. This  fact  reflects  the  highest  honor  on  the  Parisiar* 
multitude.  No  sooner  was  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries  in  pos- 
session of  the  populace,  than  every  thing  relating  to  the  Bour- 
bons met  with  immediate  destruction.  A  splendid  painting  of 
the  Duke  of  Pv-agusa,  (Marmont,)  was  torn  into  a  thousand 
pieces,  and  every  bust  and  painting  of  the  royal  family  destroy ecf 
with  the  exception  of  a  bust  of  Louis  XVllL,  to  whom  France, 
was  indebted  for  the  charter.  Upon  the  whole,  the  populace, 
even  to  the  poorest  of  the  working  classes,' displayed  a  remark 
able  degree  of  forbearance  from  pillage  when  in  possession  of 
the  riches  of  the  royal  palace.     ' 

The  Swiss  barracks,  in  the  Rue  Babylone,  had  been  taken 
possession  of  before  the  capture  of  the  Tuileries.  Finding  this 
piace  defended  with  great  obstinacy^  it  was  set  on  fire  with 
straw  and  turpentine.  Major  Dufay,  the  commander  of  these 
quarters,  was  killed ;  when  the  flames  and  smoke  forced  the 
soldiers  to  make  a  desperate  sortie,  when  great  numbers  fell. 
Major  Dufay  was  an  officer  of  great  distinction,  and  had  served 
under  Napoleon  in  his  celebrated  campaigns. 

The  archbisho])'s  palace,  in  the  He  de  la  Cite,  was  assailed 
under  the  command  of  several  Polytechnic  scholars.  Finding 
there,  unexpectedly,  ammunition  and  newly  sharpened  poinards, 
the  multitude  were  so  exasperated  that  the  work  of  destruction 
immediately  commenced.  Costly  articles  of  furniture  and  books 
in  gorgeous  bindings  were  torn  to  pieces,  scattered,  and  thrown 
from  the  windows  into  the  river. 

A  sanguinary  combat  was  kept  up  in  Rue  St.  Honore  with 
the  Swiss,  after  the  Louvre  and  Tuileries  were  taken.  This 
mcensed  the  p.\iple  greatly — the  soldiers  almost  to  a  man  pe- 


Battle  of  IVatcrloo  ;  conies:  of  the  Aid  Rrgiment 
for  the  French  Eagles      Vol.  2,  p.  287- 


lJa:i:e  of  /I '.A( r  uo.      \  ul    2,  p.  'i\ 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  THURSDAY,  JULY  29,  1830.     325 

rished — the  carnage  there  was  horrible,  about  nine  hundred 
dead  bodies  being  found.  About  half  past  3,  P.  M.  the  last  of 
ih^i  military  posts  in  the  city  of  Paris  surrendered. 

The  royal  troops  .retreated  towards  St.  Cloud,  not  without 
meeting  with  obstructions  on  the  way,  and  being  somewhat 
harassed.  The  bridge  at  Neuilly  had  been  blocked  up  with 
heavy  carts  and  wagons  at  the  suggestion  of  Lafayette  ;  and 
the  people  still  continued  to  fire  upon  the  exhausted  and  dispirited 
soldiers.  Thus  ended  the  three  days'  hard  conflict,  in  which 
the  citizens  of  Paris  had  fought  and  bled,  and  at  last  achieved 
a  glorious  victory. 

The  number  of  citizens  killed  and  wounded  in  these  three 
days'  fight,  has  been  variously  stated.  From  the  report  of  the 
committee  of  national  rewards,  appointed  to  investigate  the 
claims  of  the  wounded  and  of  the  relatives  of  the  slain,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  number  of  killed  and  those  who  died  from  wounds, 
was  788  ;  and  of  wounded  about  4,500. 

On  the  31st  of  July,  the  deputies  published  a  proclamation, 
declaring  that  they  had  invited  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  become 
Lieutenant-General  of  the  kingdom.  At  noon  on  the  same  day, 
Louis  Phillippe  d'Orleans  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that 
he  hastened  to  Paris,  wearing  the  "  glorious  colors"  of  France, 
to  accept  the  invitation  of  the  assembled  deputies — to  become 
Lieutenant-General  of  the  kingdom.  A  proclamation  of  the 
same  date  appointed  provisional  commissaries  for  the  different 
departments  of  government :  these  were,  M.  Dupont  de  I'Eure, 
for  ti^e  department  of  justice  ;'  Baron  Louis,  of  finance  ;  General 
Gerard,  of  v/ar ;  de  Rigny,  of  marine ;  M.  Bignon,  of  foreign 
affairs ;  M.  Guizot,  of  public  instruction ;  M.  Casimir  Perrier, 
of  the  interior  and  public  works. 

The  same  day,  (31st,)  Charles  X.  and  his  household  fled  from 
St.  Cloud  to  Rambouillet.  Three  commissioners  were  sent  to 
treat  with  him :  these  were,  Messrs.  De  Schonen,  Marshal 
Maison,  and  O'Dillon  Barrett.  The  national  guard  advanced 
towards  Rambouillet,  which  brought  about  a  speedy  delivery 
of  the  crown  jewels  from  Charles  X.  and  hastened  his  depar- 
ture. August  2d,  the  abdication  of  Charles  X.  and  the  Dau- 
phin, Louis  Antoine,  was  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  ;  and  a  letter  from  Charles,  appointing  the  Duke  regent, 
and  ordering  him  to  proclaim  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux  King,  with 
the  title  of  Henry  V. 

The  chamber  of  deputies  met  on  the  3d  of  August.  On  the 
6th,  the  throne  of  France  was  declared  vacant  by  the  chamber 
of  deputies  (de  jure  et  de  facto.)  On  the  7th,  some  changes 
in  the  charter  were  adopted,  when  by  vote,  the  Duke  of  Orleans 

VOL.  II.  28 


326  CHAPTER  Xlll. 

was  invited  to  become  King  of  the  French,  on  condition  of 
his  accepting  the  changes  made  in  the  constitution.  The  votes 
were  219  in  favor,  33  against :  the  whole  number  of  deputies 
is  430. 

On  the  8th,  the  cliamber  in  a  body  went  to  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans and  otlered  him  the  crown,  which  he  accepted  ;  and  on 
the  9th,  Louis  Philhppe  took  the  oath  to  supj)ort  the  new  charter. 
In  these  measures,  a  majority  of  the  chamber  of  peers  present, 
concurred.  On  the  12th  of  August,  the  Moniteur  announced 
the  names  of  the  new  ministry,  from  the  moderate  hberal  party, 
as  toilows :  Count  de  Mole,  foreign  affairs ;  General  Gerard, 
war  ;  Baron  Louis,  finance  ;  Guizot,  interior  ;  Gen.  Sebastiam, 
marine ;  Dupont  de  I'Eure,  keeper  of  the  seals  and  minister  of 
justice  ;  Duke  de  Broglie,  president  of  the  ministry.  Lafitio 
and  Casimir  Perrier  were  also  appointed  ministers  of  state, 
without  any  special  departments. 

Charles  X.  was  permitted  to  retreat  unmolested  from  France. 
He,  with  his  household,  took  passage  in  two  American  ships  for 
England,  where  he  was  received  merely  as  a  private  individual, 
and  took  up  his  residence  at  Holy  rood- House,  Edinburgh,  where 
he  had  formerly  resided  during  the  sway  of  Napoleon. 

Many  changes  were  made  in  the  officers  of  the  French 
government,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  for 
the  better  establishment  of  harmony  in  the  government.  Out 
of  86  prefects,  76  were  removed  ;  and  of  sub-prefects,  196  out 
of  277.  In  the  army,  65  general  officers  out  of  75  were 
changed,  65  colonels  removed,  and  almost  all  the  governors  of 
fortresses.  74  procureurers  were  dismissed.  Special  missions 
were  sent  to  the  different  courts  of  Europe,  which  were  well 
received  by  all  of  them  except  Russia.  The. greatest  activity 
was  exerted  in  the  army  to  put  it  on  a  footing  to  meet  any  inva- 
sion, and  the  organization  of  the  national  guard  was  provided 
for.  Of  the  late  ministry,  Polignac,  Chantelauze,  and  Guernon 
de  Ranville,  undei:went  a  trial  and  were  declared  guilty  of  trea- 
son and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  with  the  penalty  of 
civil  death  to  Polignac.  He  and  his  colleagues  were  transferred 
to  the  prison  at  Ham. 

Nov.  3d,  the  ministry  was  changed,  and  Lafitte  advanced  to 
the  presidency  of  the  council  and  minister  of  finance.  March 
the  14th,  Casimir  Perrier  succeeded  him  in  office.  On  the  18th 
of  October,  1831,  a  bill  passed  the  chamber  of  deputies  for 
abolishing  the  hereditary  rights  of  the  French  peerage  :  to 
ensure  its  passage  in  the  chamber  of  peers,  Louis  Phillippe 
ci'eated  thirty-six  new  peers. 


REVOLUTION  IN  BELGIUJM.  327 


Revolution  in  Belgium. 


The  Belgians  soon  followed  the  example  of  the  French,  in 
the  career  of  revolution,  by  rising  and  expelling  a  king  that 
had  been  forced  upon  them  against  their  wishes.  The  congress 
of  Vienna,  it  will  be  recollected,  in  1814  and  1815,  severed  the 
Netherlands  from  France,  with  which  it  had  been  incorporated 
since  1795,  and  constituted  it  with  the  United  Provinces,  into 
one  political  body,  under  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  having  the 
title  of  King  of  the  Netherlands.  This  was  done  with  a  view 
of  giving  to  Germany  greater  security  against  the  power  of 
France.  The  consent  of  the  Southern  Netherlands  was  never 
asked  or  given  ;  it  was  disposed  of  by  the  great  powers  as  a 
conquered  province  or  district.  William  attenipted  to  unite  two 
million  of  Dutch  Calvinists,  engaged  principally  in  commerce, 
with  four  millions  of  Belgian  Catholics,  employed  in  agriculture 
and  manufactures — whose  interests,  language,  and  manners,  were 
widely  opposed  to  the  Dutch,  and  whose  language  was  disagree- 
able to  the  Belgians,  who  have  much  the  habits  and  feelings  of 
Frenchmen,  and  who  are  also  greatly  influenced  by  a  priesthood 
decidedly  hostile  to  all  innovations,  more  especially  when  coming 
from  the  Dutch  ;  so  that  the  attempt  to  blend  these  discordant 
feelings  and  conflicting  interests  entirely  failed.  And  the  policy 
of  William's  government  was  by  no  means  calculated  to  con- 
ciliate the  proud  and  rich  Belgians,  whom  he  treated  more  as 
vassals  than  subjects.  The  Belgians  had  many  just  causes  of 
complaint  against  the  arbitrary  measures  of  William's  govern- 
ment ;  they  were  burdened  with  heavy  taxes,  and  the  education 
of  their  children  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  natives. 
This  state  of  dissatisfaction  led  to  several  demands  contained  in 
an  address  for  this  purpose ;  the  grievances  ennumerated  were 
fifteen.  They  demanded  an  equitable  division  of  public  oflices 
between  the  two  countries,  liberty  of  language,  instruction,  and 
the  press,  and  the  responsibility  of  ministers.  After  various 
struggles,  an  insurrection  at  Brussels  broke  out  in  August,  1830, 
and  the  Belgians  made  a  formal  declaration  of  their  indepen- 
dence on  the  4th  October,  1830. 

The  representatives  of  the  European  powers,  viz  :  Austria, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  assembled  at  Lon- 
don, and  there  agreed  to  a  protocol  in  favor  of  an  armistice, 
and  directed  that  hostilities  should  cease  between  the  Dutch  and 
Belgians.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of  Bel- 
gium was  announced  December  27th,  1830,  to  the  national  con 


328  CHArxER  xiii. 

gress  at  Brussels,  the  Belgians  having  decided  upon  a  constitu 
tional  monarchy  February  3d,  1831 — the  Duke  of  Nemours, 
the  second  son  of  Louis  Phillippe,  king  of  France,  was  elected 
to  fill  the  throne.  On  the  17th,  the  King  of  France  declined 
the  proffered  throne  on  behalf  of  his  son.  February  24th,  M. 
Sulet  de  Chokier  was  elected  regent  of  Belgium.  January  4th, 
the  Belgium  congress  elected  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg 
for  their  king,  by  a  vote  of  152  to  34,  which  was  sanctioned  by 
the  five  great  powers.  The  new  king  made  his  entrance  into 
Brussels  July  21st,  and  took  the  oath  to  support  the  constitution. 
September  8th,  Leopold,  king  of  Belgium,  opened  his  first  par- 
liament. November  1st,  the  chamber  of  representatives  of 
Belgium  agreed  to  the  terms  of  settlement  between  Belgium 
and  Holland,  prescribed  by  the  London  conference,  and  on  the 
8d,  the  senate  agreed  to  the  same  by  a  vote  of  35  to  8. 


Revolution  in  Poland, 

The  spirit  of  Poland  has  never  been  crushed.  The  sword 
of  SuvarofF  and  the  snows  of  Siberia  had  diminished  the  num- 
ber of  her  brave  sons,  but  they  who  clung  to  the  soil  of  their 
country  and  they  who  devoted  their  lives  to  the  service  of  for- 
eigners alike  breathed  vengeance  on  their  oppressors  and  ardent 
aspirations  for  the  restoration  of  Poland.  They  expected  much 
from  Napoleon — they  spent  their  best  blood  in  his  service,  and 
spent  it  in  vain.  Napoleon  rejected  the  opportunity  of  creating 
a  barrier  nation,  a  camp  of  devoted  soldiers,  which  would  for- 
ever have  secured  his  empire  on  its  weakest  side.  Still  the 
Poles  did  not  despair.  The  moderation  of  Alexander  made 
their  servitude  more  endurable  ;  but  no  sooner  had  Nicholas 
ascended  the  throne  of  Russia,  and  sanctioned  the  barbarities 
of  his  brutal  brother,  Constantine,  than  the  old  spirit  revived, 
if  indeed  that  spirit  had  ever  slept.  The  successful  example 
of  France,  followed  by  Belgium  and  Brunswick,  roused  them  to 
action  and  inspired  them  with  1;he  liveliest  hopes.  The  day  of 
vengeance  and  liberation  seemed  to  have  arrived.  France  well 
knew  that  Poland  alone  stood  between  her  and  the  already  ad- 
vancing legions  of  Russia,  and  her  emissaries  offered  every 
encouragement  to  the  patriot  Poles.  Lashed  to  fury  by  her  own 
wrongs,  listening  to  the  voice  of  hope,  and  encouraged  by  pro- 
mises of  support,  Poland  stood  in  the  gap,  encountered  the  first 
onset,  and  bore  up  against  it  manfully  and  well.     But  every 


KKVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  329 

victory  weakened  her  strength — the  delusive  hope  of  assistance 
vanished,  and  Poland  has  sunk  in  iron-bound  despair.  How 
will  France,  saved  perhaps  by  the  sacrifice  of  Poland,  answei 
to  man  and  to  God  for  her  ingratitude  and  perfidy  ! 

It  was  on  the  29th  of  November,  1830,  that  the  insurrection 
at  Warsaw  burst  forth.  Secret  societies  had  existed  in  thai 
city  since  1818,  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing  the  liberty 
and  nationality  of  Poland.  It  was  a  noble  design  of  her  patri- 
ots  to  unite  again  under  one  government  those  portions  of  their 
unhappy  country  which  had  been  torn  assunder  and  despoiled 
by  the  rapacity  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

As  early  as  1821,  Russia  had  commenced  a  S5^stem  of  pro- 
scription against  these  secret  societies  ;  and  in  1825,  a  conspi- 
racy  was  kindled  into  flame  at  Petersburg,  which  it  was  thought 
could  be  traced  to^  Warsaw.  The  societies  had  members 
throughout  Poland  and  Lithuania,  Podolia  and  Volhynia,  and 
even  the  old  provinces  of  the  Ukraine,  which  it  might  be  sup- 
posed had  long  since  lost  all  recollections  of  Polish  glory. 
These  associations  were  formed  during  the  reign  of  the  Empe- 
ror Alexander,  to  whom  some  of  the  patriots  had  vainly  looked 
for  a  better  state  of  things.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  his 
successor,  Nicholas,  was  crowned  King  of  Poland  at  Warsaw, 
May,  1829. 

The  diet  assembled  in  1830,  and  in  spite  of  all  the  endeavors 
of  the  Emperor,  many  patriots  were  elected.  Nicholas  opened 
this  assembly  in  person,  but  failed  to  overawe  the  liberals  from 
impeaching  ministers  for  violating  the  charter.  This  liberal  diet 
was  closed  June  28th.*  Such  freedom  of  discussion  could  not 
be  endured  by  a  despotic  monarch,  whose  unvarying  aim  has 
been  to  tread  out  every  spark  of  liberty  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe.  The  Arch-Duke  Constantine  was  made  viceroy 
of  Poland,  and  by  his  monstrous  atrocities  became  universally 
detested  by  the  brave  and  generous  Poles. 

The  ardent  hopes  and  wishes  of  the  Polish  patriots  at  length 
burst  forth  into  flame.  At  7  in  the  evening,  the  hour  agreed 
upon,  fifteen  intrepid  youths  sallied  forth  determined  to  seize 
on  Constantine,  whose  residence  was  about  two  miles  from 
Warsaw,  They  rushed  into  the  palace  of  the  Belvider,  where 
the  usual  guard  consists  of  sixty  men,  first  wounding  the  director 
of  police,  who  fled.     They  next  killed  General  Gendre,  a  Rus- 

*  The  constitution  of  Poland,  issued  by  Alexander,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
in  1815,  contained  many  important  provisions.  The  diet,  composed  of  two 
houses,  was  to  be  assembled  once  every  tM^o  years  ;  yet  in  violation  of  this 
provision,  none  was  convoked  from  1820  to  1825,  and  only  one  under  the 
Emperor  Nicholas. 

YOL.  II.  28* 


330  CHAPTER  Xlll. 

sian  infamous  for  his  crimes.  The  struggle  alarmed  Constau- 
line,  who  instantly  rose  from  his  bed  and  escaped  undressed  by 
a  secret  door,  that  was  closed  after  him  by  his  valet  just  as  they 
were  on  the  point  of  reaching  him,  and  had  supposed  themselves 
secure  of  their  victim.  Constantino  instantly  fled  to  his  guards. 
Thus  disappointed,  this  band  retired  to  their  companions  in 
arms,  who  awaited,  at  the  bridge  of  Sobieski,  the  result  of  this 
movement.  In  returning  to  the  city  they  had  to  pass  the  bar- 
racks where  the  guards,  though  already  mounted,  were  unable 
to  attack  them  on  account  of  a  precautionary  measure  of 
Constantino  in  surrounding  the  barracks  with  a  deep  and  wide 
ditch,  passed  only  by  narrow  bridges.  The  guards  fired  upon 
the  insurgents  ;  but  the  Ja'tter  were  so  advantageously  situ- 
ated, and  returned  the  fire  so  well,  that  they  killed  three  hun- 
dred of  the  guards,  and  retreated  with  the  loss  of  only  one  of 
their  number. 

By  this  time  the  streets  of  Warsaw  were  filled,  some  houses 
had  been  set  on  fire,  and  the  cry  resounded  "  To  arms,  to  arms, 
Poland  is  up,  God  for  our  country  !"  The  inhabitants  rushed 
to  arms.  The  state  prisoners  were  liberated  ;  the  students  of 
the  university  and  the  school  of  engineers  joined  the  insurrec- 
tion ;  the  arsenal  was  forced,  and  in  an  hour  and  a  half  from 
the  first  cry  of  liberty,  40,000  men  were  in  arms.  Soon  the 
fourth  Polish  regiment  joined  the  populace,  and  presently  the 
rest  of  the  Polish  soldiers.  When  Constantino  heard  of  this, 
he  fell  back  with  two  Polish  regiments  of  guards,  and  was  per- 
mitted  to  retire  by  the  magnanimous  Poles  unmolested  to  the 
frontier.  Chlopicki  was  appointed  general  in  chief,  and  four 
days  afterwards  declared  dictator  by  the  provisional  govern- 
ment. Although  a  soldier  of  undisputed  bravery,  he  has  been 
blamed  for  suffering  the  grand  duke  to  escape  when  he  might 
have  captured  him,  and  for  losing  time  in  trying  to  negotiate 
with  the  Emperor  Nicholas. 

The  diet  that  assembled  in  twenty  days  after  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolt,  confirmed  Chlopicki  dictator  ;  but  on  his  refus- 
ing assent  to  the  manifesto  of  January  9th,  1831,  in  which  the 
wrongs  of  Poland  were  so  feelingly  portrayed,  he  was  deposed. 
Instantly  a  supreme  national  council  was  formed,  and  Prince 
Adam  Czartoryski  appointed  president,  when  a  spirited  procla- 
mation was  issued,  informing  the  Polish  soldiers  tiiat  Chlopicki 
had  resigned  the  glorious  task  of  conducting  them  to  combat. 

It  was  unfortunate  for  the  cause  of  Poland  that  Chlopicki  was 
made  dictator.  He  issued  an  order,  "  that  whoever  should  cross 
the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom,  and  attempt  to  raise  the  old  pro- 
vinces,  should  be  punished  with  death."     Such   an  order  might 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  SSI 

have  been  issued  in  respect  to  Prussian  and  Austrian  Poland ; 
but  not  to  those  provinces  that  had  risen  to  shake  off  the  Rus- 
sian yoke,  and  Lithuania,  where  the  revolt  had  begun,  and  where 
thousands  impatiently  waited  the  signal  from  old  Poland,  to  rise 
and  join  the  struggle  for  liberty.  This  order  of  Chlopicki  was 
regarded  by  the  patriots,  not  only  as  a  severe  check  to  the  enlhu. 
siasm  of  those  provinces  waiting  to  rise  on  the  signal  being  given, 
but  as  almost  traitorous  to  their  cause.  That  time  was  lost  in 
fruitless  negotiation  that  should  have  been  devoted  to  kindling, 
far  and  wide,  the  spirit  of  revolt ;  and  in  the  most  active  prepa- 
ration  to  meet  the  vast  resources  of  Russia,  which  had  refused 
ail  terms  but  absolute  submission:  and  the  preparations  in  the 
army  were  strangely  neglected.  These  proceedings  at  length 
caused  so  much  dissatisfaction  against  Chlopicki,  as  to  lead  to 
his  dismission. 

After  two  months  delay  the  inevitable  conflict  began  ;  when 
the  Poles  marched  into  the  field,  "  with  half  the  force  which 
under  an  energetic  administration  it  would  have  wielded." 
They  ought  to  have  been  ready  ta  have  commenced  offensive 
operations  with  their  enemy  at  a  distance,  instead  of  v/aiting 
for  him  on  their  own  soil,  exposed  to  his  insults  and  outrages. 
Russia  had  now  brought  mto  the  field  against  Poland  200,000 
men,  while  Poland  had  but  about  50,000  equipped  for  the  fight 
— a  fearful  disparity  in  numbers.  Through  the  influence  of 
the  aristocracy,  the  command  of  the  army  vvas  given  to  Prince 
Radzvil. 

The  Russian  invading  army  rendezvoused,  on  the  20th  of 
January,  at  various  points  of  the  western  frontier  of  the  empire. 
It  was  composed,  according  to  the  report  of  Field  x^Iarshal 
Diebitsch,  of  105  battalions  of  infantry,  135  squadrons  of  cav- 
alry, with  396  pieces  of  artillery,  and  11  regiments  of  Cos- 
sacks. The  army  crossed  the  Polish  frontiers  on  the  5tii  of 
February.  The  advance  of  the  Polish  army  was  at  Biala,  the 
right  near  the  high  road  to  Warsaw,  tlie  left  at  Lomeza  on  the 
Narew.  On  the  advance  of  the  Russians,  the  Polish  corps 
fell  back,  the  right  on  Warsaw,  and  the  left  on  IModlin  and  PuK 
tusk.  On  the  18th  of  February,  the  Russian  head-quarters  v»'ere 
established  at  Minsk,  ten  miles  from  Warsaw,  and  their  advance 
pushed  to  Melisna,  within  five  miles  of  that  city.  The  Russian 
left  rested  on  the  Vistula  above  Warsaw,  and  the  right  on  the 
Bug  near  its  junction  with  the  Narew,  its  centre  protected  with 
woods  and  artillery. 

On  the  18th,  the  Polish  army  of  50,000  men  had  its  right  on 
Grokow,  with  Praga  in  the  rear,  and  the  left  thrown  back  oppo- 
site the  right  wing  of  the  enemy. 


832  CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  reconnoissances  of  the  19th  and  20th,  were  resisted  by 
the  Poles  and  led  to  a  severe  battle.  According  to  the  Russian 
•tccount,  the  heat  of  the  battle  was  during  the  early  part  of  the- 
day  confined  to  the  left,  Count  Pahlen's  advanced  guard,  which 
was  attacked  as  soon  as  it  had  cleared  the  defile  near  Grokow, 
and  compelled  to  retreat  two  miles.  The  advanced  guard, 
under  General  Rosen,  was  attacked  at  the  same  time,  advancing 
from  Okanief.  On  the  arrival  of  Diebitsch,  he  sent  a  reinforce- 
ment under  General  Toll,  with  several  battalions  and  20  cannon, 
to  the  relief  of  Count  Pahlen.  A  furious  charge  was  now  made 
by  the  Russians,  with  Diebitsch  in  person,  which  changed  the 
fortune  of  the  day,  and  at  4  o'clock  the  Russian  wings  united, 
when  the  Poles  were  driven  from  the  field  of  battle.  For  three 
days  after  this  action  the  Russians  made  no  onward  movement, 
but  asked  an  armistice  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  which  was 
granted. 

Early  on  the  25th,  the  Russians  having  received  a  reinforce- 
ment of  25,000  men,  felt  prepared  for  action.  They  drew 
forth  their  whole  army  in  front  of  the  forest,  and  commenced 
an  attack  on  the  Polish  left  wing,  near  Jublonna.  General 
Uminski  received  this  attack  with  great  bravery,  and  repulsed 
the  enemy,  taking  six  cannon,  which  he  spiked,  and  drove  the 
Russians  to  the  forest.  He  then  attacked  the  Russian  centre 
with  dreaaful  slaughter,  and  drove  them  from  their  position. 
Diebitsch  had  calculated,  with  the  great  strength  of  his  left 
wing,  to  crush  the  Polish  right,  situated  near  Grokow,  under 
the  command  of  Chlopicki  and  Skrzynecki.  The  Russians 
made  six  tremendous  charges,  and  were  as  often  repulsed  with 
great  loss  ;  a  seventh  charge  made  against  a  new  regiment, 
put  it  in  disorder,  and  caused  it  partially  to  retreat.  Two 
regiments  of  cuirassiers  were  then  sent  against  the  faltering 
regiments  :  the  latter  being  aided  with  the  Polish  lancers,  rallied, 
rushed  on  the  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  and  cut  them  to  pieces, 
of  which  only  forty  escaped,  twenty  prisoners  only  being  taken, 
mostly  officers,  and  among  them  the  commander  of  one  of  these 
regiments.  This  affair  decided  the  day,  when  the  Russians  were 
obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  field  of  battle  into  their  strong 
holds  in  the  forest  of  Milosna.  This  battle  was  fought  with 
great  fury.  General  Chlopicki,  who  was  in  the  centre,  had  two 
horses  killed  under  him,  and  was  wounded.  Forty  thousand 
Poles  here  withstood  the  shock  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand of  their  enemy  ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  battle,  nearly 
15,000  Russians  lay  weltering  on  the  plain,  and  several  thousand 
prisoners  were  taken. 

After  the  battle,  Prince  Radzvil  gave  up  the  command  of  the 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  S33 

army ;  when  Skrzynecki,  who  had  displayed  extraordinary 
bravery  and  skill,  was  chosen  commander  in  chief.  But  this 
step  led  to  the  rankling  enmity  of  Krukowiecki,  the  second  in 
command  to  Chlopicki,  who  thenceforward  meditated  revenge, 
plotted,  and  afterwards  proved  a  traitor  to  his  country. 

The  first  step  of  Skrzynecki  was  to  attempt  to  negotiate  with 
Diebitsch.  When  he  found  his  advances  repelled,  he  prepared 
for  the  unequal  struggle. 

The  ice  in  the  Vistula  had  now  broken  up,  and  the  swamps 
were  filled  from  the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  the  roads  were 
almost  impassable  for  artillery  and  cavalry.  Skrzynecki  now 
determined  to  act  on  the  offensive.  On  learning  that  Diebitsch 
had  divided  his  forces,  he  led  the  Polish  army  of  25,000  men 
to  Praga,  and  on  the  31st,  favored  by  the  darkness  of  the  night, 
approached  the  P.-ussian  camp,  and  fell  upon  the  advanced 
guard  of  General  Geismar,  at  Wawar,  consisting  of  8,000  men, 
intrenched  in  a  very  strong  position,  which  force  he  nearly 
destroyed,  capturing  4,000  prisoners,  and  taking  a  number  of 
cannon.  General  Uminski  had  previously  been  despatched 
towards  Ostrolenka,  to  keep  in  check  the  corps  of  General 
Sacken  and  the  guards  who  were  advancing  there.  While  the 
Polish  advanced  guard  was  engaged  in  combat  at  Wawar, 
General  Rybinski,  with  his  division,  attacked  the  enemy's  right, 
and  carried  it  by  the  point  of  the  bayonet;  destroyed  one  entire 
regiment,  and  forced  another  to  lay  down  their  arms.  The 
combat  lasted  tvvo  hours.  Colonel  Romarino's  brigade  here  also 
distinguished  itself.  Skrzynecki  next  fell  upon  the  corps  of 
General  Rosen,  posted  at  Dembe  Wlelski  with  20,000  men,  v/ho 
were  unable  to  withstand  tlie  impetuous  attack  of  the  Poles. 
The  Russians  fled  by  way  of  Minsk,  and  made  several  elK.rts 
to  sustain  their  positions  as  they  received  reinforcements,  but 
were  unable  to  sustain  them.  It  was  at  5  o'clock,  P.  M.  when 
they  arrived  at  Dembe  Wielski,  a  position  strongly  fortified,  and 
the  resistance  v/as  obstinate.  But  the  force  of  the  artillery  from 
the  centre,  and  the  vigor  of  the  assault,  completely  routed  the 
Russians,  who  fled  with  precipitation. 

By  this  masterly  movement  of  the  Polish  commander  in  chief, 
20,000  Russians  were  thrown  hors-de-combat,  and  many  superior 
officers  were  captured  durhig  this  day,  so  glorious  to  the  Polish 
arms,  besides  taking  two  standards,  fifteen  wagons  filled  with 
ammunition,  some  thousand  muskets,  and  fifteen  pieces  of  can- 
non This  victory  occasioned  but  small  loss  to  the  Poles,  owing 
to  the  rapidity  and  surprise  with  which  their  movements  were 
executed.  The  regiment  of  scythemen  (leucheurs)  having 
demanded  arms,  the  nwskets  left  on  the  field  of  battle  were 


334  CHAPTER  XIII 

assigned  them.  The  combat  lasted  till  10  at  night.  The  army 
liad  then  been  actively  engaged,  fighting  and  marching,  twenty 
hours. 

On  the  9th,  the  Polish  army  gained  a  considerable  victory, 
taking  several  cannon,  and  from  3,000  to  4,000  prisoners ; 
among  them  were  300  officers  of  different  ranks.  The  head- 
quarters  on  the  10th  were  at  Seidlec  ;  and  on  the  same  day, 
at  that  place,  Marshal  Diebitsch  succeeded  in  uniting  all  his 
forces.  From  this  time  the  Polish  cause  appears  to  have  de- 
clined. 

General  Dwernecki  v/ith  a  valiant  corps  entered  Volhynia, 
surrounded  by  Russian  corps  under  Generals  De  Witt,  Keuts, 
and  Rudiger.  Dwernecki  passed  the  Bug  on  the  10th,  and  on 
the  11th  routed  some  Russian  forces,  took  a  number  of  prison- 
ers, some  transports,  and  baggage.  The  left  wing  of  the  Rus- 
sian army,  stationed  at  Kock,  upon  Veprez  and  Rudjew,  fell 
back,  and  Marshal  Diebitsch,  baffled  in  his  attempts,  retired 
with  the  army  across  the  river  Bug,  alarmed  for  his  safety. 
Insurrections  spread  in  his  rear,  in  the  provinces  of  Lithuania 
and  Volhynia.  A  violent  insurrection  broke  out  at  Wilna  on 
the  28th  of  March. 

General  Chrzanowski,  with  8,000  men,  cut  his  way  through 
the  Russians,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  fortress  of  Zamosc. 
The  greatest  enthusiasm  now  spread  through  the  Polish  province 
of  Samogitia.  This  expedition  of  Chrzanowski,  by  forcing  his 
way  through  the  enemy's  detachments,  was  one  of  great  daring. 
In  three  days  he  defeated  the  Russia«ns  three  times,  and  took 
800  prisoners.  These  movements  in  Volhynia  occasioned 
great  uneasiness  to  the  Russians,  and  obliged  them  to  change 
their  plan — that  of  attempting  Warsaw  in  front  by  Praga.  On 
the  last  days  of  April,  Diebitsch  retired  with  the  Russian  army 
beyond  the  river  Bug.  The  barbarities  of  the  Russians  during 
this  warfare  against  the  patriots  in  Lithuania,  were  of  the  most 
revolting  kind. 

April  26th,  General  Dwernecki  surrendered  his  force,  con- 
sisting of  4,000  men  and  17  pieces  of  cannon,  to  the  Austrians. 
He  had  been  pursued  by  a  superior  force,  and  was  under  the 
necessity  of  passing  into  the  Austrian  dominions.  Diebitsch, 
with  the  principal  Russian  army,  retreated  in  the  direction  of  the 
Bug  and  Narew,  to  gain  the  Prussian  frontier,  to  relieve  the  suf- 
fering  state  of  the  army.  At  Thorn  there  was  a  great  supply  of 
provisions,  ammunition,  &c.,  waiting  his  approach. 

The  Polish  government  issued  a  manifesto  against  Prussia 
for  her  shameful  violation  of  the  principle  of  non-interference. 
This  conduct  of  Prussia  destroyed  all  the  advantages  gained  by 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  335 

Polish  valor.  The  Prussians  furnished  supplies  of  every  kind 
and  constructed  bridges  over  the  Vistula  for  the  passage  of  the 
Russian  army.  In  many  instances  when  the  Russian  troops 
were  forced  by  the  Polish  soldiers  into  the  Prussian  dominions, 
they  were  suffered  to  return  with  their  arms,  while  the  Poles  in 
ail  similar  cases  were  retained  prisoners. 

The  conduct  too  of  Austria  was  most  outrageous.  While  the 
brave  Dwernecki,  the  "  cannon  provider,"  was  withstanding  a 
greatly  superior  force  on  the  Austrian  frontier,  the  Russians 
passed  over  neutral  ground  to  outflank  him.  He  was  followed  in 
his  retreat  by  the  Russians  who  were  allowed  to  retire,  while 
the  brave,  patriotic,  and  devoted  champions  of  Poland  were 
obliged  to  surrender  themselves  prisoners  of  war  to  the  Austrian 
forces  stationed  on  the  frontier. 

While  a  Polish  corps  was  at  Minsk,  Skryznecki  united  all  his 
corps  on  the  left,  crossed  the  Bug,  and  forced  his  way  to  Ostro- 
lenka,  a  flank  movement  of  80  miles,  and  defeated  the  Russian 
guards  at  Tychosin.  He  then  sent  forward  300  Polish  officers 
to  Lithuania,  there  to  organize  the  patriot  forces. 

The  sanguinary  battle  of  Ostrolenka  was  fought  on  the  26th 
May,  in  which  20,000  Poles  were  opposed  to  60,000  Russians. 
This  battle  was  fought  with  an  inveteracy  unexampled— quarter 
was  out  of  the  question.  The  Poles  having  succeeded  in  pass- 
ing to  the  right  bank  of  the  Narew,  they  attempted  to  destroy 
the  bridge.  This  they  were  unable  to  eflbct,  as  the  Russians 
were  protected  by  a  numerous  artillery  placed  on  the  opposite 
bank.  Several  regiments  of  Poles,  under  a  most  galling  fire, 
attempted  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  Russians.  The  combat 
was  for  a  long  time  one  of  slaughter  ;  they  fought  man  to  man, 
and  thousands  were  killed  by  being  thrown  into  the  dyke  which 
passes  along  the  marshy  shore  of  the  Narew.  The  battle  did 
not  end  till  12  o'clock  at  night,  when  the  exhausted  Russians 
retrograded  as  far  as  the  bridge,  and  the  Polish  army  commenced 
a^  retrograde  movement  unmolested,  and  fell  back  on  Praga. 
The  loss  of  the  Poles  in  this  battle  has  been  stated  at  4,000  men. 
The  Russians  suffered  very  severely  and  had  three  generals 
killed.  The  Russian  guards  are  said  to  have  displayed  great 
bravery  in  the  action.  It  was  the  object  of  Diebitsch  to  cut  off" 
the  retreat  of  the  Poles.  The  second  Polish  corps  under  Genera] 
Lubienski  displayed  great  gallantry  on  the  25th  :  it  forced  its 
way,  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  in  a  retreat  from  Chirchnowiec, 
through  40,000  Russians. 

It  was  subsequently  ascertained  that  a  correspondence  had 
been  kept  up  by  traitors  and  Russian  agents  in  Warsaw,  through 
whose  means  Diebitsch  was  informed  of  the  plans  of  the  Polish 


r^30  CHAPTER  XIIl. 

commander  in  chief,  and  led  to  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ostro- 
ienka.  On  the  same  day  that  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka  wan 
Ibught,  General  Chlapowski  gained  a  victory  over  the  Russians 
av  Mariampol,  commanded  by  General  Sacken. 

The  Russian  commander  in  chief,  Diebitsch,  died  suddenly  ai 
Klfechewo,  June  19th,  at  that  time  the  head-quarters  of  the  Rus- 
sian army.  He  had  been  superseded  a  short  time  previous  to 
his  death  by  Paskewitch,  who  had  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  tiie  war  against  the  Persians.  Shortly  afterv/ards,  the  Arch 
Duke  Constantine  died  very  suddenly. 

The  Russian  arms  under  Diebitsch  in  the  campaign  against 
enfeebled  and  distracted  Turkey,  acquired  a  fictitious  celebrity  ; 
but  Russia  has  been  entirely  shorn  of  tiiis  fame  by  a  handful  of 
Polish  patriots.  Had  it  not  been  for  this  untoward  war  agaii?  ;t 
Poland,  Diebitsch's  name  might  have  descended  to  posterity  as  a 
renowned  warrior.  Poor  Diebitsch  became  the  laughing  stock 
of  all  Europe  ;  and  the  boasted  prowess  of  Russia  has  since  been 
viewed  in  a  very  different  aspect.  Russia,  in  the  height  of  her 
pride  and  in  the  full  confidence  of  her  strength,  was  about  to 
march  her  legions  upon  France  ;  when  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Polish  revolution  afforded  her  sufficient  employment  nearer 
home.  If  Poland,  at  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  had 
succeeded  in  establishing  an  energetic  government,  and  possessed 
a  leader  fully  competent  to  direct  her  valiant  soldiers,  the  over- 
bearing  power  and  haughty  pride  of  Russia  might  have  been 
humbled  to  the  dust. 

General  Gielgud  was  sent  with  a  force  of  8,000  men  into 
Samogitia,  a  district  of  Lithuania,  and  was  for  a  time  success- 
ful ;  but  was  defeated  in  an  attack  on  Wilna,  and  forced  _  to 
retreat.  On  the  13th  of  July,  the  remains  of  th^  corps  of  Giel- 
gud  and. Chlapowski,  reduced  to  2,500  men,  passed  over  into  the 
Prussian  territory,  when  General  Gielgud  was  shot  by  a  Polish 
officer. 

General  Dembinski  had  entered  Lithuania  at  Olitta,  about 
55  miles  west  of  Wilna,  with  corps  to  aid  the  insurgents.  The 
failure  of  Gielgud  before  Wilna  obliged  him  to  retreat— he  forced 
his  way  through  the  Russians,  and  arrived  safely  in  Warsaw. 
This  retreat  was  a  masterly  display  of  generalship.^ 

June  29th,  a  conspiracy  was  this  day  timely  discovered  in 
Warsaw,  which  was  to  set  the  Russian  prisoners,  thirteen  thou- 
sand  in  number,  at  liberty.  Several  disaffected  officers  attempted 
to  bring  about  a  counter-revolution  to  favor  the  Pv-ussians.  It 
was  to  be  accomplished  as  follows:  the  prisoners  having  be?n 
allowed  to  go  at  large,  they  were  to  be  supplied  with  arms  ;  and 
on   a  signal  being  given  the  powder  mill  was  to  be  blown  up, 


REVOLUTION  IN  POLAND.  337 

when  a  general  attack  was  to  be  made  on  the  citizens  and 
national  guard.  General  Janowski,  one  of  the  traitors,  to  save 
himself,  made  the  discovery  of  this  horrid  conspiracy  just  in 
time  to  save  Warsaw. 

On  the  14th  July,  General  Chrzanski  was  attacked  by  Gene- 
ral  Rudiger's  corps,  on  this  side  of  Minsk,  five  miles  from  War- 
saw ;  when  the  Russians  were  defeated  and  forced  to  retreat, 
having  3,000  men  killed,  900  prisoners  taken,  and  1000  muskets. 
On  the  12th,  the  main  army  of  Paske witch  was  encamped  be- 
tween Sisno  and  Kikal,  and  on  the  same  day  a  great  part  of  it 
passed  the  A^'istula  between  Warsaw  and  the  Prussian  frontier, 
having  received  from  Thorn  a  great  number  of  barges  and 
materials  for  bridges.  The  Prussians,  to  facilitate  the  passing 
of  the  Russians,  had  constructed  a  bridge  over  the  Vistula  at 
Drewenca. 

On  the  13th  of  August,  General  Skryznecki  resigned  the 
command  of  the  army  to  General  Dembinski,  compelled,  by  the 
force  of  circumstances,  to  do  so,  in  order  that  faction  might 
have  no  further  pretext  to  injure  his  country.  His  letter  of 
resignation  on  this  occasion,  is  full  of  generous  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  his  country.  The  patriotic  club,  irritated  with  the 
measures  of  government  and  dissatisfied  at  not  seeing  General 
Janowski  condemned,  determined  to  take  violent  measures.  To 
these  acts  they  were  instigated  by  the  base  Krukowiecki.  On 
the  15th  August,  at  8  A.  M.  the  club  formally  demanded  that 
Skryznecki  should  be- ordered  to  Warsaw.  They  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  castle,  that  was  protected  by  200  of  the  national 
guard,  who  made  scarcely  any  resistance.  On  the  same  day, 
the  patriotic  club  demanded  the  death  of  Janowski  ;  and  on 
the  16th,  the  state  prisoners  concerned  in  the  conspiracy  for 
a  counter-revolution,  were  murdered  in  their  rooms  by  the 
clubists.  Thirty. five  persons  were  thus  put  to  death  witliout 
ceremony  ;  among  them  were  Generals  Janowski,  Bulkov/ski, 
Plurtig,  Salacki,  and  Benthouski,  the  Russian  chamberlain,  Fus- 
tiane,  &c. 

During  the  night.  General  Krukowiecki  was  appomted 
governor  of  the  city.  He  sent  for  a  reinforcement,  and  his 
first  measures  were  to  put  a  stop  to  these  horrors.  August 
17th,  the  government  was  dissolved,  and  Krukov.iecki  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  new  government,  with  very  extended 
powers.  He  caused  the  arrest  of  the  president  and  ten  of  the 
club,  and  appointed  General  Prondzynski  to  the  chief  command 
m  the  army. 

From  the  time  that  Krukowiecki  came  into  power,  he  took 
measures  to  deliver  Warsaw  to  the  Russians,  and  made  e-c-.y 

VOL.  II.  29 


338  CHAPTER  Xlll. 

attempt  to  induce  the  diet  to  demand  an  amnesty,  and  sent  the 
main  part  of  the  Polish  army  to  the  right  side  of  the  Vistula, 
when  the  thunder  of  the  Russian  artillery  was  breaking  over  the 
devoted  city.  The  proposals  of  Krukowiecki  were  repelled  by 
the  diet  with  indignation,  who  declared  to  the  suspicious  deputies, 
"  rather  will  we  die  here  in  our  places  than  stain  the  honor  of 
our  country."  The  traitor  was  deposed  at  midnight  and  a  new 
governor  of  the  city  named,  which  gave  new  vigor  to  the  faint- 
ing defenders  of  Warsaw. 

On  the  6th  of  September,  at  daybreak,  the  Russian  army  of 
100,000  men  and  300  pieces  of  cannon,  advanced  to  storm  War- 
saw, which  was  defended  with  great  heroism.  On  the  8th,  aftei 
two  days  hard  fighting,  it  surrendered  to  Field  Marshal  Paske- 
witch.  The  Russians  had  '20,000  slain  in  storming  Warsaw. 
The  Poles  lost  about  half  that  number  in  its  defence. 

The  government  and  the  most  distinguished  citizens  retired 
with  the  main  body  of  the  army,  under  the  new  commander  in 
chief,  Rybinski,  upon  Modlin  and  Plozk.  The  army,  however, 
kept  in  three  divisions  instead  of  uniting,  which  could  thus  offer 
but  a  feeble  resistance  to  the  Russian  forces.  As  a  last  resource, 
the  Poles  crossed  the  frontiers  into  the  Austrian  and  Prussian 
dominions.  Upwards  of  1500  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders 
of  the  Polish  revolution  were  arrested  and  imprisoned  at  War- 
saw ;  and  to  complete  the  measures  of  oppression  and  vengeance, 
the  Russian  troops  fired  upon  the  prisoners  confined  in  one  of 
the  wings  of  the  prison,  under  the  pretence  of  a  revolt  among 
the  prisoners,  though  it  was  known  that  three-fourths  of  these 
were  imprisoned  for  political  offences. 

Of  twenty-two  Polish  generals  that  became,  in  a  manner,  pri- 
soners under  the  amnesty,  the  greater  part  were  sent  to  distant 
parts  of  the  Russian  empire,  and  but  four  returned  to  Poland. 
The  soldiers  were  marched  by  thousands  to  Siberian  exile,  linked 
together  by  the  wrists  to  bars  of  iron.  The  nobles  were  treated 
in  the  same  ignominious  manner,  with  their  heads  shaved,  and 
consigned  to  the  dungeons  and  mines  of  Siberia ;  and  the  chil- 
dren  were  torn  from  their  mothers,  and  carried  off  to  glut  the 
vengeance  of  the  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias. 

Numbers  of  the  patriots  that  escaped  after  the  fall  of  Warsaw, 
when  the  army  passed  the  frontiers,  have  gone  into  voluntary 
exile,  and  are  now  mourning  over  the  calamities  of  their  country, 
the  loss  of  their  homes,  their  wives,  and  their  children. 

The  Prussian  government  treated  the  Polish  refugees  that  fled 
into  her  territory  with  horrible  brutality,  in  order  to  force  these 
now  miserable  and  heart-broken  outcasts  into  the  iron  fangs  of 
Russian  despotism. 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  839 

The  recital  of  the  barbarous  deeds  perpetrated  by  insatiate 
and  faithless  Russia  on  completing  the  subjugation  of  Poland, 
cannot  fail  to  fill  with  sorrow  the  breast  of  every  friend  to  hu- 
manity :  and  it  sickens  the  heart  to  think,  that  these  wretched 
and  trodden-down  Poles  are  now  perhaps  for  ever  beyond  the 
reach  of  all  human  aid.  The  French  government,  during  the 
Polish  struggle,  a  period  of  intense  interest  to  the  fervent  and 
sympathizing  Frenchmen,  showed  the  blackest  ingratitude  and 
perfidy  towards  the  chivalrous  Poles.  It  was  in  vain  that  the 
good  Lafayette  lifted  up  his  imploring  voice  in  their  behalf  to 
the  'citizen  King.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  as  if  the  nationality 
of  Poland  was  now  for  ever  blasted ;  and  the  survivors  of  this 
once  noble  race  of  warriors  and  patriots  were  destined,  by  seve- 
ral of  the  arbitrary  governments  of  Europe,  to  be  hunted  down 
like  beasts  of  prey. 

Russia  is  at  present  erecting  a  citadel  at  Warsaw,  intended 
to  overawe  the  Poles  for  the  future.  The  cost  of  the  building, 
20,000,000  florins,  is  to  be  extorted  from  the  oppressed  citizens 
of  Warsaw. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Greek  Revolution.    War  heticeen  Russia  and  Turkey.    England, 
from  A.  D.  1816,  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  A.  D.  1832. 

Among  the  extraordinary  events  of  the  19th  century,  there  is 
none  that  occasioned  more  thrilling  interest  at  the  time,  than  the 
protracted  and  fearful  struggle  made  by  the  modern  Greeks  to 
gain  their  independence. 

The  classic  soil  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  Thebes  and  Corinth, 
for  the  last  four  centuries  had  been  profaned  by  Turkish  despot- 
ism. It  was  the  same  soil  that,  2500  years  ago,  was  the  seat 
of  learning  and  the  abode  of  free  institutions.  It  was  the  land 
of  Homer  and  Demosthenes,  Solon  and  Pericles,  that,  after  the 
slumber  of  ages,  was  awakened  to  new  life. 

The  struggle,  of  which  we  are  about  to  give  a  faint  and  rapid 
sketch,  is  the  one  made  by  the  modern  Greeks  to  achieve  their 
country's  independence,  and  elevate  Greece  to  an  equal  rank 
with  civilized  nations.  And  though  this  people  had  been  so  long 
under  the  most  debasing  slavery,  they  nevertheless  displayed, 
during  this  momentous  struggle,  numerous  deeds  of  valor  worthy 
their  renowned  ancestors. 

Before  entering  on  this  eventful  revolution,  which  began  in 
the  Morea,  March  23,  1821,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  fully 
to  understand  its  origin,  to  state,  that  some  years  before  th 


340  CHAPTER  XIV. 

commencement  of  hostilities  the  patriots  of  Greece  founded,  in 
1814,  an  association  called  the  Hetaria.  'J 'here  was  a  society 
established  at  Vienna  the  same  year,  of  whicli  Count  Capo 
d'Istrias  was  one  of  the  first  members ;  but  it  did  not  publicly 
avow  any  political  designs.  The  head-quarters  of  this  society 
were  at  St.  Petersburg,  whither  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
Greeks  repaired  under  the  pretext  of  having  commercial  busi- 
ness  to  transact. 

The  Greeks  it  appears  had,  at  difterent  times,  been  called 
upon  by  Russia  to  shake  oft"  the  Turkish  yoke,  namely,  in  the 
years  1769,  1786,  and  1806  ;  and  a  society,  avowedly  for  the 
liberation  of  Greece,  was  formed  in  Paris  in  1809.  It  was  found 
that  the  beginning  made  in  1814,  was  too  early  to  insure  sue- 
cess.  A  people  who  had  long  been  kept  in  an  abject  state  of 
slavery,  needed  first  a  due  preparation  and  a  general  diffusion 
of  knowledge ;  and  the  plans  for  such  a  weighty  undertaking 
required  to  be  well  matured. 

The  intercourse  kept  up  with  France,  was  of  great  conse- 
quence  in  forwarding  the  cause  of  liberty  in  Greece  ;  and  the 
revival  of  literature  and  the  spread  of  science,  brought  with  it 
an  ardent  desire  for  their  country's  freedom.  This  was  further 
promoted  by  giving  them  the  works  of  Goldsmith,  Franklin's 
Poor  Richard,  Fenelon,  and  Montesquieu,  which  were  translated 
into  modern  (xreek  at  Athens,  Saloniki,  Smyrna,  &c.  ;  and 
schools  were  established,  that  were  subsequently  swept  away 
by  the  war. 

The  Hetaria,  or  society  of  friends,  kept  up  an  active  corres- 
pondence  with  the  Greeks  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  who 
hastened  to  join  it  ;  while  some  men  of  the  highest  standing 
visited  St.  Petersburg  to  further  their  designs,  and  even  looked 
to  Russia  for  aid.  When  this  hope  was  found  to  be  fallacious, 
the  Greeks  resolved  to  begin  themselves.  The  first  movement 
was  made  by  Czerni  George,  in  1817,  an  exiled  chief  of  Servia, 
v/lio  was  suddenly  to  appear  in  Servia,  his  native  province, 
while  Galati,  and  other  Grecian  chiefs,  v/ere  to  raise  the  stan. 
dard  in  the  south  of  Greece,  and  the  Morea.  Czerni  George, 
the  Servian,  was  treacherously  betrayed  and  murdered  on  hia 
wa5r  by  Milosh,  a  relative  and  former  friend,  and  his  head 
sent  to  Constantinople.  Count  Galati  retired  to  Bucharest,  and 
there  shortly  afterwards  died.  The  next  attempt  was  arranged 
for  1825. 

In  the  mean  time  some  chiefs,  burning  with  desire  for  the 
glorious  cause  of  freedom,  began  the  revolution.  These  were 
M.  Suzzo,  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  one  of  the  Hetarists  ;  Alexan- 
der Ypsilanti,  a  major  general  in  the  Russian  army,  and  Prince 


GK££K  REVOLUnON.  S41 

Catacuzene.  Ypsilanti  was  to  begin  hostilities  beyond  the 
Danube,  while  all  Greece  was  to  be  summoned  with  a  procla- 
mation ;  and  to  render  their  measures  more  certain,  an  explosion 
was  to  take  place  at  Constantinople. 

Ypsilanti  began  before  Moldavia  was  prepared  to  co-operate. 
His  proclamation  was  energetic,  and  called  on  all  Greece  to 
shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke.  It  roused  the  Moldavians,  and 
Ypsilanti  took  possession  of  Bucharest,  the  capital  of  Walachia, 
containing  80,000  inhabitants.  But  Russia  disclaimed  all  parti- 
cipation in  a  manifesto  which  she  published.  Suzzo  gave  up 
the  command  in  Moldavia,  and  the  plot  at  Constantinople  was 
frustrated.  A  chieftain  who  joined  Ypsilanti,  was  suspected  of 
treachery.  He  was  arrested  and  beheaded.  This  was  Vladi- 
miresco  ;  and  the  price  of  his  correspondence  with  the  Porte 
was,  that  he  was  to  be  made  hospodar. 

Ypsilanti  was  now  forced  to  retire  from  Bucharest  before 
10,000  men,  who  entered  the  city  without  firing  a  shot.  The 
Hetarists  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  were  impaled 
alive,  and  numbers  of  children  hung  up  by  their  feet  along  the 
roads.  The  monasteries  were  entered,  and  the  inmates  butch- 
ered. Prince  Ypsilanti  retreated  to  Tergovist,  followed  by  the 
Turks.  A  battle  was  fought  at  the  monastery  of  Dragachan, 
on  the  morning  of  June  17th.  The  Turkish  infantry  charged 
with  loud  shouts,  but  were  repulsed  with  the  bayonet.  A  second 
charge  was  repelled  with  equal  firmness.  At  this  juncture,  the 
cowardice  and  treason  of  Caravia,  an  officer  of  cavalry, 
changed  the  fate  of  the  patriot  army.  He  turned  round  and 
fled,  and  immediately  the  whole  army  was  in  confusion.  Gior- 
gaki,  with  his  corps,  displayed  great  firmness  during  the  route. 
The  sacred  band  of  about  400  or  500  young  Greeks  stood  firm, 
while  the  rest  fled  and  crossed  the  Oltau  ;  these  sustained  the 
shock  of  1500  Turkish  cavalry.  They  sold  their  lives  nobly, 
determined  to  fall  rather  than  yield.  The  disparity  in  numbers 
was  too  great  for  success,  when  about  400  fell.  Such  an  exam- 
ple of  patriotism  had  a  most  salutary  effect  on  the  Greeks.  The 
army  of  Prince  Ypsilanti  being  annihilated,  he  repaired  to 
Trieste,  intending  to  rejoin  his  countrymen  in  the  Morea.  The 
Austrian  government  seized  him,  and  imprisoned  him  at  the 
castle  of  Montgatz,  in  Hungary. 

When  the  intelligence  of  the  insurrection  in  Moldavia  reached 
Constantinople,  the  Sultan  issued  immediate  orders  to  disarm  all 
the  Greeks  in  the  empire,  and  a  war  of  extermination  at  the 
capital  commenced.  The  Greek  patriarch,  Gregorius,  was  mur- 
dered on  the  22d  April,  the  day  of  the  greatest  festival  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  his  body  dragged  by  Jews  through  the  streets 

VOL.  11.  29* 


342  CHAPTER  XIV. 

of  Constantinople.  Several  other  ecclesiastics  shared  the  same 
fate,  and  a  number  of  Greek  churches  were  destroyed,  which 
exasperated  the  Greeks  to  a  degree  of  desperation,  who  saw 
that  nothing  short  of  extermination  awaited  them.  The  priests 
in  the  islands  of  the  Morea,  from  the  atrocious  acts  at  Constan- 
tinople, saw  themselves  doomed  to  certain  destruction.  They 
therefore  exerted  themselves  strenuously,  to  inspire  the  people 
to  resistance  and  vengeance. 

By  the  1st  of  April,  the  excitement  became  general.  The 
mhabitants  of  Patras  were  disaffected  by  the  exorbitant  levies 
of  the  Turks.  Mutual  distrust  began  between  Greeks  and 
Turks— each  prepared  for  the  worst.  Hostilities  were  first 
opened  by  tjie  inhabitants  of  Suda,  a  large  village  near  Cala- 
vrita,  in  llie  northern  part  of  Arcadia.  At  Patras,  the  Greeks 
refused  to  give  up  their  arms,  when  the  Turks  fired  with  cannon 
upon  the  place  from  the  fortress,  and  soon  took  possession  of  it. 
Germanos,  archbishop  of  Patras,  assembled  an  army  of  4,000 
peasants,  and  took  the  city  from  the  Turks.  The  scene  that 
followed  ended  in  the  destruction  of  three  hundred  houses  and 
pillage. 

In  the  islands  of  Hydra,  Spezzia,  and  Ipsara,  the  greatest 
activity  was  displayed  in  fitting  out  ships  of  war,  the  united  force 
of  which  was  eight}^  or  ninety  vessels  of  10  or  12  guns  each ; 
and  fifly  or  sixty  smaller  vessels  were  supplied  by  other  islands. 
The  flag  hoisted  by  the  Greeks,  consisted  of  eight  blue  and 
white  horizontal  stripes.  The  superior  activity  of  the  Greek 
navy  was  soon  shown. 

The  first  Turkish  fleet  left  the  Dardanelles  on  the  19th  of 
May,  and  was  followed  by  the  Greek  fire-ships.  On  the  8th  of 
June,  they  burned  a  ship  of  the  line,  ashore  near  Tenedos — 
compellhig  the  Turkish  fleet  to  put  back  to  the  Dardanelles. 

The  Ipsariots  landed  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  took 
possession  of  Cydinia,  which  was  soon  after  retaken  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  inhabitants  murdered  and  driven  away  to  the 
number  of  35,000.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  during  this  strug- 
gle, that  the  islanders  displayed  higher  traits  of  pairiotism  atfd 
valor  than  the  Moreots  ;  in  which  the  women  took  part  in  this 
struggle  for  liberty.  The  Turks  next  disarmed  Candia,  and 
executed  the  archbishop  and  several  clergymen.  The  peasants 
in  the  mountains  and  suburbs  of  Candia  would  not  give  up  their 
arms  :  thev  united  and  succeeded  in  driving  the  Turks  back  into 
the  towns,  though  they  were  thousands  strong. 

In  the  month  of  November,  the  island  of  Cyprus  was  disarmed, 
and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  Larnica  murdered.  The  pea. 
santry  for  uniting  in  their  defence,  had,  in  the  month  of  August, 


GKEEK  REVOLUTION.  843 

1822,  their  villages,  sixty-two  in  number,  burned.  In  the  mean 
time  the  great  Turkish  fleet  supplied  their  garrisons  in  the  Mo. 
rea  with  arms,  ammunition,  &c. 

The  cause  of  Greece  received  a  new  impulse  by  the  arrival 
of  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  and  Prince  Alexander  Cantacuzene. 
After  some  difficulty,  Ypsilanti  was  appointed  commander  in 
chief,  July  24,  1821,  of  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Arcliipelago,  and 
all  the  liberated  provinces.  There  was  at  this  time  dissensions 
amongst  the  Greek  leaders.  Tripolizza,  the  chief  fortress  of  the 
Turks,  was  besieged  by  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  and  8,000  Turks 
perished.  It  was  in  this  fortress  the  Greeks  obtained  their  first 
heavy  cannon  ;  and  it  became  the  seat  of  government  till  it  was» 
transferred  to  Argos.  In  Thessaly,  Ulysses  with  several  other 
leaders  or  capitani,  defeated  near  Thermopylae,  a  Turkish  army 
which  had  advanced  from  Macedonia.  Prince  Mavrocordato 
received  the  chief  command  of  the  Albanian  forces  ;  when  the 
government  began  to  acquire  some  form,  after  much  difficulty 
and  dissention.  Prince  Mavrocordato  succeeded,  Jan.  13,  (Jan. 
1,)  1822,  in  establishing  an  approximation  to  a  federative  con- 
stitution at  Epidaurus,  until  the  second  national  assembly  in 
Astro,  March  14,  1823.  At  this  convention  more  than  60  depu- 
ties attended. 

The  western  part  of  Greece,  Arcania,  /Etolia,  and  Epirus, 
sent  30  deputies  to  Missilonghi,  who,  under  the  presidency  of 
Alexander  Mavrocordato,  formed  a  government  consisting  of  ten 
members. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  main  land  sent  33  deputies  to  Salona, 
under  the  presidency  of  Theodore  Negris,  forming  the  Areopa- 
gus of  14  members,  November  16  ;  and  the  Morea,  or  Pelopon- 
nesus, with  the  islands  of  Hydra,  Ipsara,  Spezzia,  &c.  sent  to 
Argos  60  deputies,  who  assembled,  December  1st,  under  the 
presidency  of  Prince  Demetrius,  and  established  the  Peloponne- 
sian  Gerousia  of  20  members. 

These  three  governments,  Missilonghi,  Salona,  and  Argos, 
were  to  prepare  a  permanent  constitution.  With  this  view,  67 
deputies  from  all  the  Greek  provinces,  formed  the  first  national 
assembly  in  Epidaurus,  Jan.  10,  1822,  under  the  presidency  of 
Mavrocordato ;  and  on  the  13th,  proclaimed  the  constitution, 
(which  was  provisionary)  and  on  the  27th,  the  congress  of  Epi- 
daurus issued  a  manifesto,  in  which  they  pronounced  the  union 
of  the  Greeks,  under  an  independent  federative  government. 
The  central  government  was  fixed  at  Corinth,  and  some  time 
afler  at  Argos. 

We  are  obliged  to  pass  over  many  of  the  movements,  till 
the  arrival  of  the  great  Turkish  fleet,  April  11,  when  15,000 


344  CHAPTER  XIV. 

barbarian  Asiatic  troops  were  landed  at  Scio :  and  soon  this 
deliglitful  and  flourishing  island  was  changed  into  a  scene  of 
fire  and  blood.  Down  to  May  25th,  the  Turks,  according  to 
iheir  own  lists,  sold  into  slavery,  41,000  Sciots,  mostly  women 
and  children. 

Che  Capudan  Pacha  was  next  prepared  to  desolate  Ipsara. 
'A^ine,  and  Samos  ;  but  the  Ipsariots,  with  70  small  vessels  and 
lire-ships,  hovered  I'ound  the  Turkish  fleet,  and  in  the  night- 
time, rowed  among  their  ships,  while  yet  they  lay  in  the  road 
of  Scio,  and  attached  fire-ships  to  the  Capudan  Pacha's  vessel, 
which  blew  up  with  2,286  men  ;  and  the  Pacha  himself,  mor- 
tally wounded,  was  carried  ashore,  where  he  died.  Another 
ship  of  the  line  narrowly  escaped.  These  daring  acts  of  the 
Ipsariots  stupified  the  Turks ;  from  which,  when  they  had  reco- 
vered, they  destroyed  the  last  traces  of  cultivation. 

The  savage  fury  of  the  Turks  about  this  time  may  be  judged 
by  the  fact,  that  they  bought  the  wretched  Sciots  at  Constanti- 
nople, merely  for  the  pleasure  of  putting  them  to  death.  The 
Pacha  of  Saloniki,  (Abbolubut,)  boasted  that  he  had  destroyed 
1500  women  and  children  in  one  day.  150  villages  and  5,000 
Christians  experienced  the  fate  of  Scio.  While  all  these  horrors 
were  taking  place,  Mavrocordato,  president  of  the  executive 
council,  was  organizing  the  government,  which  met  with  resist- 
ance from  the  avariciousness  of  Coloctroni  and  others. 

It  had  now  become  important  to  cover  Missilonghi,  the  strong 
hold  of  western  Hellas,  from  the  weakened  state  of  the  army. 
Mavrocordato,  with  300  men,  and  Marco  Botzaris,  with  22  Suli- 
ots,  on  the  5th  of  November,  threw  themselves  into  Missilonghi ; 
while  11,000  Turks  advanced  against  it.  Another  force  of 
25,000  under  Khurshid,  principally  cavalry,  passed  Thermopylae, 
and  as  they  advanced  through  Livadia,  laid  every  thing  waste, 
and  occupied  Corinth.  In  attempting  the  passes  of  Larissa, 
Khurshid  was  repelled  three  times  by  Ulysses.  Khurshid  died 
Nov.  26.  Most  of  this  cavalry  perished  for  its  rashness  in  the 
defiles  of  the  Morea  ;  and  the  remainder  formed  a  junction  with 
5000  men,  of  Jussaf  Pacha's  army,  and  sent  reinforcements  to 
Napoli  di  Romania.  The  Greek  fleet  kept  the  great  Turkish 
fleet  from  affording  relief  to  this  place.  Ulysses,  Coloctroni, 
and  Ypsilanti,  now  prosecuted  their  operations  with  great  zeal, 
and  drove  the  Turkish  forces  out  of  the  Morea.  Niketas  fell 
upon  them  in  the  defiles  of  Tretes,  and  only  2,000  escaped  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  Ypsilanti  fell  upon  and  destroyed 
them.  More  than  20,000  Turkish  soldiers  perished  in  less  than 
four  weeks.     In  Greece,  there  were  yet  some  thousand  Turks, 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  845 

that  held  the  Isthmus  and  the  Acrocoruithus,  that  were  soou 
after  dispersed  and  destroyed. 

The  Turkish  fleet  left  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  where  it  had  failed 
against  Missilonghi.  It  was  unable  to  break  the  line  of  57  Greek 
ships  blockading  Romania,  and  at  last  came  to  anchor  ofl'  Tene- 
dos.  Nov.  10,  a  small  number  of  Ipsariots  carried  fire-ship3 
among  the  fleet,  and  fired  tlie  ships  of  the  admiial  and  the  capi- 
tan  Bey.  The  latter  was  blown  up  with  1800  men.  Three 
frigates  were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  a  vessel  of  36 
guns  captured.  Of  35  vessels,  18  only  returned  much  injured 
to  the  Dardanelles.  The  17  Ipsariots  who  had  done  these 
exploits,  arrived  in  safety  at  Ipsara,  and  Kanaris  and  Mniauly 
were  rewarded,  by  the  Euphori,  with  naval  crowns.  Again  the 
Greeks  were  masters  of  the  sea  :  it  enabled  them  to  blockade 
the  Turkish  forts,  which  was  acknowledged  by  Great  Britain. 
The  change  of  ministry  in  England  was  most  fortunate  for 
Greece.  With  Canning  as  premier,  and  Maitland  lord  commis- 
sioner of  the  Ionian  Isles,  they  had  less  hostility  directed  against 
them.  Omar  Vrione  was  repulsed  by  Mavrocordato  and  Bot- 
zaris,  before  Missilonghi,  where  he  lost  his  cannon.  Napoli  di 
Romania  was  taken  from  the  Turks  Dec.  12,  (new  style.) 

A  proclamation  to  the  European  powers  was  issued  April  15, 
1822,  which  the  Holy  Alliance  considered  incompatible  with 
their  views  on  legitimacy,  though  disposed  to  be  lenient  towards 
the  suflTering  state  of  Greece.  The  dissensions  among  the  Greek 
leaders,  had  an  unfavorable  influence  on  their  cause  with  the 
European  cabinets.  Coloctroni  nieditated  a  division  of  the  Morea 
into  hereditary  principalities. 

The  central  government  called  a  second  national  assembly  at 
Astro,  Jan.  1823,  which  averted  a  civil  war  ;  while  the  judicious 
measures  of  Mavrocordato  tended  to  bring  about  concord.  When 
the  national  assembly  opened,  March  14,  at  Astro,  it  consisted 
of  100  members.  Mavromichalis  was  elected  president ;  Theo- 
dore Negris,  secretary  ;  and  the  perfidious  and  avaricious  Coioc- 
troni  submitted  to  the  assembly. 

Condurioti  was  chosen  president  of  the  legislative,  and  Petro 
IMavromichalis,  Bey  of  Maina,  of  the  executive  council.  Both 
legislative  bodies  resolved  to  raise  about  50,000,000  piasters,  to 
levy  and  equip  50,000  men,  and  100  large  men  of  war.  The 
French  military  code  was  adopted.  This  assembly  proclaimed 
the  new  constitution  of  Astro,  April  2od,  1823.  Several  changes 
took  place  in  the  ministry.  Mavrocordato  Avas  made  president, 
and  Coloctroni,  vice  president. 

This  year  the  Sultan  had  determined  upon  exterminating  the 
suffering  Greeks.     Mavrocordato  was  placed  at  the  head  of 


346  CHAPTER  XIV. 

the  army,  and  Orlandi,  a  Hydriot,  organized  the  navy,  now 
consisting  of  403  sail,  with  cannon.  The  largest  ship  carried  26 
guns,  and  Miaulis  was  admiral ;  M.  Tumbasis  of  Hydra,  George 
Demitracci,  of  Spezzia,  and  Nicholas  Apostoles,  of  Ipsara, 
vice  admirals.  The  financial  department  met  with  much  dif- 
ficulty.  In  March,  the  fleet  had  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Egyptian  flotilla,  destined  for  the  invasion  of  Candia,  though  it 
was  unsuccessful  in  its  attempt  to  prevent  the  landing  of  Turk- 
ish troops. 

M.  Botzaris,  the  Suliot,  now  commanded  the  forces  in  western, 
and  Ulysses  in  eastern  Greece.  The  battles  fought  during  this 
year,  were  not  less  fierce  and  sanguinary  than  those  in  1822. 
M.  Botzaris  surprised  the  Turkish  camp  at  Carpinissi,  at  mid- 
night, with  500  Suliots,  and  penetrated  to  the  tent  of  the  Pacha 
of  Delvino  ;  but  in  the  moment  of  victory  received  a  mortal 
wound.  The  victory,  however,  was  completed  by  his  brother 
Constantine.  The  noble  Botzaris  as  he  expired,  exclaimed — 
"  How  sweet  it  is  to  die  for  one's  country."  The  defeat  of  the 
Turks  was  complete,  all  their  baggage  and  artillery  being  taken, 
and  the  Pacha  made  prisoner. 

The  members  of  government  were  at  Argos,  in  November, 
1823.  About  this  time  the  campaign  was  finished,  though  a 
partizan  warfare  continued  in  Thessaly  and  Epirus.  Societies 
in  England  aided  the  Greek  cause  by  means  of  loans,  and  by 
supplies  of  arms. 

The  illustrious  poet,  Lord  Byron,  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
struggle  made  by  the  Greeks  to  throw  ofl*  the  Mohammedan 
yoke.  His  zeal  led  him  to  offer  his  personal  and  pecuniary  aid 
in  their  cause.  He  embarked  August,  1823,  with  five  or  six 
English  friends,  in  an  English  vessel  he  had  purposely  hired, 
and  arrived  in  Greece  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  campaign, 
where  he  was  received  with  marked  distinction.  On  his  arrival 
at  Cephalonia,  where  he  first  established  himself,  he  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Greek  government,  and  was  induced  by  the  infor- 
mation he  received,  to  advance  12,000/.  for  the  relief  of  Missi- 
longhi,  where  he  afterwards,  with  Col.  Stanhope,  took  an  active 
part  in  organizing  the  artillery.  Byron  himself  estabhshed 
printing  ofllces  and  schools  in  Missilonghi.  He  also  took  500 
Suliots  into  his  pay  ;  but  found  them  very  refractory  and  unwil- 
ling to  march  with  him  as  he  designed  upon  Lepanto.  This  preyed 
greatly  upon  his  spirits,  and  he  soon  after  became  dangerously 
ill,  and  died  at  Missilonghi,  April  19,  1824.  His  death  was 
solemnized  by  a  general  mourning  of  twenty-one  days. 

The  Turks  began  the  campaign  of  1824  with  much  more  vigor 
than  it  had  previously  been  carried  on.     Peace  being  concluded 


GREEK  REvoLvrtoy.  347 

with  Persia,  July  28th,  1823,  and  a  rebellious  Pacha  of  St.  Jean 
d'Acre,  having  yielded  voluntary  submission  to  the  Porte,  it  was 
enabled  to  send  forces  from  Asia,  and  those  that  had  been  sta- 
tioned in  Moldavia  and  Walachia  now  evacuated. 

The  preceding  campaign  nad  taught  the  Turks,  that  the  de- 
struction  of  the  Greek  navy  was  their  only  means  of  succeeding 
in  subduing  Greece.  The  Capudan  Pacha,  Khosru,  sailed  from 
Mitylene,  July  3d,  Mith  two  ships  of  the  line,  eight  frigates,  four 
corvettes,  forty  brigs,  and  smaller  vessels  to  the  amount  of  200. 
Among  the  latter  were  a  number  of  neutral  transport  ships, 
belonging  to  the  Russians,  Austrians,  and  others,  hired  by  the 
Capudan  Pacha,  that  sailed  from  the  Dardanelles,  April  28th. 
The  Russians  were  now  on  the  most  friendly  terms  with  the 
Grand  Seignior,  and  aided  the  Turks  with  transport  ships. 
There  were  besides,  Austrian,  Italian,  and  Spanish  vessels,  en- 
gaged against  the  liberties  of  Greece. 

To  oppose  the  armament  of  the  Capudan  Pacha,  the  Ipsa- 
riots  had  2,500  men,  the  entire  male  population,  and  a  corps  of 
Albanians  and  fugitive  Sciots,  about  1,500  in  number,  divided 
into  four  companies.  Their  forces  were  provided  with  batte- 
ries, ammunition,  &c.  The  Turks  landed  silently  in  the  night, 
in  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  islanders,  and  advanced  in  three 
columns.  One  advanced  upon  the  town,  and  two  proceeded  to 
the  batteries,  taking  them  in  the  rear,  when  the  most  horrible 
butchery  was  perpetrated.  Five  hundred  Albanians  shut 
themselves  up  in  fort  St.  Nicholas,  which  defended  the  town. 
Wretched  and  afflicted  mothers  first  flung  their  children  from 
high  precipices,  and  then  cast  themselves  into  the  sea.  The 
Albanians  in  the  fort  barricaded  the  gates,  and  killed  half  of  the 
first  assailants. 

The  Turks  concentrated  their  forces  to  reduce  the  fort,  and 
during  the  night  made  a  dreadful  assault  upon  the  Christians, 
who  in  defence  performed  prodigies  of  valor  ;  but  unable  longer 
to  withstand  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  barbarians,  they 
threw  open  the  gates,  suffered  2,000  men  to  rush  into  the  fort, 
till  it  was  entirely  filled,  and  on  a  concerted  signal,  in  an 
instant  all  were  blown  up,  and  buried  amidst  its  ruins.  This 
took  place  on  the  fourth  of  July.  By  the  disasters  of  Ipsara, 
4,000  Christians  perished,  besides  the  total  destruction  of  all 
property  ;  with  100  vessels  of  different  sizes,  belonging  to  the 
islanders. 

Admiral  Miaulis,  with  the  Greek  fleet,  arrived  before  Ipsara, 
on  the  8th  of  July,  when  the  Turks  immediately  put  to  sea,  and 
numbers  were  captured.  The  Greeks,  on  landing  at  Ipsaira, 
found  nothing,  but  ruins  and  heaps  of  putrid  corpses  ;  but  the 


S4S  CHAPTER  XIY. 

dreadful  stench  obliged  them  to  retire  from  this  scene  of  horror 
The  atrocities  perpetrated  at  Ipsara  by  the  barbarians,  at  ones 
roused  up  all  the  energies  of  Greece  with  dire  revenge. 

The  next  attempt  of  the  Capudan  Pacha,  was  upon  Samos. 
Kanaris,  the  brave  Ipsanot,  with  a  fire-ship  destroyed  a  40  gun 
frigate  under  sail ;  and  several  transports  shared  a  similar  fate, 
besides  a  Tunisian  brig  of  war,  and  a  large  Tripolitan  corvette. 
On  the  21st,  another  fleet  of  transports  destined  for  Samos, 
were  dispersed  and  partly  destroyed.  The  following  day,  the 
'rurkish  fleet  attempted  to  make  the  passage  from  Cape  Tro- 
gilium  to  the  opposite  shore  ;  but  the  appearance  of  two  or 
three  fire-ships  caused  such  terror  in  the  Ottoman  fleet,  as  to 
drive  it  in  disgrace  on  the  Asiatic  coast.  Some  time  after, 
a  junction  took  place  between  the  Egyptian  vessels  and 
those  of  the  Capudan  Pacha,  intending  to  return  to  Samos. 
The  skill  and  boldness  of  the  Greeks  destroyed  a  number  of 
these  with  their  fire-ships,  and  thus  astounded  the  Turks  with 
their  deeds  of  valor,  who  were  glad  to  effect  a  retreat  to  the 
DardEuielles. 

In  November,  the  Egyptians  sustained  severe  damage  from 
their  enemy  on  the  northern  coast  of  Candia.  The  forces  of 
the  Greeks  successfully  repelled  their  barbarian  invaders  by 
land,  so  that  the  campaign  of  1824  was  glorious  for  Greece,  and 
its  prospects  more  cheering  than  had  appeared  at  any  time  pre- 
vious. This  gladdening  prospect  continued  up  to  the  beginning 
of  February. 

The  government  of  Greece  now  began  to  assume  harmony  and 
■strength,  and  commerce  revived.  Their  army  was  attempted  to 
De  organized  after  the  European  tactics  ;  justice  was  regularly 
idministered,  and  freedom  of  the  press  allowed.  In  Missilonghi 
four  newspapers  were  issued  twice  a  week.  In  the  midst  of  these 
cheering  prospects  for  Greece,  an  Egyptian  fleet  which  had  been 
delayed  some  months,  sailed  on  the  I9th  July,  from  Alexandria, 
consisting  of  nine  frigates,  four  corvettes,  forty  brigs  and  gal- 
liots, with  18,000  troops  in  240  transports.  This  armament, 
under  Ibrahim  Pacha,  was  designed  to  subdue  and  desolate  the 
Morea.  The  Eiryptian  and  Turkish  fleets  united  in  the  gulf 
of  Bodroun,  Sept.  4th,  where  a  naval  action  ensued.  Kanaris 
blew  up  a  44  gun  Egyptian  frigate  and  a  brig.  The  fleets  then 
separated  ;  the  Turkish  fleet  returned,  to  Constantinople,  and 
Ibrahim's  fleet  to  the  gulf  of  Bodroun.  Soon  after,  Miaulis 
attacked  it  off  Candia,  and  destroyed  a  frigate,  10  small  vessels, 
and  15  transports  ;  when  he  retired  to  Rhodes,  further  weak- 
ened by  the  plague  on  board  his  ships,  and  frustrated  in  his 
plans  of  conquering  the  Morea. 


Storming  of  Warsaw.     Vol.  2,  p.  340. 


Battle  of  Missolojighi,     Vcl.  2,  p.  35G. 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  849 

Notwithstanding  the  critical  situation  in  which  Greece  was 
now  placed  by  the  power  of  Egypt  being  exerted  against  her, 
we  find  the  peninsula  in  the  most  distracted  state  by  the  dissen- 
sions and  broils  of  the  capatani.  Iri  October,  the  election  for  the 
third  term  commenced.  The  executive  council  at  Napoli  di 
Romania,  consisted  of  63  members.  The  president,  Mavrocor- 
dato,  resigned,  and  Panuzzo  Notaras  was  chosen  his  successor. 
Coloctroni  was  disappointed  in  his  ambitious  views.  Some  other 
disaffected  chiefs  raised  the  standard  at  Tripolizza,  under  the 
command  of  Panos  Coloctroni.  Troops  were  sent  thither,  by 
the  command  of  Condurioti,  and  after  several  battles,  the  rebels 
were  defeated  and  dispersed,  and  Panos  Coloctroni  killed.  About 
this  time  the  famous  Amazon  Bobolina,  a  follower  of  Coloctroni, 
was  assassinated.  Ulysses  entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with  the 
Turks,  but  was  defeated  and  captured.  In  attempting  to  escape 
from  a  tower  he  received  a  fall,  and  died  in  consequence  thereof. 
Coloctroni,  the  father,  finding  himself  deserted,  surrendered  him- 
self up  in  December,  1824.  Several  other  leaders  of  this  rebel- 
lion fled,  and  the  rest  were  seized. 

The  government  now  exerted  itself  to  carry  into  effect  the 
provisions  of  the  law,  and  keep  up  discipline  in  the  army.  The 
annual  revenue  the  Porte  received,  from  the  Peloponnesus  alone, 
amounted  to  35,000,000  Turkish  piastres. 

In  the  campaign  of  1825.  Ibrahim  Pacha  landed  his  troops  in 
the  Morea  ,•  and  Missilonghi  was  besieged  by  Redschid  Pacha, 
aided  by  the  fleet  of  the  Capudan  Pacha.  This  calamitous  event 
was  owing  to  the  treachery  and  dissensions  of  the  Greek  chiefs, 
which  permitted  Ibrahim  to  land  between  Coron  and  Mordon, 
February  22,  1825,  an  army  of  4,500  men  ;  and  the  next 
month  his  force  was  augmented  to  12,000,  drilled  with  French 
officers,  after  the  European  tactics.  He  had  besides,  an  excel- 
lent  body  of  cavalry.  Ibrahim  besieged  Navarino,  which  soon 
fell  into  his  power.  He  next  pressed  on  to  Tripolizza.  Old 
Coloctroni  was  pardoned  by  the  government,  which  received 
his  assurances  of  fidelity  ;  and  in  May,  1825,  the  command  of 
the  Peloponnesus  was  entrusted  to  him.  A  third  siege  of  Mis- 
silonghi was  commenced  April  22d.  The  Pacha's  fleet  lost 
several  ships  in  an  engagement  with  the  Greek  adtniral,  Sac- 
touri,  near  Cape  d'Oro.  Calamata  and  Tripolizza  were  taken 
oy  Ibrahim,  who  went  on  destroying  every  thing  till  he  reached 
^rgos.  He  then  received  a  severe  check  from  Coloctroni'ji 
army,  which  caused  him  to  fall  back  to  Tripolizza.  When 
lorahim  found  that  the  Greeks  would  not  obey  him  or  submit 
to  his  authority,  he  put  the  men  to  death,  carried  the  women 

VOL.  II.  30 


350  CHAPTER  XIV. 

and  children  slaves  to  Egypt,  and  desolated  every  place  within 
his  reach. 

Missilonghi,  defended  by  Noto  Botzaris,  the  first  among  the 
brave,  was  now  closely  besieged  by  the  Turks,  having  before 
it  35,000  land  forces,  and  4,000  by  sea.  After  a  severe  contest 
of  several  days  they  were  totally  defeated,  August  2d,  1825. 
The  Turks  lost  9,000  men.  During  this  siege  the  brave  and 
active  Miaulis  arrived  with  his  fleet,  and  burned  several  of  the 
enemy's  ships,  and  forced  the  rest  to  retire.  The  siege  of  Mis- 
silonghi was  raised  October  2d,  1825,  four  months  and  a  half 
from  its  commencement. 

In  the  m.ean  time,  Ibrahim  was  carrying  terror  with  his  arn>s, 
and  desolating  the  Morea  more  widely ;  and  the  government 
was  in  great  danger,  having  entirely  lost  the  confidence  of  the 
auxiliary  societies  in  England,  whose  loans  had  been  improperly 
laid  out.  At  last  the  Greeks  sent  deputies  to  England,  resolved 
to  throvv^  themselves  on  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  Before 
the  arrival  of  their  deputies,  the  English  government  had  issued 
(Sept.  30,)  a  declaration  of  neutrality.  But  the  alliance  of  the 
powers  of  Europe  prevented  the  interference  of  any  single  power 
in  behalf  of  Greece. 

Sir  Stratford  Canning,  the  English  ambassador  to  Constanti- 
nople, set  out  in  January,  1826,  and  on  his  way  had  a  long  inter- 
view at  Hydra  with  Mavrocordato,  and  other  Greek  statesmen, 
with  a  view  to  inform  himself  respecting  the  state  of  Greece. 
He  then  proceeded  to  Constantinople,  where  he  arrived  the  last 
of  February.  About  the  same  time,  (March,)  the  affairs  of 
Greece  were  discussed  at  St.  Petersburg,  by  Lord  Strangford, 
the  British  resident  minister  there,  and  who  had  formerly  been 
minister  to  Constantinople,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  envoy 
extraordinary,  who  had  been  sent  thither  by  Cannmg.  A  hope 
now  began  to  be  cherished,  that  the  independence  of  Greece 
would  be  acknowledged  by  the  Christian  powers  of  Europe. 

The  Pacha  fully  bent  on  reducing  Missilonghi,  had  landed 
more  troops  in  the  Morea,  in  order  to  carry  on  a  winter  cam- 
paign. The  affairs  of  Greece  were,  at  this  time,  in  the  most 
gloomy  state,  having  scarcely  6,000  men  under  arms  to  with- 
stand this  rapacious  foe  ;  while  the  money  furnished  by  the 
friends  of  (xreece  for  the  equipment  of  the  army,  was  squandered 
by  the  capitani.  The  French,  at  this  time,  were  busy  intriguing 
against  the  English  agents,  to  the  great  injury  of  Greece.  In 
the  midst  of  all  these  disasters,  the  Greeks  succeeded,  Novem. 
ber  24th,  in  throwing  into  Missilonghi,  besieged  for  the  fourth 
time,  a  sup])ly  of  ammunition  and  provisions  for  this  garrison, 
which  had  so  gallantly  repulsed  an  attack,  both  by  sea  and  land- 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  851 

A  body  of  troops  sent  by  Ibrahim  against  Corinth,  was  destroyed 
by  Niketas. 

In  December,  the  Greeks  fitted  out  another  naval  equipment 
at  Hydra,  for  the  safety  of  Missilonghi  ;  where  Miauhs,  January 
8th,  put  to  flight  the  Capudan  Pacha's  fleet ;  which  some  time 
after  returned,  when  another  attempt  made  to  throw  suppUes  into 
the  place,  failed.  On  the  28th,  Missilonghi  was  summoned  to 
surrender,  which  was  bravely  set  at  defiance.  The  fleets  had 
an  engagement  in  the  gulf  of  Patras,  when  Canaris  destroyed 
with  his  fire-ships,  a  frigate  and  several  smaller  vessels.  Ibra- 
him, dissatisfied  with  the  Capudan  Pacha,  caused  his  dismission. 
The  success  of  the  battle  enabled  the  Greeks  to  furnish  Mis- 
silonghi with  some  farther  supplies  ;  but  they  failed  m  attem.pt- 
ing  it  again,  Feb.  12th,  then  blockaded  by  the  Turco- Egyptian 
fleet. 

The  siege  of  Missilonghi  was  carried  on  with  vigor  by  Ibra- 
him Pacha  alone,  who  had  before  it  25,000  men,  and  of  these, 
9,000  were  regular  troops.  He  had  before  it  forty-eight  cannon, 
that  had  been  sold  him  by  the  French  ;  and  he  was  aided  by 
Pierre  Boyer,  a  general,  (a  Bonapartist,)  notorious  for  his  cru- 
elties in  Egypt,  Spain,  and  St.  Domingo.  The  frequent  over- 
tures made  by  Ibrahim  to  the  garrison  to  surrender,  during  its 
bombardment,  were  rejected.  The  assault  continued  from  Feb. 
28,  till  March  2d,  when  it  was  attacked  by  sea  and  land,  with 
a  loss  to  the  besiegers  of  4,000  men.  The  valor  of  the  garri- 
son had  sustained  it  for  a  fifth  time,  though  it  was  nearly  desti- 
tute of  provisions.  In  a  short  time,  the  sufferings  of  the  garrison 
became  extreme,  and  the  surrounding  country  was  devastated 
by  the  barbarian  forces.  Their  sufferings  and  heroic  defence 
gained  for  Greece,  many  ardent  and  active  friends  in  Europe  ; 
and  funds  were  immediately  raised  for  the  heroic  sufferers.  Mr. 
Eynard,  of  Geneva,  made  them  a  liberal  donation,  in  addition 
to  50,000  francs  he  had  before  given  ;  and  it  was  on  his  repre- 
sentation  respecting  the  Greeks,  that  the  committee  of  Paris 
voted  60,000,  and  that  of  Amsterdam  30,000.  With  these 
means  supplies  were  sent,  and  the  Greeks  were  successful  in 
throwing  some  of  them  into  the  place,  in  the  face  of  great  dif- 
fioulties.  From  April  15th,  Ibrahim  directed  all  his  attention 
to  prevent  supplies  being  sent  from  Zante  in  small  boats.  The 
situation  of  the  besieged  had  now  become  truly  deplorable.  On 
the  17th  and  18th  they  began  to  die  of  hunger;  the  four  follow- 
ing days,  their  horrors  hourly  increased.  Mines  were  now  pre- 
pared in  various  parts  of  the  city  to  blow  it  up,  as  they  were 
determined  not  to  surrender. 

On  the  21st  and  22d,  the  Greek  fleet  under  Miaul  is,  made  an 


352  CHAPTER  XIV. 

attempt  to  relieve  the  sufferers  that  proved  unavailing.  Hia 
ships  were  too  small  to  contend  with  the  overwhelming  fleet  of 
Ibrahim,  consisting  of  6  ships  of  the  line,  8  or  10  frigates,  and 
90  vessels  of  different  sizes.  Missilonghi,  at  length  reduced  to  a 
heap  of  ruins,  fell  April  22d,  1826.  At  midnight,  about  2,000 
men,  accompanied  by  women  and  children,  rushed  out  on  the 
batteries  of  the  enemy  ;  500  Greeks  fell  on  the  spot,  while  the 
rest,  amounting  to  1,800,  under  Noto  Botzaris  and  Kitzos  Isa- 
vellas,  reached  Salona,  and  afterwards  fought  at  Athens.  Those 
that  remained  in  the  city,  about  1,000  in  number,  mostly  women 
and  children,  with  old  men,  blew  the;n;;elves  up  by  the  mines 
that  had  been  purposely  prepared.  At  daybreak,  the  barbari- 
ans  entered  the  city.  Thus  fell  Missilonghi,  which  had  so  long 
been  the  strong  hold  of  western  Greece.  The  plain  between 
Missilonghi  and  the  mountains  was  covered  with  the  dead  bodies 
of  the  Suliots,  who  had  been  its  most  valiant  defenders.  Many 
escaped  to  the  mountains.  JMore  than  3,000  pair  of  ears  were 
cut  off  the  dead,  and  sent  as  a  precious  trophy  to  Constantinople  ; 
and  above  5,000  women  and  children  were  made  slaves. 

The  annals  of  history  can  furnish  but  few  instances  of  such 
ardor,  firmness,  and  perseverance,  as  was  exhibited  by  the 
Greeks,  during  this  memorable  siege.  Mr.  Meyer,  a  Swiss 
editor,  in  a  letter  he  wrote  a  short  time  before  the  fall  of  this 
place,  says — "  A  few  days  more,  and  these  brave  men  will  be 
angelic  spirits,  who  will  accuse  before  God,  the  indifference  of 
Christendom  for  a  cause  which  is  that  of  religion.  We  are 
drawing  near  our  final  hour  ;  history  will  render  us  justice  ; 
posterity  will  weep  over  our  misfortunes.  May  the  relation 
of  the  siege  of  Missilonghi,  which  I  have  written,  survive  me. 
I  have  made  several  copies  of  it."  Lord  Byron,  who  died  at 
Missilonghi  in  April,  had  resided  in  that  place  since  the  begin- 
ning of  January,  of  the  same  year. 

Missilonghi  was  fortified  in  1823,  under  the  superintendance 
of  English  officers  ;  and  partly  at  the  expense  of  a  patriotic  Eng- 
lishman, whose  name,  (Murry,)  deserves  to  be  handed  down  to 
posterity.     It  had  been  made  the  strongest  hold  in  Greece. 

Ibrahim  was  now  in  possession  of  Modon,  Coron,  Navarino, 
and  Patras  ;  and  had  already  removed  three  pachas.  It  only 
remained  for  him  to  gain  possession  of  Napoli  di  Romania,  to 
be  master  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  This  fact  at  once 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  European  powers,  who  now  looked  with 
distrust  on  Ibrahim. 

Great  exertions  by  societies  in  France,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, and  England,  were  made  in  behalf  of  the  suffering  Greeks, 
and  many  new  societies  were   formed,  when  a  change  of  mea- 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  368 

siires  in  the  English  ministry  had  a  most  decided  influence  on 
their  destiny.  By  order  of  Canning,  the  Duke  of  WeUington, 
at  St.  Petersburg,  had  signed  the  protocol  for  the  interference  of 
the  three  great  powei-s  in  behalf  of  Greece.  It  was  the  wish 
of  Canning  to  adjust  the  difficulties  between  Greece  and  Turkey, 
without  any  reference  to  Russia  ;  but  death,  at  this  period,  sealed 
his  noble  designs. 

While  these  measures  were  slowly  advancing  among  the 
diplomatic  corps,  Ibrahim  was  desolating  the  Morea ;  and  the 
struggling  Greeks,  a  prey  to  every  kind  of  horror,  were  dying 
of  hunger. 

June  17th,  1827,  Athens  capitulated  to  Redschid  Pacha.  Lord 
Cochrane  now  arrived  v/ith  steam  vessels  from  England,  to  aid 
the  Greeks  ;  and  General  Church  had  the  command  of  the  land 
forces.  New  dissensions  arose  at  Napoli  di  Romania,  and  Pal- 
mades  began  to  cannonade  the  city  to  force  the  payment  of 
arrears.  The  executive  fled  to  ^Egina.  In  this  state  of  des- 
peration,  the  Greeks  looked  to  Russia,  and  chose  Count  Capo 
d'Istria  as  their  president,  who  entered  on  his  office  January 
22d,  1828. 

In  the  mean  time,  a  treaty  for  the  settlement  of  Greece  was 
signed  July  6th,  1827,  at  London,  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of 
England,  France,  and  Russia.  This  treaty  was  communicated 
to  the  ambassadors  of  the  three  powers  residing  at  Constantino- 
ple ;  and  on  the  16th  August,  their  joint  note  was  sent  to  the 
Reis  Effendi.  The  Porte  refused  to  admit  the  interference  of 
the  three  powers,  and  further  attempts  to  induce  the  Porte  to 
listen  to  the  mediation  of  the  allied  powers,  proved  unavailing. 
The  Greek  government  proclaimed  an  armistice  on  the  25th,  in 
conformity  with  the  treaty  of  London. 

September  9th,  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  arrived  at  Navarino  ; 
and  on  the  13th,  a  British  squadron  under  Admiral  Codrington, 
reached  this  bay.  By  the  22d,  the  French  squadron,  commanded 
by  Admiral  Rigny,  and  that  of  Russia,  under  Count  Heyden, 
united.  The  admirals  had  an  interview  with  Ibrahim  Pacha  on 
the  25th,  and  informed  him  of  their  determination  to  establish 
an  armistice  de  fadu,  between  Greece  and  Turkey.  On  the 
following  day,  Ibrahim  attempted  to  sail  from  Navarino,  but  was 
prevented.  When  he  found  he  would  not  be  suffered  to  remove 
his  fleet,  he  commenced  the  work  of  destruction  by  burning 
houses,  destroying  vineyards,  and  the  most  wanton  massacre  of 
women  and  children.  In  consequence  of  these  atrocious  deeds, 
the  combined  fleet  entered  the  port  of  Navarino,  to  compel  Ibra- 
him to  desist  from  these  brutal  outrages. 

October  20th,  the  combined  fleet  passed  the  batteries,  and  by 

-'OL.  IT.  30* 


354  CHAPTER  XIV. 

2  p.  M.  were  ready  for  action.  The  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  was 
drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  crescent ;  their  large  ships  presented 
a  broadside,  and  between  these  small  vessels  intervened.  The 
Allied  squadron  was  led  by  the  Asia,  the  ship  of  Admiral  Cod- 
rington,  and  was  followed  by  the  Genoa  and  Albion,  and  an- 
chored alongside  a  ship  of  the  line,  bearing  the  flag  of  Capitana 
Bey,  and  a  large  double-banked  frigate  ;  while  Moharem  Bey, 
the"  commander  of  the  Egyptian  fleet,  was  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Asia.  The  Turks  brought  on  the  action,  by  killing  two 
Englishmen  ;  and  it  soon  became  general,  raging  furiously  for 
four  hours.  It  ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  Moorish  fleet, 
that,  a  short  time  before,  had  consisted  of  3  ships  of  the  line, 
84  guns  each  ;  a  razee  ;   16  frigates ;  27  large  corvettes,  from 

18  to  24  guns ;  am;  the  same  number  of  brigs,  with  6  fire-ships. 
Of  this  armament  there  remained  afloa.t,  after  the  action,  but  20 
corvettes  and  brigs  ;   and  these  were  abandoned. 

The  intelligence  of  the  destruction  of  the  Moorish  fleet  at 
Navarino,  v/as  received  with  the  liveliest  joy  by  all  the  friends 
of  Greece,  both  in  Europe  and  America.  This  arose  from  the 
conviction  that  this  blow  had  decided  the  freedom  of  the  Greeks, 
who,  during  six  years  of  extreme  suffering,  had  been  a  prey  to 
the  most  dreadful  horrors. 

There  was  now  an  involuntary  suspension  of  hostilities. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  Greek  pirates  began  to  infest  the  seas, 
which  caused  the  admirals  of  the  united  squadron,  to  send  a 
warm  remonstrance  to  the  legislative  council  of  the  Greeks. 
After  some  punishments  had  been  inflicted  upon  the  offenders, 
safety  was  restored  in  those  seas ;  but  not  until  the  British  had 
destroyed  the  head-quarters  of  the  pirates  in  Candia,  February 
28th,  1828. 

The  Porte  was  exasperated,  in  the  highest  degree,  with  the 
annihilation  of  its  fleet  at  Navarino;  and  forthwith  seized  and 
detained  all  the  vessels  of  the  Franks  at  Constantinople,  where 
they  were  kept  from  November  2d,  till  November  19  ;  and 
even  stopped  all  communication  with  the  ministers  of  the  Allied 
powers,  till  indemnification  should  be  made  for  the  destruction 
of  the  fleet.  The  Sultan,  in  the  height  of  his  rage,  prepared 
for  war,  and  used  all  the  means  in  his  power  to  inflame  the  pas- 
sions of  the  Moslems.  In  December,  the  ministers  of  the  three 
powers  left  Constantinople,  when  the  Porte  adopted  conciliatory 
measures.     In  the  mean  time,  all  the  Moslems  from  the  age  of 

19  to  50,  had  been  called  to  arms.  On  the  80th,  the  Sultan 
Mahmoud  heard  that  Persian  Armenia  had  fallen  into  the  power 
of  Russia,  where  Paskewitch  had  achieved  a  series  of  splendid 
victories. 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  355 

By  this  time,  Capo  d'Istria,  the  president  of  Greece,  had 
appointed  the  able  Tricoupi  his  secretary  of  state  ;  and  had 
estabhshed  a  high  national  council,  called  Panhellenion.  Feb. 
4th,  at  Napoli  di  Romania,  he  also  established  a  bank,  and  re-or- 
ganized  the  military.  France  and  Russia  each  lent  6,000,000 
francs  to  aid  the  new  state. 

In  consequence  of  the  death  of  Canning  and  a  change  of  the 
English  ministr)^,  the  battle  of  Navarino  was  called  an  untoward 
event.  The  Porte  contmued  to  reject  every  proposal  for  settle- 
ment with  Greece,  and  during  this  time,  Ibrahim  was  carrying 
away  the  Greeks  into  slavery.  A  war  broke  out,  March,  1828, 
between  Russia  and  Turkey,  so  that  the  Porte  had,  with  this 
power  alone,  quite  business  enough  to  attend  to. 

The  French  cabinet,  in  concert  with  England,  now  sent  an 
army  to  the  Morea,  under  the  command  of  General  Maison, 
which  arrived  August  29th,  in  the  bay  of  Coron,  near  Petalidi ; 
and  Admiral  Codrington  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  viceroy  of 
Egypt,  Aug.  6th,  for  the  evacuation  of  the  JMorea  by  Ibrahim 
Pacha,  and  for  the  liberation  of  the  Greek  prisoners,  while  those 
who  had  been  carried  away,  were  to  be  freed  or  ransomed. 

October  4th,  Ibrahim  sailed  from  Navarino  with  21,000  men, 
for  Alexandria,  with  the  wreck  of  his  fleet,  leaving  2,500  in  the 
Messinian  fortresses. 

The  French  took  undisputed  possession  of  Navarino,  and 
attacked  and  took  the  fortresses  in  Messma,  so  that  Navarino, 
Modon,  and  Coron,  were  soon  in  their  possession.  Patras,  with 
3,000  men,  capitulated  October  5th,  and  the  flags  of  the  three 
Allied  powers,  with  the  national  flag  of  Greece,  waved  undis- 
puted over  these  cities.  Admiral  Rigny  conveyed  the  Turks  to 
Smyrna. 

To  defend  the  Morea  from  any  new  attacks  of  the  Turks, 
a  manifesto  was  issued  by  the  ministers  of  the  three  powers, 
Nov.  16,  1828,  declaring — "  That  they  should  place  the  Morea 
and  the  Cyclades  under  their  protection,  till  the  time  when  a 
definitive  arrangement  should  decide  the  fate  of  the  provinces, 
which  the  Allies  had  taken  possession  of;  and  that  they  should 
consider  the  entrance  of  any  military  force  into  this  country,  as 
an  attack  upon  themselves."  A  French  agent  carried  this  note 
to  Constantinople,  to  which  an  immediate  answer  from  the  Porte 
was  required.  But  during  this  time,  the  Greeks  continued  active 
hostilities.  Demetrius  Ypsilanti,  having  under  him  Coloctroni 
and  several  leaders,  and  5,000  men,  marched  into  Livadia,  and 
defeated  the  Turks,  Nov.  2d,  at  Lomotico,  and  Dec.  3d,  took 
Salona  ;  then  in  succession,  Lepanto,  Livadia,  and  Vonizza. 
The  Greeks  commenced  fitting  out  a  great  number  of  privateers. 


356  CHAPTER  XIV. 

Ill  consequence  of  these  measures,  the  Sultan  banished  25,000 
persons,  Greeks  and  Armenians,  not  born  there,  from  the  city 
of  Constantinople  ;  and  the  Sultan  still  declined  to  recall  his 
barbarous  edict  of  extermination. 

Through  the  energetic  measures  of  Capo  d'Istria,  Greece  began 
to  recover  herself  after  a  long  period  of  distraction.  He  divided 
the  states  of  Greece  into  13  departments,  seven  of  these  formed 
the  Peloponnesus,  with  280,000  inhabitants,  and  8,543  square 
miles  ;  the  eighth,  the  Northern  Sporades,  6,200  inhabitants, 
106  square  miles  ;  the  ninth,  the  Eastern  Sporades,  58,800 
inhabitants,  318  square  miles  ;  the  tenth,  the  Western  Sporades, 
with  40,000  inhabitants,  169  square  miles  ;  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
and  thirteenth,  the  Cyclades,  (north,  central,  and  south,)  91,500 
inhabitants,  1176  square  miles.  Total  inhabitants,  476,500; 
square  miles,  10,312. 

The  Brititsh  plenipotentiary  presented  his  credentials  to  the 
president  of  Greece,  Nov.  19,  1828;  and  Colonel  Fabier,  after 
his  return  from  France,  took  upon  him  the  organization  of  the 
Greek  army.  On  the  delivery,  at  Constantinople,  of  the  protocol 
of  the  three  powers,  in  January,  1829,  a  verbal  answer  was 
given  by  the  Reis  Effendi,  that  the  Porte  wished  for  peace.  In 
July,  Sir  Robert  Gordon,  the  British  ambassador,  and  Count 
Guillimont,  from  France,  arrived  at  Constantinople.  The  sue- 
cesses  of  Diebitsch,  who  had  crossed  the  Balkan  mountains,  and 
was  on  his  way  towards  Constantinople,  compelled  the  Turkish 
plenipotentiaries  to  sign  a  treaty,  which  recognized  formally,  in 
the  sixth  article,  the  treaty  of  July  6,  1827.  Peace  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte  was  signed  at  Adriancple,  Sept.  14,  1829, 
and  was  ratified  by  the  latter,  six  days  alterwards. 

Having  brought  down  the  affairs  of  Greece  to  the  cessation 
of  hostilities,  it  only  remains  to  add  a  few  particulars  respecting 
the  death  of  Capo  d'Istria.  This  individual  became  exceedingly 
unpopular  with  the  Greeks,  from  his  supposed  attachment  to 
Russian  interests,  and  the  jealousy  and  impatience  of  restraint 
of  the  Greek  chiefs.  In  the  spring  of  1831,  the  islands  and 
province  of  Maina  were  in  open  resistance  to  the  government. 
Miaulis,  Mavrocordato,  and  Condurioti,  demanded  a  convoca- 
tion of  the  national  assembly,  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  that 
certain  state  prisoners  should  be  liberated.  The  insurgents  took 
possession  of  Poros,  and  the  Greek  fleet  lying  in  the  harbor.  la 
August,  the  troops  of  the  president  attacked  the  town,  while  the 
Russian  fleet  was  standing  in  to  attack  the  Greek  fleet  in  the 
harbor.  Admiral  Miaulis  then  blew  up  his  ships,  rather  than 
suffer  them  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  The  city  of 
Poros,  deserted  by  its  inhabitants,  was  reduced  to  ashes.     In  the 


GREEK  REVOLUTION.  357 

mean  time,  the  Mainots  were  actively  engaged  by  land  against 
the  government. 

The  Russian  fleet  now  appeared  in  the  gulf  of  Coron ;  when 
Miaulis,  who  had  been  co-operating  with  the  Mainots  with  a 
small  squadron,  destroyed  it  for  the  same  reasons  he  had  done 
with  the  ships  at  Poros. 

October  9th,  1831,  as  the  president  was  going  to  attend  ser- 
vice at  the  church,  he  was  assassinated  by  two  men,  who  had 
repaired  purposely  to  Napoli  di  Romania.  One  fired  a  pistol  at 
the  head  of  Capo  d'Istria,  and  the  other  stabbed  him  with  a 
Turkish  dagger,  when  he  fell  dead  on  the  spot.  These  persons 
were  George  the  son,  and  Constantino  the  brother  of  Mavromi- 
chalis,  who  had  been  imprisoned  since  January.  Constantino 
was  immediately  killed  by  the  guards  of  the  president,  and 
George  was  detained  in  custody. 

In  1832,  the  three  powers  obtained  from  the  Grand  Seignior 
a  much  more  advantageous  northern  boundary  line  for  Greece, 
than  had  been  granted  in  1830.  The  line  is  to  run  from  the 
gulf  of  Volo,  in  the  ^gian  Sea,  along  a  range  of  mountains, 
to  the  gulf  of  Arta,  in  the  Adriatic.  By  this  arrangement, 
Acarnania  and  ^Etolia,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Greel^,  are  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Greece — an  acquisition  of  great  importance, 
as  it  adds  nearly  100,000,  inhabitants,  and  almost  3,000  square 
miles  to  the  new  state.  Besides  the  frontier  line  is  more  strongly 
marked,  and  will  be  easier  of  defence. 

This  accession  to  Greece  was  obtained  from  the  Grand 
Seignior  for  50,000,000  of  Turkish  piasters ;  which  are  to  be 
deducted  from  the  sum  he  had  undertaken  to  pay  to  Russia. 

The  present  population  of  Greece  is  estimated  at  from  635,000 
to  900,000  souls.  Its  territory,  including  Acarnania,  TEtolia, 
and  the  islands,  is  about  18,000  square  miles,  equal  to  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  about  equal  to  it  in  popula- 
tion. The  Morea,  or  Peloponnesus,  comprises  7,227  square 
miles,  and  nearly  equivalent  in  extent  to  the  state  of  Massachu- 
setts. The  same  treaty  which  fixed  the  boundary  line,  raised 
Otho,  a  Bavarian  youth  of  seventeen  years  of  age,  to  the  throne 
of  Greece  ;  who  carried  with  him  3,500  Bavarian  soldiers,  when, 
as  stipulated,  the  French  troops  were  to  be  withdrawn. 

In  the  maintenance  and  aid  of  the  new  government,  England, 
France,  and  Russia,  have  provided,  and  become  responsible  for, 
a  loan  of  $3,750,000  ;  and  have  further  agreed  to  furnish,  at 
two  instalments,  an  equal  amount,  should  it  be  required  for  the 
good  of  the  country.  This  loan  is  to  be  refunded  in  due  time, 
and  the  payment  of  the  interest  is  provided  for. 

King  Otho,  the  new  monarch  of  Greece,  arrived  at  Napoli 


858  CHAPTER  XIV. 

di  Romania,  Feb.  6,  1  B33.  There  were,  at  this  time,  in  the 
port  of  Napoli  di  Romania,  several  ships  of  war  belonging  to 
England,  France,  and  Russia.  On  the  following  day,  King 
Otho  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  his  good  intentions  and 
well  wishes  for  his  adopted  country,  and  engaging  to  protect  tlie 
religion  of  the  Greeks. 


War  between  Russia  and  Turkey. 

Hostilities  between  Russia  and  Turkey  commenced  at  a  most 
fortunate  period  for  the  safety  of  Greece.  The  Porte  breathing 
vengeance,  and  intent  on  exterminating  the  entire  Greek  popu- 
lation, would  listen  to  no  terms  of  accommodation  offered  by  the 
Allied  powers. 

The  battle  of  Navarino  had,  for  the  present,  paralyzed  the 
operations  of  Ibrahim  Pacha ;  and  after  such  a  signal  chastise- 
ment of  the  infidels  by  the  Allied  powers,  they  could  not  honor- 
ably withdraw  their  future  protection  to  the  Greeks,  who  had  so 
long  been  left  to  contend  alone  against  their  cruel  oppressors 
and  murderers. 

The  Porte  was  led  to  consider  that  Russia  secretly  favored 
the  Greek  cause,  and  therefore  took  possession  of  Moldavia  and 
Walachia,  and  put  restrictions  upon  its  maritime  commerce. 
This  was  an  open  violation  of  the  peace  of  Bucharest,  on  which, 
after  an  exchange  of  notes,  the  Russian  minister  left  Constan- 
tinople ;  but  through  the  exertions  of  the  ministers  of  Austria 
and  England,  and  the  desire  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  to  pre- 
serve peace,  the  commencement  of  hostilities  was  avoided.  Still 
the  Porte  refused  to  give  any  satisfaction  to  the  Russian  court 
Things  remained  in  this  state  till  the  Emperor  Nicholas  issued 
his  ultimatum,  May  14,  1826,  when  the  Porte  granted  all  the 
demands  of  the  court  of  Russia,  and  promised  that  Moldavia 
and  Walachia  (where  the  Porte  had  derived,  in  three  years,  a 
x'evenue  of  37,000,000  of  piasters,  to  aid  the  prosecution  of  the 
war  against  Greece,)  should  be  restored.  October  6,  1826,  at 
Ackerman,  the  Russian  ultimatum  was  accepted.  The  Porte 
also  surrendered  all  the  fortresses  in  Asia  to  Russia.  This 
treaty  was  executed  in  1827. 

The  Sultan  Mahmoud  had  nownis  hands  full  of  other  business. 
Having  determined  to  reform  his  army,  he  began  by  exterminat- 
ing the  corps  of  Janisarics,  which  he  effected  after  a  bloody 
battle,  in  June,  1826  ;  when  he  formed  his  army  on  the  Euro- 


WAR  BETWEEN  RUSSIA  AND  TVRKEY.  359 

pean  system.  The  Sultan  himself  wore  the  European  dress,  apJ 
prohibited,  throughout  his  empire,  the  calling  of  Christians, 
"  dogs."  This  new  system  of  reform  led  to  a  violent  insurrec- 
tion, and  the  loss  of  6,000  houses  in  Constantinople. 

In  June,  1827,  the  Porte  refused  the  intervention  of  Russia, 
France,  and  England,  for  the  settlement  of  Greece  ;  and  seemed 
to  bid  defiance  to  the  powers  of  Europe,  by  attempting  to  rally 
together  all  his  subjects  for  war. 

Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey,  April  26,  1828.  In  that 
document  the  emperor  declared,  that  he  would  not  lay  down  his 
arms  till  he  had  obtained  the  following  results,  namely  :  the 
payment  of  all  the  expenses  of  the  war  ;  the  acknowledgment 
of  past  treaties  ;  inviolable  liberty  of  the  commerce  of  the  Black 
Sea ;  the  free  navigation  of  the  Bosphorus  ;  and  lastly,  the 
fulfilment  of  the  convention  of  July  6th,  for  the  pacification  of 
Greece. 

The  campaign  opened  May  7th,  1828,  by  the  Russian  army 
of  115,000  men  passing  the  Pruth,  under  Count  Wittgenstein, 
commander  in  chief.  On  the  19th,  the  Emperor's  staff*  arrived 
before  Brailow,  of  which  Diebitsch  was  chief.  June  15th,  in 
attempting  to  carry  this  place  by  storm,  the  Russians  lost  640 
men  killed,  two  major  generals,  and  1340  men  wounded.  June 
20,  Brailow  surrendered  to  the  Russians,  on  condition  of  the 
garrison  being  permitted  to  retire  to  Silistria.  Two  hundred 
and  seventy-three  cannon,  besides  a  great  quantity  of  balls  and 
ammunition,  were  taken.  Up  to  July  2d,  the  Russians  had  taken 
seven  fortresses — Brailow,  Matschin,  Toultscha,  Hirsova,  Kus- 
tendji,  Keuzgon,  and  I\Ianagalia.  Toultscha  was  defended  by 
91  cannon,  and  2,000  men. 

August  7th,  the  Russian  flotilla  before  Varna,  attacked  that 
of  the  Turks,  and  captured  14  vessels.  On  the  20th  August, 
the  Grand  Vizier  left  Constantinople  for  the  army.  September 
20th,  the  Seraskier  of  Widdin  was  defeated  by  General  Geismar, 
with  great  loss,  and  compelled  to  retreat.  About  the  same  time, 
a  Russian  manifesto  issued  at  St.  Petersburg,  ordered  a  new  levy 
of  four  men  out  of  every  500  of  the  population.  Varna  was 
carried  by  assault  after  a  siege  of  two  months,  October  llth. 
Its  garrison  originally  amounting  to  22,000  men,  was  reduced 
to  6,000.  This  was  the  most  important  fortress  of  the  Turks ; 
and  gave  the  Russians  the  command  of  the  western  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea.  On  the  15th  October,  the  blockade  of  the  Darda- 
nelles was  announced  officially  by  Admiral  Heyden.  In  July, 
the  Turks  retired  into  the  strongly  fortified  mountain  position  of 
Shumla,  v.here  they  had  more  tlian  40,000  men,  under  the  com- 
mand  of  Hussein  Pacha. 


260  CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  principal  Russian  force,  45,000  men,  under  Field  Marshal 
Wittgenstein,  with  the  Emperor,  approached  Shumla,  while  the 
operations  were  going  on  before  Varna.  The  Grand  Vizier  cau- 
tiously avoided  giving  battle  to  the  Russians  before  Shumla. 
After  the  fall  of  Varna,  the  Russian  army  fell  back  from  Shumla, 
October  15.  Silistria  was  besieged  in  September,  and  raised 
November  10th.  The  heavy  artillery  of  the  Russians  was 
abandoned.  While  these  operations  were  going  forward.  Gene- 
ral Paskewitch,  after  signal  success  in  Persia,  was  advancing 
through  Asiatic  Turkey  with  a  victorious  army,  and  had  gained 
a  series  of  brilliant  victories.  By  the  21st  of  September,  the 
whole  pachalic  of  Bajasid,  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
was  conquered.  The  approach  of  winter  put  an  end  to  this 
campaign,  in  which  the  Russians  lost  many  men  by  disease  and 
want  of  supplies.  The  loss  of  horses  was  great.  The  results 
of  the  campaigns  in  Europe  and  Asia,  were,  two  Turkish  prin- 
cipalities taken,  three  pachalics,  fourteen  fortresses,  and  three 
castles.  Notwithstanding  these  losses  of  the  Turks,  the  Porte 
refused  the  terms  of  accommodation  offered,  before  and  during 
this  campaign,  by  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  through  the  British 
ambassador.  Lord  Heytesbury,  viz.  indemnification  for  the  ex- 
pense of  the  war,  and  security  against  future  injuries  and  viola- 
tions of  treaties. 

The  Sultan  prepared  for  a  new  campaign.  General  Diebitsch 
was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  Russian  forces,  Feb. 
21,  1829.  The  siege  of  Silistria  was  renewed  on  the  opening 
of  the  campaign,  under  the  direction  of  Diebitsch,  May  17th. 
The  Twrkish  army,  commanded  by  the  Grand  Vizier,  attacked 
the  Russians  posted  near  the  village  of  Eski  Arnaoutlar,  at 
three  in  the  morning.  The  battle  lasted  till  8  in  the  evening, 
when  the  Turks  retired  with  the  loss  of  2,000  killed.  On  the 
17th  of  June,  a  great  battle  was  fought  at  Koulevtcha,  near 
Shumla — the  Turks  commanded  by  the  Grand  Vizier,  and 
the  Russians  by  Diebitsch.  The  battle  was  fought  with  great 
obstinacy  ;  when  European  tactics  prevailed  over  Turkish 
courage.  The  Turks  lost  5,900  killed,  a  great  number  of  pri- 
soners, 43  pieces  of  cannon,  6  standards,-  all  their  ammunition 
wagons,  baggage,  &c. 

June  30th,  Silistria  surrendered  to  the  Russians.  The  garri- 
son  consisted  of  8,000  men,  and  the  armed  inhabitants  that  were 
made  prisoners  of  war  ;  220  pieces  of  cannon,  80  stand  of  colors, 
and  2  three-tailed  pachas,  were  also  taken,  besides  the  whole  of 
the  Turkish  flotilla. 

Immediately  after  the  surrender  of  the  fortress  of  Silistria, 
Diebitsch  commenced  preparations  to  pass  the  river  Kamtchick 


Massacre  of  the  Greeks.     Vol.  2,  p.  356. 


Battle  of  Nazariao.     Vol.  2,  p.  355. 


WAR  BETWEEN  RUSSIA  AND  TURKEY.  361 

and  the  Balkan  mountains.  On  the  17th  of  July,  the  camp 
before  Shumla  was  left,  and  by  the  22d,  Diebitsch  had  attained 
ihe  summit  of  the  Balkan.  In  descending  these  mountains, 
the  Russians  encountered  a  Turkish  force  of  about  7,000  men, 
under  the  Seraskier  Abduhl  Rahman,  and  defeated  him,  taking 
4U0  prisoners,  12  cannon,  and  7  standards.  On  the  23d,  Mesem- 
bria  was  captured,  with  20  standards,  15  cannon,  and  2,000  pri- 
soners ;  and  on  the  same  day  Achioli  was  captured,  containing 
14  pieces  of  cannon,  am.munition,  &c. 

When  the  Russian  army  reached  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea, 
it  \\'as  able  to  co-operate  with  the  fleet  under  Admiral  Greig. 
On  the  24th  of  June,  Bourgas  was  taken,  with  ten  pieces  of 
cannon,  and  abundance  of  military  stores.  On  the  25th,  Aides 
was  captured,  with  the  whole  Turkish  camp,  600  tents,  500 
barrels  of  gunpowder,  4  standards,  &c. 

August  19th,  the  Russians  approached  Adrianople,  and  the 
next  day  took  unresisted  possession  of  the  place,  where  nego- 
ciations  commenced.  Sept.  14,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed. 
Russia  agreed  to  the  restoration  of  Moldavia  and  Walachia,  and 
all  the  towns  occupied  by  them  in  Bulgaria  and  Rumelia.  Mol- 
davia was  to  have  an  independent  administration  and  free  trade  ; 
and  the  Russians  freedom  of  commerce  throughout  the  Ottoman 
empire,  agreeably  to  former  treaties ;  and  free  commerce  and 
navigation  of  the  Black  Sea,  to  all  nations  at  peace  with  Tur- 
key. The  Porte  stipulated  to  pay  as  an  indemnification  to 
Russia,  1,500,000  ducats  of  Holland,  for  the  losses  of  Russian 
subjects :  and  a  further  sum,  as  should  be  agreed  upon,  as  an 
indemnity  for  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  war.  'And  the  Porte 
acceded  to  the  terms  of  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  France,  for 
the  settlement  of  the  affairs  in  Greece. 

The  indemnity  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  was  arranged  in 
u  subsequent  act,  to  be  paid  in  instalments.  On  the  first  pay- 
ment, the  Russian  troops  were  to  retire  from  Adrianople  ;  on  the 
second,  to  repass  the  Balkan  ;  and  on  the  third,  to  repass  the 
Danube  ;  and  on  the  fourth  payment  to  evacuate  the  Turkish 
territory.  So  far,  the  Emperor  Nicholas  fulfilled  his  declara- 
tion and  pledges  to  the  Allies,  on  the  commencement  of  the  war 
— after  having  gained  the  objects  for  which  it  was  undertaken. 
In  this  campaign,  it  has  been  stated,  that  the  Russians  lost 
200,000  men  and  20,000  horses. 

It  was  stated  in  the  papers  at  the  time,  that  the  Russian  forces, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  present  campaign,  amounted  to 
541,731  regular  troops,  and  146,601  irregulars,  making  a  total 
of  688,332. 

VOL.  II.  31 


362  CHAPTER  XIV. 


England,  from  A.  D,  1816,  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  BilU 
A.  D.  1832. 

The  course  of  policy  pursued  by  the  British  cabinet,  mainly 
brought  about  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  to  the  throne  of 
France.  Its  accomplishment  loaded  England  with  an  enor- 
mous debt,  as  much  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  majority 
of  Englishmen,  as  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  was  con- 
trary to  the  desire  of  the  French  nation.  Since  that  event, 
the  French  have  expelled  the  Bourbons  ;  and  the  people  of 
England  have  succeeded,  after  an  arduous  struggle,  in  the 
overthrow  of  toryism,  or  more  properly  speaking,  of  military 
despotism. 

The  glaring  corruptions  in  the  representation,  and  the  abuses 
which  existed  in  the  "  rotten-borough  system,"  had  long  ago 
been  clearly  shown,  by  writers  of  great  political  knowledge  ; 
and  many  of  England's  best  and  purest  patriots  had  labored  to 
correct  the  abuses  which  existed  in  their  representation.  The 
liberal  journalists  exerted  themselves  incessantly  to  effect  this 
object,  and  it  was  repeatedly  urged  in  parliament  with  great  force 
of  eloquence. 

The  accession  of  William  IV.  who  soon  became  the  most 
popular  monarch  that  had  reigned  in  England,  proved  favorable 
to  the  cause  of  liberty.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  and  his  cabinet,  William  called  a  whig  ministry,  with 
Earl  Grey  at  its  head  ;  and  this  eminent  statesman,  with  his 
colleague,  Brougham,  carried  through  the  long  and  ardently 
desired  reform,  which,  eradicating  the  "  rotten  boroughs,"  pro- 
vided for  the  free  and  equal  representation  of  the  people  of  Eng 
land  in  parliament. 

The  measures  of  the  English  government  having  a  mosi 
important  bearing  on  the  general  policy  of  Europe,  it  will  be 
requisite  here  to  take  a  hasty  glance  at  the  public  measures  of 
British  statesmen,  more  especially  of  those  who  have  so  essen- 
tially aided  the  new  and  more  enlarged  line  of  policy,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  opposed  to  the  "  slavish  and 
despotic  monarchies  of  Europe." 

In  the  1820,  George  III.  died,  January  29th,  at  the  age  of 
82,  after  a  reign  of  three-score  years,  the  longest  in  the  British 
annals  ;  when  (Tcorge  IV.  who  had  been  regent  since  February 
3,  1811,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britam.  Earl  Liver- 
pool was  nominated  by  the  prince  regent,  first  lord  of  the 
treasury,  Jan.  9,  1812,  and  continued  in  office  till  1827.     His 


ENGLAND. 


prudence  and  moderation  at  home,  were  strikingly  contx'asted 
with  the  course  pursued  by  Castlereagh,  minister  of  the  foreign 
department.  This  latter  minister  destroyed  himself  by  sui- 
cide, August  12,  1822.  On  his  interment  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  popular  indignation  against  his  memory  was  strongly 
exhibited.  And  that  this  was  not  without  reason,  v/ill  appear 
by  a  reference  to  his  many  unfeeling  and  tyrannical  measures, 
and  his  violations  of  the  constitution.  We  are  here  constrained 
to  offer  a  passing  remark,  on  the  pubhc  character  of  this  minis- 
ter, whose  true  reputation  is  not  generally  known  in  this  coun- 
try. Castlereagh  was  hated  for  his  tyranny ;  he  was  the  dupe 
of  courts,  and  the  betrayer  of  the  people.  The  part  he  took 
in  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  parcelling  out  and  trafficking 
away  the  rights  of  weaker  states,  to  build  up  a  military  despot- 
ism throughout  Europe,  loaded  him  with  the  execrations  of  all 
those  people  whom  he  had  so  basely  sold.  His  death  was  con- 
sidered in  England  as  a  happy  event  for  the  cause  of  liberty, 
which  his  measures  had  for  so  many  years  crushed.  It  will  be 
seen,  that  the  foreign  policy  of  England  underwent  a  complete 
change  after  his  death. 

In  1816,  the  income  tax  was  taken  off  from  personal  estate, 
capital,  and  colonial  possession.  This  was  but  shifting  the  bur- 
den of  taxation  from  landholders  to  the  working  classes,  those 
great  consumers  of  the  necessaries  of  life  ;  who  were  now 
reduced  to  the  greatest  state  of  suffering.  England  for  a  time, 
surmounted  all  these  difficulties,  and  even  greatly  increased  her 
foreign  trade.  This  kept  the  manufacturing  districts  quiet,  as 
long  as  they  were  well  employed. 

In  the  month  of  August,  1816,  a  British  squadron  of  five  sail 
of  the  line  and  five  frigates,  under  the  command  of  Lord  Ex- 
mouth,  bombarded  Algiers,  and  destroyed  the  Algerine  shipping, 
batteries,  and  magazines  :  when  the  Dey  agreed  to  the  total 
abolition  of  Christian  slavery,  and  the  release  of  all  Christian 
captives  in  his  dominions.  A  few  months  after  this  defeat  the 
Dey  was  strangled,  when  piracy  again  flourished,  till  the  French 
afterwards  conquered  this  piratical  city. 

The  distresses  in  England  led  the  populace  to  offer  public 
insult,  and  assail  the  prince  regent,  in  1817,  on  his  return  from 
parliament  to  Carlton  House.  February  3,  a  royal  message 
and  accompanying  documents  were  communicated  to  parlia- 
ment, giving  information  of  the  existence  of  societies,  combi- 
nations,, &c.  in  the  metropolis,  and  throughout  the  kingdom, 
dangerous  to  the  constitution  ;  and  that  insurrections  had  been 
planned.  In  consequence  of  this  information,  which  was  greatly 
exaggerated,  the  ministry  took  a  high-handed  course.     Lord 


364  CHAPTER  XIV. 

Sidmouth  introduced  a  bill  into  the  house  of  lords,  for  the  sus- 
pension  of  the  habeas  corpus  act,  which  passed  into  a  law  ;  and 
Castlereagh  was  successful  in  carrying  one  to  suppress  debating 
societies,  and  unlawful  organizations  ;  and  a  third  bill  was 
passed,  for  punishing,  with  severity,  all  attempts  to  corrupt  the 
army  and  navy. 

Sir  F.  Burdett,  May  20th,  again  brought  forward  the  ques- 
tion of  parhamentary  reform,  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Sir 
Samuel  Romilly.  It  was,  however,  lost,  the  votes  being  265 
against  77. 

1818.  One  of  the  first  measures,  after  the  opening  of  par- 
liament, was  the  restoration  of  the  liberties  of  the  people,  by 
the  repeal  of  the  habeas  corpus  suspension  act,  accompanied 
by  a  bill  of  indemnity  to  screen  the  ministers  for  such  a  high- 
handed act.  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  declared,  on  the  second 
reading  of  the  indemnity  bill,  "  that  it  annihilated  the  rights 
of  individuals,  and  took  all  legal  remedies  from  those  who  had 
suffered  by  an  irresponsible  and  unconstitutional  exercise  of 
authority." 

In  August,  1819,  there  was  a  meeting  at  Manchester,  to  dis- 
cuss the  question  of  parliamentary  reform.  It  should  here  be 
stated  that  spies,  in  the  employment  of  government,  had  gone 
about  the  country,  inflaming  the  minds  of  the  people ;  and  these 
same  wretches,  when  detected,  were  shielded  behind  the  power 
of  the  ministry.  This  meeting  at  Manchester  was  of  a  peace- 
able character,  and  was  estimated  at  50,000  souls,  including 
the  wives  and  children  of  the  petitioners.  There  w^as  no  ap- 
pearance or  intention  of  riot,  nor  were  there  any  arms  among 
them.  Mr.  Hunt  was  the  chairman,  and  during  his  speech, 
the  assembly  was  charged  by  the  military,  and  many  lives  were 
sacrificed  in  a  most  inhuman  manner.  This  nefarious  trans- 
action roused  the  indignation  of  the  British  populace.  The 
distresses  about  this  time,  in  the  manufacturing  districts,  were 
heavily  felt.  The  national  debt,  by  a  continuance  of  twenty, 
three  years'  war,  had  increased  to  about  900,000,000  pounds. 
Strong  measures  were  taken  to  prevent  public  discussions. 
Ireland,  at  this  time,  presented  nothing  but  a  scene  of  conflict 
and  misery. 

Earl  Grey,  in  the  house  of  lords,  moved  for  an  inquiry  into 
the  conduct  of  the  Manchester  magistrates,  but  was  defeated  ; 
and  a  similar  attempt  was  made  in  the  house  of  commons,  and 
this  also  was  voted  down.  The  subject  was  renewed  before 
the  recess  of  parliament  ;  but  these  false  guardians  of  public 
liberty  refused  to  inquire  into  this  most  flagrant  outrage  on  the 
rights  of  the  people  :    instead    of  which,  the  niinisters  intro- 


ENGLAND.  365 

duced  several  bills  that  became  laws,  to  be  continued  five 
years.  These  have  gone  by  the  designation  of  the  six  acts. 
They  were  :  1st,  a  bill  to  take  away  the  right  of  traversing, 
in  cases  of  misdemeanors.  2d,  for  punishing  any  person  found 
guilty,  on  a  second  conviction  of  libel,  by  fine,  imprisonment, 
or  banishment  for  life.  3d,  for  preventing  seditious  meetings. 
4th.  to  prevent  private  military  trainings.  5th,  the  application 
of  the  severe  stamp  system  to  pamphlets  under  two  sheets,  and 
a  more  rigorous  punishment  of  libels  and  seditious  writings. 
6th,  a  bill  giving  magistrates  the  power  of  entering  houses  by 
night,  or  by  day,  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  arms  believed  to  be 
collected  for  unlawful  purposes. 

1820.  The  death  of  George  III.  this  year,  produced  no  dif- 
ference in  the  public  measures  ;  although  the  aspect  of  England 
was  quite  changed  by  the  great  increase  of  trade,  and  the  dimi- 
nution of  taxes,  and  by  better  harvests.  The  renewal  of  specie 
payments,  and  the  increasing  value  of  paper  currency,  was 
highly  favorable  to  manufactures.  The  country  was  now  reco- 
vering from  the  heavy  burden  of  war,  in  v/hich  she  had  so  long 
been  engaged. 

A  daring  conspiracy  to  assassinate  ministers,  called  the  Cato 
street  conspiracy,  was  detected,  for  which  Thistle  wood  and  four 
of  his  companions  paid  the  forfeit  of  their  lives,  and  four  others 
concerned  were  transported  for  life  to  Botany  Bay. 

July  19,  1821.  The  splendid  coronation  of  George  IV.  took 
place  at  Westminster  Abbey. 

On  the  death  of  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry,  better  known 
as  Lord  Castlereagh,  Mr.  Canning  was  called  to  the  cabinet,  as 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  Sept.  16th,  1822.  One  of  the  first 
measures  of  Canning,  was  to  check,  the  fanatic  influence  of  the 
French  in  Spain.  In  1823,  England  allowed  her  subjects  to  aid 
the  Greeks,  and  even  acknowledged  their  right  of  blockade. 
With  the  republics  of  South  America,  she  formed  treaties  of 
alliance  ;  and  in  1825,  formally  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  South  American  states. 

In  the  years  1825  and  1826,  the  commercial  difuculties  were 
great,  occasioned  by  the  speculation  in  foreign  loans,  and  in 
the  most  costly  undertakings,  which  led  to  bankruptcies,  and 
gave  an  unusual  shock  to  men  of  business.  "  Bankruptcies 
spread  like  a  vast  fog  over  England,  America,  France,  and 
Germany,  at  the  same  moment.  But  the  vigor  of  England  is 
incalculable."*  Seventy. five  banks  broke  in  the  same  number 
of  days  ;  and  255  joint-stock  companies,  that,  a  week  before, 

*  Croly's  Life  of  George  IV. 
VOL.  TI.  31* 


366  CHAPTER  XIV. 

were  in  high  credit,  and  ready  for  vast  undertakings,  were  in 
the  Gazette.  And  yet  after  such  sweeping  desolation,  in  an- 
other year  confidence  was  re-estabhshed,  commerce  revived, 
and  public  business  went  forward  with  renewed  activity  and 
confidence. 

The  numerous  failures  of  banks,  threatened  the  laboring 
classes  with  ruin,  from  the  derangement  of  the  currency.  To 
remedy  this  alarming  state  of  things,  government  immediately 
ordered  the  coinage  of  sovereigns  with  all  possible  despatch. 
These  were  struck  off  at  the  rate  of  100,000  a  day,  and  sup- 
plied  to  the  country.  Such  was  the  activity  of  the  mint  on  this 
occasion,  that  for  one  week,  150,000  sovereigns  per  day  were 
coined.  The  bank  of  England  issued  temporarily,  two  pound 
notes.  Thus  the  distress  of  the  country  was  in  a  great  measure 
relieved. 

In  1826,  April  4th,  England  united  with  the  court  of  St.  Peters, 
burg  to  compel  the  Porte  to  cease  hostilities  with  the  Greeks. 
Mr.  Canning  was  appointed  prime  minister  April  12th,  1827, 
and  died  in  the  month  of  x\ugust  of  the  same  year.  His  policy 
was  crowned  by  the  recognition  of  the  South  American  states, 
the  maintenance  of  the  independence  of  Portugal,  and  the  treaty 
signed  at  London,  July  6th,  for  the  settlement  of  the  war  in 
Greece,  which  treaty  led  to  the  battle  of  Navarino.* 

Lord  Goderich  succeeded  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He 
retired  from  office  January  8th,  when  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
was  made  premier,  although  the  duke  had  declared  in  .pari  lament, 
the  year  before,  his  entire  unfitness  for  high  civil  office.  In  April, 
a  Catholic  relief  bill  was  passed. 

George  IV.  King  of  Great  Britain,  died  June  26th,  1830,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  second  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence, 
under  the  title  of  William  IV.  The  administration  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  was  overthrown,  November  16th,  and  a  few  days 
after,  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  with  Earl  Grey  at  its  head, 
and  Brougham  lord  chancellor. 

The  Duke  of  Wellington's  overthrow  was  ascribed  to  his 
resistance  of  retrenchment,  and  his  apprehension  of  popular 
riots,  and  opposition  to  parliamentary  reform.  The  political 
obstinacy  of  the  Duke  arose  out  of  his  ignorance  and  contempt 
of  the  people,  and  a  blind  confidence  in  his  own  supremacy  and 
power,    and    a    thorough    disregard    of    public    opinion,  while 

*  Mr.  Brougham  said  of  Mr.  Canning,  in  the  British  house  of  commons, 
January  29th,  1828,  "  That  great  man  fell  a  premature  sacrifice  to  his 
struggles  for  the  establishment  of  a  noble  system  of  policy  ;  and  it  was 
to  be  hoped,  that  the  efforts  he  made,  crowned  as  they  were  with  success, 
might  be  followed  up." 


ENGLAND.  367 

events  at  home  and  abroad  perplexed  him.  The  continental 
inonarchs  of  the  Holy  Alliance  had  looked  to  the  tory  ministry, 
with  Wellington  at  its  head,  for  security  and  protection.  What 
must  have  been  the  sensation  in  the  courts  of  those  countries, 
when  intelligence  was  received  of  the  Duke's  overthrow  and 
resignation  ? 

The  whig  ministry,  with  Earl  Grey  at  its  head,  was  pledged 
to  support  the  reform  bill.*  This  ministry  took  upon  them  a 
great  task — an  arduous  responsibility.  That  gross  abuses 
abounded  in  the  British  government,  no  one  could  deny  ;  and 
reform  was  demanded  by  the  united  voice  of  the  nation.  Mr. 
Brougham  was  pledged  to  parliamentary  reform,  the  reduction 
of  expenses  and  sinecures,  and  against  negro  slavery. 

The  ministerial  plan  of  reform,  by  Earl  Grey  and  his  cabinet, 
was  brought  forward  by  Lord  John  Russell,  on  the  1st  of  March  ; 
and  after  a  debate  of  seven  days,  leave  was  given  to  bring  in 
three  bills  for  reforming  the  representation  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland.  The  bill  was  carried,  after  a  debate  of  two  days, 
to  a  second  reading,  March  22d,  by  a  vote  of  302  to  301  ;  but 
was  lost  on  the  third  reading,  the  vote  being  291  for  the  minis- 
try, 299  against  it. 

The  King  dissolved  the  parliament  in  person,  on  the  22d  of 
A-pril.  In  the  speech  delivered  on  that  occasion,  William  said, 
"  I  have  been  induced  to  resort  to  this  measure  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  sense  of  my  people,"  &c. 

The  new  parliament,  of  which  a  large  number  was  pledged 
to  support  reform,  assembled  June  14th,  1831,  and  was  opened 
by  the  King,  who  recommended  the  question  of  a  reform  in 
the  representation,  to  their  earliest  and  most  attentive  considera- 
tion. On  the  24th,  the  reform  bill  was  again  brought  forward 
by  Lord  John  Russell,  in  the  house  of  commons,  and  passed  its 
second  reading  July  6th,  by  a  vote  of  367  to  235,  and  to  a  third 
reading  Sept.  22d,  by  a  vote  of  349  to  236.  The  bill  was  car- 
ried up  to  the  house  of  lords,  and  on  October  8th,  rejected  by  a 
vote  of  199  to  158.  Parliament  was  prorogued  on  the  20th  of 
the  same  month. 

The  rejection  of  the  reform  bill  in  the  house  of  lords,  on  the 
8th,  led  to  strong  manifestations  of  popular  fury  against  the 
nobility,  especially  those  who  had  voted  against  the  bill.  At 
Nottingham  and  Derby,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
riots  commenced  soon  as  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  the  bill 

*  In  1797,  Lord  Grey  made  a  motion  for  reform.  Its  failure  caused  that 
great  statesman,  Fox,  to  withdraw  from  parliament,  which  was  by  some 
jvidged  to  be  a  dereliction  of  duty. 


368  CHAPTER  XIV. 

was  received.  On  the  29th,  30th,  and  31st,  dreadful  riots  took 
place  at  Bristol — many  of  the  public  buildings  and  an  immense 
amount  of  property  were  destroyed  ;  ninety  persons  were  k-lled 
and  wounded  at  that  time ;  afterwards  five  were  executed,  and 
many  were  sentenced  to  transportation.  The  total  damage 
done,  during  this  riot  at  Bristol,  was  estimated  at  300,000  pounds 
sterling. 

Parliament  was  opened  again,  December  6th,  by  the  King  ; 
and  on  the  12th,  Lord  John  Russell,  (a  third  time,)  introduced 
a  new  bill  for  reform,  very  similar  to  the  former,  and  declared 
to  be  "  equally  efficient. "  It  was  read  the  second  time,  on  the 
18th,  by  a  vote  of  324  to  162.  On  March  23d,  it  was  brought 
up  for  a  third  reading,  and  passed  by  a  vote  of  355  to  239. 
The  bill  passed  to  a  second  reading,  in  the  house  of  lords,  April 
13th,  by  a  vote  of  184  to  175.  An  amendment  to  defeat  the 
bill  was  introduced  by  Lord  Lyndhurst,  which  passed  May  8th, 
by  a  vote  of  151  to  116  ;  and  on  May  12th  it  was  lost  by  a 
majority  of  40.  Earl  Grey  advised  the  King  to  create  a  sufli- 
cient  number  of  new  peers  to  secure  the  success  of  the  bill,  ten- 
dering his  resignation  as  the  alternative,  which  was  accepted. 
On  the  resignation  of  ministers,  great  public  excitement  followed. 
The  political  unions,  organized  throughout  the  country,  deter, 
mined  to  refuse  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  demanded  tliat  the 
ministers  should  be  reinstated.  Earl  Grey  had  stated,  that  he 
would  stand  or  fall  by  this  bill ;  and  that  nothing  less  efficient 
should  be  supported  by  him. 

The  excitement  was  so  great  in  Birmingham,  that  100,000 
persons  assembled  suddenly  and  spontaneously,  and  forwarded 
an  immediate  express  to  London.  There  was  a  firm  determina- 
tion to  have  the  reform  bill  carried,  or  pay  no  taxes  ;  and  this 
determination  was  echoed  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom. 
There  was  no  riot ;  the  people  had  risen  in  their  collective 
strength,  to  assert  their  just  rights.  Bursts  of  indignant  feel- 
ings were  directed  against  the  bishops  and  nobility.  The 
Duke  of  Wellington  failed  in  his  attempts  to  form  a  ministry  ; 
when  Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues  were  reinstated  in  office 
May  18th,  with  the  assurance  from  the  King,  of  having  a  suffi- 
cient  number  of  peers  created,  to  secure  the  passing  of  the  bill. 
When  the  lords  were  apprized  of  this  fact,  they  resolved  to  let 
it  pass. 

June  14th,  the  bill  passed  a  third  reading,  by  a  vote  of  106 
to  22,  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  by  commission,  on  the  ITtli 
of  the  same  month.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  not  one  of  the 
bishops  was  present  on  the  final  passage  of  the  bill.  In  answer, 
ing  the  forebodings  and  objections  made  to  it  by  the  lords,  Earl 


ENGLAND.  369 

Grey  said — "  That  the  peace,  power,  and  prosperity  of  England 
would  all  be  increased  by  the  reform." 

By  it,  22  new  boroughs,  in  England,  are  to  send  two  new 
members  each  ;  19  new  boroughs,  one  each  ;  62  new  members 
are  added  to  the  English  county  members  ;  three  to  the  county 
members,  and  two  to  the  borough  members  of  Wales  ;  five  to 
the  Scotch  members  ;  and  five  to  the  Irish  members.  By  this 
reform  bill,  56  of  the  old  boroughs,  called  rotten  or  decayed 
boroughs,  have  been  wholly  disfranchised  ;  and  30  boroughs, 
that'  before  sent  two  members  each,  are  to  send  but  one.  The 
united  borough  of  Weymouth  and  Melcombe  Regis,  which  before 
sent  four  members,  is  to  send  but  two. 

County  members  under  the  reform  act. — Formerly,  each  county 
sent  two  members,  except  Yorkshire,  which  returned  four — 
total  82.  The  counties  in  Wales,  one  each — total  12.  By  the 
reform  act,  the  number  of  the  county  members  of  England  is 
raised  to  144;  those  of  Wales  to  15.  And  26  English  counties 
are  divided,  and  return  four  members  each  ;  7  counties  three 
each  ;  the  ridings  of  Yorkshire,  two  each  ;  and  the  six  remain- 
ing counties,  two  each  ;  and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  one.  Of  the  12 
Welch  counties,  three  send  two  members  each  ;  the  remaining 
nine,  one  each. 

The  reform  act  also  extends  to  the  right  of  voting,  in  the  elec- 
tion of  members  for  cities  and  boroughs,  to  every  male  person 
of  full  age,  not  subject  to  any  legal  incapacity,  who  occupies,  as 
owner  or  tenant,  any  house,  warehouse,  shop  or  building,  of  not 
less  than  ten  pounds  yearly  value  :  provided  such  person  pays 
assessed  taxes  and  poor  rates.  And  in  the  election  of  county 
members,  the  elective  franchise  extends  to  every  male  person 
who  shall  be  in  actual  occupation  of  a  freehold  for  life,  or  of 
lands  or  tenements  of  copyhold,  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  not 
less  than  ten  pounds.  In  England,  a  county  member  of  parlia- 
ment must  possess  real  property  to  the  amount  of  600  pounds 
per  annum ;  and  a  borough  member,  300  pounds.  But  in  Scot- 
land, no  such  qualification  is  requisite. 

Lord  John  Russell,  in  his  speech  on  introducing  the  first 
reform  bill,  (March  1,  1831,)  made  the  following  statement 
respecting  the  number  of  voters  that  would  be  added  by  that  bill : 
number  added  in  towns  and  boroughs  in  England  already  sending 
members,  110,000  ;  electors  of  towns  in  England  sending  mem- 
bers for  the  first  time,  50,000  ;  electors  in  London,  who  will 
obtain  the  right  of  voting,  95,000  ;  increase  of  electors  in  Scot- 
land, 60,000  ;  in  Ireland,  perhaps  40,000  ;  increase  in  the  coun- 
ties of  England,  100,000.  "  It  is  my  opinion,  therefore,"  said 
liOrd  Russell,  "  that  the  whole  measure  will  add  to  the  constitu- 


370  CHAPTER  XIV. 

ency  of  tlie  commons  house  of  parliament,  about  half  a  million 
of  persons,  and  these  all  connected  with  the  property  of  the 
country,  having  a  valuable  stake  amongst  us,  and  deeply  mte- 
rested  in  our  institutions." 

A  sufficient  number  of  booths  are  to  be  prepared,  so  that  not 
more  than  600  electors  are  to  poll  at  one  compartment.  The 
polling  to  continue,  if  required,  for  two  successive  days  only ; 
for  seven  hours  on  the  first  day,  and  for  eight  hours  on  the 
second  :  but  the  poll  is  not  on  any  account,  to  be  kept  open  later 
than  4  o'clock,  on  the  second  day. 

July  13.  The  Scotch  reform  bill  passed  to  a  third  reading  in 
the  English  house  of  lords  ;  and  on  the  30th  of  the  same  month, 
the  Irish  reform  bill  passed  in  the  English  house  of  lords. 
August  13th,  the  Irish  tythe  composition  bill  was  read  a  third 
time  and  passed,  in  the  English  house  of  lords.  On  the  16th  of 
August,  the  parliament  of  England  was  prorogued  to  the  16th 
of  October. 

The  successful  issue  of  a  reform  in  parliament  has  been 
achieved  mainly  through  the  perseverance,  wisdom,  and  stern 
consistency  of  Henry  Brougham,  who  was,  for  many  years,  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  house  of  commons, — a  firm  and 
decided  enemy  to  the  measures  of  the  aristocrats  and  leagued 
despots.  For  more  than  twenty  years,  he  has  fostered  and 
guided  the  spirit  of  reform ;  and  we  may  here,  with  great  pro- 
priety, mention  some  of  his  labors  in  this  great  cause. 

In  1811,  he  introduced  a  bill  into  the  British  parliament, 
declaring  all  dealing  in  slaves,  by  British  subjects,  a  felony, 
and  punishable  as  such.  This  bill  became  a  law,  and  by  it  was 
first  recognized  the  principle,  that  the  traffickers  in  human  flesh 
are  pirates,  and  ought  to  be  treated  as  such.  And  the  subject 
of  slavery,  as  it  exists  in  the  British  West  Indies,  has  been  re- 
peatedly brought  by  him  before  the  nation. 

In  1816,  he  commenced  his  public  efforts  in  favor  of  popular 
p.ducation.  He  then  introduced  into  parliament,  a  motion  for 
the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  edu- 
cation  among  the  lower  orders.  This  motion  was  carried,  and 
an  education  committee  of  forty  members,  with  Mr.  Brougham 
at  their  head,  was  appointed.  The  labors  of  this  committee,  or 
rather  of  its  indefatigable  chairman,  were  immense ;  and  for 
three  years  they  continued  to  spread  facts  before  the  British  peo- 
ple. The  exposition  of  corruptions  in  the  management  of  trust 
funds  for  grammar  schools,  was  no  small  part  of  their  labor. 

In  1819,  he  moved  for  instituting  a  committee  of  inquiry  into 
the  condition  of  charitable  endowments,  to  complete  the  work 
which  the  education  committee  had  begun — a  measure  which 


ENGLAND.  371 

the  ministers  were  unable  successfully  to  withstand,  and  which, 
notwithstanding  their  continued  opposition,  produced  important 
residts. 

In  1820,  he  thought  the  time  had  arrived,  in  which  to  b^ing 
forward  the  grand  measure  which  he  had  at  first  contemplated. 
He  accordingly  came  out  with  a  bill  to  extend  the  blessings  ot 
education  to  the  poor,  by  the  establishment  of  common  schools,^ 
But  in  this  he  did  not  accomplish  his  benevolent  designs.  He 
published  his  "  Practical  Observations  on  Popular  Education," 
and  to  his  sole  suggestion,  "  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Use- 
ful Knowledge,"  whose  publications  are  now  scattered  far  and 
wide,  owed  its  origin. 

His  next  labor,  greater  than  all  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules 
himself,  was  directed  to  a  reform  of  the  English  common  law, 
and  cleansing  the  courts  of  justice  of  the  rubbish  which  a  bar- 
barous age  had  left  behind,  and  time  had  rendered  intolerable. 
His  efforts  here,  as  elsewhere,  were  powerful  and  irresistible. 
In  1828,  he  introduced  his  celebrated  motion,  that  an  address  be 
presented  to  his  majesty,  praying  that  he  would  issue  a  comis- 
sion  for  inquiring  into  the  defects  occasioned  by  time  or  other- 
wise, in  the  laws  of  this  realm,  and  into  the  measures  necessary 
for  removing  the  same.  Upon  this  motion,  his  speech,  delivered 
in  the  house  of  commons  February  28,  1828,  comprises,  in  the 
printed  report,  139  pages.  He  lays  open  the  whole  existing 
condition  of  the  common  law  in  a  masterly  manner,  equalled 
only  by  the  wisdom  displayed  in  the  remedies  proposed.  The 
motion  was  carried,  after  an  amendment  agreed  to  by  him 
for  the  sake  of  conciliation,  had  limited  its  operations  to  the 
courts  of  justice,  and  the  law  of  real  property.  The  commis- 
sioners appointed,  reported  in  1829,  and  their  reports  were  ela- 
borate and  valuable,  and  have  already  been  in  some  measure 
acted  upon. 

As  lord  chancellor  of  Great  Britain,  Brougham's  labors  have 
been  eminent.  He  has  greatly  expedited  the  administration  of 
justice  in  his  court,  and  cleared  the  docket  of  cases  which  had, 
for  a  great  length  of  tuxie,  been  accumulating. 

Thus  it  appears  how  much  England,  as  well  as  the  whole 
civilized  world,  owes  to  the  labors  of  this  one  individual  in  the 
cause  of  freedom  and  of  man.  He  has  directed  his  exertions 
to  the  right  quarter.  To  education  he  looked,  as  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  the  liberties  of  a  nation  rest.  He  has  well  said, 
that  "  he  feared  not  any  unconstitutional  attack  on  the  liberties 
of  the  people  of  England,  from  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  There 
was  another  person  abroad,  more  powerful  than  the  Duke — tho 


S72  CHAPTER   XIV. 

scnoolmaster  was  abroad."*  And  in  conclusion,  it  is  gratifying 
io  tiiink  that  Brougham  still  lives,  and  that  his  exertions  in  favoi 
of  liberty  will  cease  only  with  his  life. 

From  a  list  of  the  members  of  the  new  parliament,  it  appears 
there  were  514  reformers,  and  144  conservatives — thus  giving 
to  the  ministry  a  majority  of  370. 

This  list  of  the  members,  given  in  the  broad  pages  of  the 
London  Times,  must  have  been  a  gladdening  and  a  heart-cheer 
ing  sight  to  the  reformers,  and  to  the  great  body  of  the  English 
nation,  whose  hopes  had  so  long  been  blasted  by  a  profligate 
ministry,  aided  by  the  most  brilliant  and  seducing  powers  of  elo- 
quence. The  oratory  of  Burke  and  Pitt  had  so  fascinated  and 
bewildered  many  understandings,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  as 
to  prevent  them  from  judging  aright  on  the  justice  and  feasibility 
of  a  measure  that  had  so  long  been  urged  by  many  of  England's 
wisest  patriots. 

•  In  a  speech  delivered  in  the  British  house  of  commons,  Jan  29,  1828. 


NOTES 


CHAPTER  I.— Introduction. 

1  Diplomatics  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  diplomacy,  which  means 
a  knowledge  of  the  interests  of  diflerent  states,  and  the  policy  of  foreign 
courts,  &c,,  by  means  of  ambassadors,  envoys,  consuls,  &c. 

2  The  first  that  undertook  to  teach  this  science  in  a  university,  was  the 
celebrated  Corxixg,  a  professor  at  Helmstadt.  His  programme  or  pro- 
spectus was  published  in  1660.  Godfrey  Aghenwall,  a  professor  at 
Gottingen,  1748,  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  name. 

3  Before  this  time  Pope  Leo  X.  had  paid  some  attention  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar.  A  letter  which  he  wrote  on  the  subject  to  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  may  be  seen  in  Rymer's  Fcsdera,  vol.  vi.  p.  119. 

4  From  the  year  1793  to  the  end  of  1805,  the  French,  by  a  decree  of  the 
national  convention  of  the  5th  of  October,  adopted  a  method  of  com. 
puting  by  what  they  called  the  republican  year.  It  began  at  midnight 
of  the  autumnal  equinox,  viz.  the  21st  or  22d  of  September.  It  was 
divided  into  twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each,  followed  by  five  or  six 
supplementary  days.  This  innovation,  however,  ceased  on  the  31st  of 
December,  1805. 

5  It  is  to  this  circumstance  that  the  term  mnA  owes  its  origin.  It  is  not 
a  classical  word,  but  was  first  used  by  the  Spaniards  ;  and  is  merely 
the  initials  or  firot  letters  of  Anno  Erat  Eeganante  Augusta.     T. 

6  This  calculation,  however,  was  incorrect,  inasmuch  as  nineteen  exact 
solar  revolutions  amount  only  to  6939  days,  14  hours,  26',  15"  ;  while 
235  true  lunations,  contained  in  the  cycle  of  19  years,  only  give  6939 
days,  16  hours,  31',  45".  The  lunar  cycle  consequently  exceeded  the 
19  solar  revolutions  by  2  hours,  5',  30".  This  error  was  corrected  at 
the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  by  Gregory  XIII. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  II.— Period  I, 

1  The  name  of  Alemanni,  erroneously  applied  afterwards  to  all  the  Ger- 
man nations,  was  originally  restricted  to  a  particular  tribe,  which  we 
here  designate  by  the  name  of  the  Alemanns,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  modern  Germans  (Allemands.) 

2  The  Guttones  of  Pliny,  the  Gothones  or  Gotones  of  Tacitus,  and  the 
Gyihones  of  Ptolemy,  whom  these  authors  place  in  the  northeni  part 
of  ancient  Germany,  near  the  Vistula,  were  most  probably  one  and  the 
same  nation  with  the  Goths  ;  and  ought  not  to  be  confounded  whh  the 
Get(B,  a  people  of  ancient  Dacia. 

3  We  find  a  Gothic  bishop,  named  Theophilus,  among  the  bishops  who 
signed  the  acts  of  the  first  Council  of  Nice.  Ulfilas,  a  Gothic  bishop 
towards  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  translated  the  Bible  mto  the 
VOL.  II.  32 


S74  ^  NOTEb. 

language  of  his  nation,  making  use  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  charac- 
ters. His  Four  Gospels,  preserved  in  the  Codex  Argenteus,  in  the 
library  at  Upsal,  is  the  most  ancient  specimen  we  liave  of  the  German 
language,  of  which  the  Gothic  is  one  of  the  principal  dialects.  Vide 
Fragments  of  TJlfdas,  published  by  M.  Zahn.     1805. 

4  The  identity  of  the  Franks  with  these  German  tribes,  may  be  shown 
from  a  passage  of  St.  Jerome,  as  well  as  by  the  Table  Feutingerievne^ 
ou  Theodosienne,  so  called,  because  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  drawn 
up  under  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  ;  though  M.  Mannert,  in  his  Treatise  De  Tab.  Feuting,  cBtate, 
has  proved  that  it  is  as  old  as  the  third  century ;  and  that  the  copy 
preserved  in  the  library  at  Vienna,  and  published  by  M.  de  Scheyl,  is 
but  an  incorrect  copy,  which  he  attributes  to  a  monk  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  From  this  Table,  it  appears  that,  in  the  third  century,  the 
name  Francia  was  given  to  that  part  of  Germany  which  is  situate  in 
the  Lower  Rhine  in  Westphalia  ;  and  that  the  Bructeri,  the  Chauci, 
Ghamavi,  Cherusci,  Ampsivarii,  &c,  were  the  same  as  the  Franks. 
The  names  of  Salians  and  Ripuarians,  evidently  taken  from  the  situa- 
tion of  some  of  these  tribes  on  the  Rhine,  the  Yssel,  or  Saal,  appear  to 
have  been  given  them  by  the  Romans,  and  were  afterwards  retained 
by  them. 

5  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  Lib.  31  c.  2.  Jornandes  De  Rebus  Geticis, 
cap.  35.  This  latter  historian  gives  the  following  portrait  of  Attila, 
King  of  the  Huns.  "His  stature  was  short,  his  chest  broad,  his  head 
rather  large,  his  eyes  small,  his  beard  thin,  his  hair  grey,  his  nose  flat, 
his  complexion  dark  and  hideous,  bearing  evidence  of  his  origin.  He 
was  a  man  of  much  cunning,  who  fought  by  stratagem  before  he  en- 
gaged in  battles." 

6  We  may  judge  of  the  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Burgimdians  by 
the  signatures  of  twenty-five  bishops,  who  were  present  at  the  Council 
of  Epao,  held  by  Sigismond,  King  of  Burgundy,  in  517.  These  bish- 
ops were  the  following :  Besancon,  Langres,  Autun,  Chalons,  Lyon, 
Valence,  Orange,  Vaison,  Carpentras,  Cavaillon,  Sisteron,  Apt.  Gap, 
Die,  St.  Faul-trois-Chetaux,  Viviers,  Vienne,  Embrun,  Grenoble,  Ge- 
neva, Tarantaise,  Avenche,  Windische,  Martigny  in  the  Bas-Valais, 
Taurentum  in  Provence.  Vide  Labbei,  Acta  Concil.  vol.  iv.  p.  1573, 
1581. 

7  Many  kings  and  chiefs  of  different  nations  marched  under  his  command. 
Jornandes  (cap.  38.)  observes — "  As  for  the  rest,  a  rabble  of  kings,  if 
they  may  be  so  called,  and  leaders  of  divers  nations  ;  they  waited  like 
satellites  the  orders  of  Attila ;  and  if  he  gave  but  a  wink  or  a  nod, 
every  one  attended  with  fear  and  trembling,  and  executed  his  com- 
mands without  a  murmur.  Attila  alone,  like  a  king  of  kings,  had  the 
supreme  charge  and  authority  over  them  all." 

8  The  Salian  Franks  are  distinct  from  the  Ripuarian,  who  formed  a  sepa- 
rate kingdom,  the  capital  of  which  was  Cologne.  There  were  also, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  particular  kings  of  the  Franks  at 
Terouane,  Mams,  and  Cambray,  all  of  whom  were  subdued  by  Clovis, 
shortly  before  his  death  in  511. 

9  Clovis  took  from  the  Alemanns  a  part  of  their  territories,  of  which  he 
formed  a  distinct  province,  known  afterwards  by  the  name  of  France 
on  the  Rhine.  They  retained,  however,  under  their  hereditary  chiefs, 
Alsace,  with  the  districts  situated  beyond  the  Rhine,  and  bounded  on 
the  north  by  tlie  Oos,  the  Entz,  the  Necker,  the  Muhr,  the  Wernitz 
and  the  Jagst.     Vide  Schoepfiin,  Alsatia  Illust.  vol.  i.  p.  630. 


NOTES.  376 

10  The  Visigoths  then  retained  no  other  possessions  in  Gaul  than  Septi- 
mania,  or  Languedoc.  Their  territories  between  the  Rhone,  the  Alps, 
and  the  Mediterranean,  passed  to  the  Ostrogoths,  as  the  reward  for  ser- 
vices which  the  latter  had  rendered  them  in  their  wars  with  the  Franks. 

11  Scheidmgen,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Unstrut,  about  three  leagues  from 
Naumburg  on  the  Saal,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  residence  of  the 
ancient  kings  of  Thuringia.  Venantius  Fortunatus,  the  friend  of  queen 
Radegonde,  a  pruicess  of  Thuringia,  gives  a  poetical  description  of  it 
in  his  elegy  De  Excidis  Thuringias. 

12  Belisarius  was  recalled  from  Italy  by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  in  549. 
He  afterwards  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  court  of  Constantinople  ; 
but  what  modern  writers  have  asserted,  that  he  was  blind,  and  reduced 
to  beg  his  bread,  is  destitute  of  foundation.  Mascow,  Geshichte  der 
Teutschen. 

13  Agathias,  lib.  1.  p.  17,  asserts,  that  the  Goths  abandoned  the  nation  of 
the  Alemanns  to  the  Franks,  in  order  to  interest  the  latter  in  their  cause 
against  the  Greeks.  Tiie  same  was  the  case  with  that  part  of  Gaul, 
situate  between  the  Alps,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Mediterranean,  which 
pertamed  to  the  Ostrogoths,  and  which  they  ceded  to  the  Franks,  on 
condition  that  they  would  never  furnish  supplies  to  the  Greeks. 

14  The  name  of  the  Bavarians  does  not  occur  in  history  before  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century,  when  Jornandes,  De  Eeb.  Geticis,  and  Venantius 
Fortunatus.  in  his  poems,  speak  of  them  for  the  first  time.  Mannert, 
Gesckichfe  Bajoaricns,  p.  108,  reckons  the  Bavarians  an  association  of 
several  German  tribes ;  the  Heruls,  Rugians,  Turcilingians,  and  Scy- 
rians,  all  orig'nally  emigrating  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  new 
settlements  which  they  formed  in  Upper  Germany,  comprehended  that 
part  of  ancient  Rhetia,  Vindelicia,  and  Noricum,  which  lies  between 
the  Danube,  the  Lech,  and  the  Noce  in  Pannonia,  and  the  Tyrol. 
They  were  governed  by  kings  or  chiefs,  who,  from  the  year  595,  were 
dependants  on  the  Frankish  crown. 

15  Clovis  left  the  Alemanns,  after  their  defeat,  a  considerable  part  of  their 
territories  under  hereditary  chiefs,  who  acknowledged  the  superiority 
of  the  Frankish  kings.  Such  of  the  Alemanns  as  Theodoric  King  of 
Italy  then  received  into  a  part  of  Rhetia  and  Noricum,  continued  de- 
pendants on  the  kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths,  till  the  decay  of  that  mo- 
narchy, near  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  when  they  became  subject 
to  thw  dominion  of  the  Franks. 

16.  Tacitus  De  Moribus  German.,  cap.  2.  It  was  the  prerogative  of  free- 
men to  have  the  honor  of  bearing  arms.  Even  bishops  and  ecclesias- 
tics, when  admitted  into  the  national  assemblies,  and  to  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  freemen,  never  failed  to  claim  this  military  dignity  ;  and 
occupied,  like  others,  their  ranks  in  the  army. 

17  We  find  among  the  German  nations,  from  the  remotest  times,  the  dis- 
tinction .  into  nobles,  freemen,  and  serfs ;  a  distinction  which  they  stili 
preserved,  in  their  new  settlements  in  the  Roman  empire. 

18  Called  Ordeals.  Besides  the  trial  by  single  combat,  there  were  others 
by  hot  iron,  boiling  or  cold  water,  the  cross,  cj-c.      Vide  Ducange  Gloss. 

19  The  Goths,  Vandals,  Suevi,  and  Alans,  were  already  Christians,  when 
they  settled  within  the  bounds  of  the  Western  Empire.  They  follow, 
ed  the  doctrines  of  Arius,  which  they  had  imbibed  in  the  east;  and, 
which  the  Suevi  of  Galicia  abandoned  for  the  orthodox  creed  under 
their  King  Cariaric,  about  551  ;  and  the  Visigoths  of  Spain,  under  their 
King  Recarede,  in  589.  The  Lombards  of  Italy  were,  at  first,  Arians, 
but  became  Catholics,  under  their  King  Agilulphus,  in  602.     The  Van- 


876  NOTES. 

dais  aiid  Ostrogoths,  on  the  contrary,  having  persisted  in  Arianism  ; 
this  perseverance  may  be  numbered  among  the  causes  that  hastened 
the  destruction  of  their  monarchy,  both  in  Italy  and  Africa.  As  to  the 
Burgundians  tliey  did  not  embrace  Christianity  till  after  their  establish- 
ment in  Gaul.  Their  example  was  soon  followed  by  the  Franks,  who 
likewise  protected  the  dissemination  of  the  orthodox  faith  among  the 
German  nations,  settled  in  their  dominions  beyond  the  Rhine.  The 
Christian  religion  was  introduced,  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century. 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain,  by  some  Benedictine  monks, 
whom  Pope  Gregory  I.  had  sent  there.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  was 
the  first  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  that  embraced  Christianity,  by  the 
persuasion,  it  is  said,  of  his  queen.  Bertha,  daughter  of  Charibert  I. 
King  of  Paris. 

20  The  jjossessions  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Gaul,  lying  between  the  Rhine, 
the  Alps,  and  the  Mediterranean,  were  ceded  to  the  Franks  about  536. 

21  Eginhard,  Vita  Carol.  Mog.,  cap.  11.  It  seems  then  an  error  in  history, 
to  designate  these  princes  as  a  race  of  kings,  who  had  all  degenerated 
into  a  state  of  imbecility  or  idiocy.  (Of  this  opinion  was  the  Abbe 
Venot,  who  endeavors  to  rescue  these  monarchs  from  this  generally 
received  imputation.     Vide  Memoir  de  I'Acadeinie,  vol.  iv.  T.) 

22  This  same  St.  Boniface,  in  744,  induced  the  archbishops  of  France  to 
receive,  after  his  example,  the  pallium  from  Pope  Zacharias,  acknow. 
ledging  the  jurisdiction  and  supremacy  of  the  Roman  See.  This  ac- 
];nowledgment  of  the  Romish  supremacy,  had  already  taken  place  in 
England,  in  601  and  627,  v/lien  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York,  received  the  pontificial  pallium.     Vide  Bede.  Eist.  Eccles. 

23  It  is  alleged  that  state  politics  had  no  small  share  in  favoring  this  zeal. 
^Jot  only  did  the  emperors  reckon,  by  abolishing  images,  to  weaken 
the  excessive  power  of  the  monks  who  domineered  over  the  Byzantine 
court;  but  they  regarded  also  the  destruction  of  this  heretical  worship, 
as  the  only  means  of  arresting  the  persecutions  which  the  Mahometans 
then  exercised  agamst  the  Christians  in  the  east,  whom  they  treated  as 
idolators,  on  account  of  their  veneration  for  images. 

24  The  name  Exarchate  was  then  given  to  the  province  of  Ravenna,  be- 
cause  it,  as  well  as  the  Pentapolis,  was  immediately  subject  to  the  ex- 
arch as  governor-general ;  while  the  other  parts  of  Grecian  Italy  were 
governed  by  delegates,  who  ruled  in  the  name  and  authority  of  the 
exarch. 

2.5  It  was  during  his  sojourn  at  Chiersi  that  Pope  Stephen  II.  gave  the  de- 
cisions that  we  find  in  Sirmondi,  Concil,  Gall.  vol.  II.  16.  Anastasius 
(in  Muratori,  vol.  III.  p.  168,  186)  mentions  Chiersi  as  the  place  of  this 
donation,  which  he  also  says  was  signed  by  Pepin  and  his  two  sons. 
This  prospective  grant  is  even  attested  by  the  letter  which  Stephen  II. 
addressed  to  Pepin  and  his  sons,  immediately  on  his  return  to  Rome, 
cxhortmg  them  to  fulfil  their  engagements  without  delay. 

26  The  Pope,  in  his  letters  to  Pepin,  calls  this  donation  an  augmentation 
of  the  Romish  dominion  ;  an  extension  of  the  Romish  territory,  &.c. 
Cenni,  vol.  I.  p.  85,  124.  Besides  the  city  and  duchy  of  Rome,  Anas- 
tasius mentions  various  former  grants  of  territories  to  the  Romish 
Church.  The  same  author  mforms  us,  that  the  original  of  Pepin's  do- 
nation existed  in  his  time  in  the  arcliives  of  the  Romish  See,  and  he 
has  recorded  the  places  gifted  to  the  church. 

27  Different  interpretations  have  been  given  to  the  word  Saracens,  which 
the  Greeks,  and  after  them  the  Latins,  have  applied  to  the  Arabs.  Some 
explain  it  by  robbers  or  brigands,  and  others  by  Orientals,  or  natives 


NOTES.  377 

of  the  east.  Casiri.  Bibl.  Arab.  Hist.  vol.  II.  p.  19.  Some  pretend  to 
derive  this  appellation  from  the  Arabic  word  Sarrag,  or  its  plural  Sar- 
'Togin,  which  means,  men  on  horseback,  or  cavaliers. 
2i'  We  may  judge  of  the  ferocity  of  the  Arabs  at  this  time,  from  a  passage 
vf  Rasis,  an  Arabic  author,  in  Casiri,  (Bibl.  Arab.  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  322.) 
Muza,  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  had  caused  Tarec  to  be  bastinadoed  at  Tole- 
do, and  yet  continued  to  employ  him  as  a  general.  The  caliph,  to  avenge 
Tarec,  caused  Muza  to  be  bastinadoed  in  his  turn,  when  he  came  to 
Damascus  to  lay  at  his  royal  feet  the  spoils  of  all  Spain.  His  son,  whom 
he  had  left  governor  of  Spain,  was  killed  by  order  of  the  caliph.  Such 
was  the  fate  of  the  Arabic  conquerors  of  Spain. 

29  The  Abbassides  took  their  name  from  Abbas,  the  paternal  imcle  of 
Mahomet,  of  whom  they  were  descended.  The  Ommiades  were  de 
scended  from  Ommiah,  a  more  distant  relation  of  the  prophet. 

30  Don  Pelago,  the  king  whom  the  Spaniards  regard  as  the  founder  of  thisv 
new  state,  is  a  personage  no  less  equivocal  than  the  Pharamond  of  the 
Franks.  Isidorus  Pagensis,  a  Spanish  author  of  that  time,  published 
by  Sandoval  in  his  collection  in  1634,  knew  nothing  of  him.  He  extols, 
on  the  contrary,  the  exploits  of  Theodemir,  whom  the  Visigoths,  ac- 
cording  to  the  Arabic  authors  quoted  by  Casiri,  had  chosen  as  their 
king  after  the  unfortunate  death  of  Roderic.  The  chronicle  of  Alphonso 
III.,  and  that  of  Albayda,  which  are  commonly  Cited  in  favor  of  Don 
Pelago,  are  both  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  and 
relate  things  so  marvellous  of  this  pretended  founder  of  the  kingdom 
of  Leon,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  credit  to  them. 

31  This  dynasty,  after  the  year  827,  effected  the  conquest  of  the  greater 
part  of  Sicily  from  the  Greeks  ;  but  they  were  deprived  of  it,  in  940, 
by  the  Fatimites,  who  were  succeeded  in  the  following  century  by  the 
Zerides  in  Africa.     (Vide  Period  IV.  under  Spain.) 

32  The  celebrated  Gerbert,  born  in  Auvergne,  and  afterwards  Pope  Sil- 
vester  II.,  was  among  the  first  that  repaired  to  Spain,  about  the  middle 
of  the  tenth  century,  to  study  mathematics  imder  the  Arabs.  Numbers 
afterwards  imitated  his  example. 

32  There  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Escurial  in  Spain,  1851  Arabic 
MSS.  which  escaped  the  conflagration  of  1671,  and  which  have  been 
amply  described  by  Casiri  in  his  Bibl.  Arab.  Hisp. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  III Period  II. 

1  The  immense  intrenchments  or  fortifications  of  the  Avars,  called  RJiin. 
gos  by  the  Franks,  were  destroyed  by  Charlemagne,  to  the  number  of 
nine.  A  part  of  Parmonia  and  the  tenitory  of  the  Avars  he  left  in  pos. 
session  of  the  native  chiefs,  and  the  Slavian  princes,  who  acknow- 
ledged  themselves  his  vassals  and  tributaries.  The  Slavi,  the  Moravi- 
ans, and  Bulgarians,  seem  to  have  then  seized  on  a  part  of  the  territo- 
ries of  the  Avars  lying  beyond  the  Danube  and  the  Theyss.  It  was 
on  account  of  this  war,  that  Charlemagne  established  the  Eastern 
March  (Austria)  against  the  Avars,  and  that  he  conceived  also  the  pro- 
ject of  joining  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  by  a  canal  drawn  from  the 
river  Altmuhl  to  Rednitz. 

2  Charles  took  the  oath  in  the  Teutonic  language,  Louis  in  the  Romance 
language  ;  the  forms  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  the  Abbe  Nith- 
ard,  a  cousin  of  these  prmces.  "VVe  may  observe,  that  this  is  the  most 
ancient  monument  of  the  Romance  language  ;  out  of  which  has  sprung 
the  modern  French. 

VOL.  II.  32* 


373  '  NOTES 

3  This  treaty,  which  has  been  preserved  by  the  author  of  the  Annals  of 
Si.  Bertin,  mentions  all  the  countries  and  principal  places  assigned  to 
each  of  the  brothers.  It  forms  a  valuable  document  in  the  geography 
of  the  middle  ages. 

4  As  an  example  of  this,  it  is  said  that  a  nobleman  of  Suabia,  named  Ets 
chon,  broiher  to-the  Empress  Judith,  quarrelled  with  his  own  son,  and 
refused  to  see  him,  because,  in  his  estimation,  he  had  debased  himselt 
by  receiving  as  fiefs,  from  Louis  the  Gentle,  a  certain  number  of  his 
own  lands,  situated  in  Upper  Bavaria. 

5  The  Danes  and  the  Swedes  dispute  with  each  other  the  honor  of  these 
pretended  heroes,  who  signalized  themselves  in  the  Norman  piracies. 
It  is  without  doubt,  that  all  the  tribes  of  ancient  Scandinavia,  in  their 
turn,  took  part  in  tliese  expeditions.  According  to  the  Monk  of  St. 
Gall,  it  was  not  till  about  the  end  of  the  war  of  Charlemagne  with  the 
Avars,  i.  e.  796,  that  the  Normans  began  to  infest  the  coasts  of  the 
Frankish  empire.  In  order  to  stop  their  incursions,  Charles  construct- 
ed a  fleet,  and  stationed  in  the  harbors  and  mouths  of  rivers,  troops  and 
guard-ships ;  precautions  which  were  neglected  by  his  successors. 

6  The  beautiful  palaces  which  Charles  had  constructed  at  Nimeguen  and 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  were  burnt  to  the  ground  by  the  Normans  in  881-2. 
At  the  same  time,  they  plundered  Liege,  Maestricht,  Tongres,  Cologne, 
Bonn,  Zulpich,  Nuys,  and  Treves. 

7  Nester,  a  monk  of  Kiovia,  and  the  first  annalist  of  Russia,  about  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  says  the  Russians,  whom  he  calls  also 
Waregues,  came  from  Scandinavia,  or  the  country  of  che  Normans. 
He  assures  us,  that  it  was  from  them  that  the  state  of  Novogorod  took 
the  name  of  Russia.  The  author  of  the  annals  of  St.  Bertin,  the  first 
that  mentions  the  }  -^'ans  (lihos)  a,  d.  839,  assigns  Sweden  as  their 
original  coimtry.  i  iprand  also,  bishop  of  Cremona,  in  the  court  of 
Constantinople  by  Otho  the  Great,  attests,  in  his  history,  that  the 
Greeks  gave  the  name  o^  Russians  to  the  people,  who  in  the  west  are 
called  Normans,  The  Finns,  Laplanders,  and  Estonians,  at  this  day, 
call  the  Swedes,  Boots,  Eoutzi,  or  Rootslane.  It  is  likely  that  from 
them,  beLng  nearest  neighbors  of  the  Swedes,  this  name  passed  to  the 
Slavonian  tribes.  Hence  it  would  seem,  that  it  is  in  Sweden  that  we 
must  look  for  Russia,  prior  to  the  times  of  Ruric  ;  in  the  same  way. 
as  ancient  Frtoice  is  to  be  found  in  Westphalia  and  Hesse,  before  the 
days  of  Clodion,  and  the  founding  of  the  new  monarchy  of  the  Franks 
in  Gaul. 

8  The  Orkney  Isles,  the  Hebrides,  the  Shetlands,  and  the  Isles  of  Man, 
passed,  in  course  of  time,  from  the  dominion  of  the  Norwegians  to 
that  of  the  Scottish  kings,  while  the  Faroe  Isles  remained  constantly 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Norway. 

9  Olaus  II.,  King  of  Norway,  had  rendered  the  Icelanders  tributaries,  but 
they  soon  renewed  their  independence  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  time  of 
Habo  V.  and  Magnus  ^VIL,  in  1261  and  1264,  that  they  submitted  to  the 
dominion  of  Norway,  when  the  republican  government  of  the  island 
was  suppressed.  Iceland,  when  a  republic,  furnished  the  annalists  of 
the  north.  The  most  distinguished  of  these  is  S^^orre  Stltileso^n, 
who  wrote  a  history  of  the  kings  of  Norway  about  the  begirming  of  the 
thirteenth  century.     This  celebrated  man  died  in  1241. 

10  The  Chazars,  a  Turkish  tribe,  ruled,  at  the  time  we  now  speak,  over 
the  northern  part  of  the  Crimea ;  as  also  the  vast  regions  lying  to  the 
north  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas.  The  Onogurs  or  Ugurs,  sup- 
posed to  be  the   same   as  Hungarians,  were   subject  to  them.     These 


NOTES.  379 

Chazars  having  embraced  Christianity  in  the  ninth  century,  adopted  a 
nun  of  syncretism,  which  admitted  all  sorts  indifferently.  Hence  th*-. 
name  of  Chazars  or  Ketzers  has  been  given,  by  the  German  divines,  ut 
every  species  of  heretics.  Their  power  vanished  about  the  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century. 
.  i  The  Patzinacites  or  Kanglians,  also  a  Turkish  and  wandering  trib«. 
originally  inhabited  the  borders  of  the  Jaik  and  the  Volga,  between  these 
two  rivers.  Expelled  from  these  countries  by  the  Uzes  or  Cunians, 
who  combined  with  the  Chazars  against  them,  they  attacked  the  Hungn- 
rians,  whom  they  stript  of  their  possessions,  lying  between  the  Tanais-. 
the  Dnieper,  and  the  Dniester,  (a.  d.  884.) 

12  The  Moravians  were  the  first  of  the  Slavian  tribes  that  embraced  Chris- 
tianity. The  Greek  Emperor  Michael,  at  their  own  request,  sent  them, 
in  863,  Cyril  and  Methodius,  two  learned  Greeks  of  Thessalonica,  who 
invented  the  Slavonian  alphabet,  and  translated  into  their  language  the 
sacred  books,  which  the  Russians  still  use. 

13  The  Patzinacites  possessed  all  the  countries  situated  between  the  Aluta, 
the  Dnieper,  and  the  Donez,  which  near  its  source,  separated  them 
from  the  Chazars.  They  gradually  disappeared  from  history  about  the 
end  o?  the  eleventh  century,  when  they  were  dispossessed  or  subdued 
by  the  Cumans. 

14  Historians  have  commonly  ascribed  to  this  prince  the  division  of  Eng. 
land  into  counties,  hundreds,  and  tithes,  as  also  the  institution  of  juries. 

15  From  the  occupation  of  Greenland  and  Finland  by  the  Normans,  we 
may  infer  that  North  America  was  known  to  them  several  centuries 
before  it  was  discovered  by  the  English. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  ^\^— Period  HI. 

1  The  Hungarians  having  made  a  new  invasion  upon  Otho  the  Great, 
advanced  as  far  as  Augsburg,  to  which  they  laid  siege  ;  but  Otho,  in  a 
battle  which  he  fought  with  them  in  the  vicinity  of  that  city,  (955,) 
routed  them  with  such  slaughter  that  they  never  dared  to  return. 

2  On  this  oath,  which  was  taken  in  963,  the  emperors  of  Germany  founded 
the  title  by  which  they  claimed  the  right  to  confirm,  or  to  nominate 
and  depose  the  popes.  Lawyers  generally  allege  the  famous  decree 
of  Leo  VHL,  published  964,  as  establishing  the  rights  of  the  emperor? 
over  Rome  and  the  popes.  But  ihe  authenticity  of  this  decree  has 
been  attacked  by  the  ablest  critics,  and  defended  by  others.  It  would 
appear  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  this  to  justify  these  rights.  Otho, 
after  having  conquered  Italy  and  received  the  submission  of  the  Romans 
and  the  Pope,  could  easily  claim  for  himself  and  his  successors  the 
same  rights  of  superiority  which  the  Greek  and  Frank  emperors  had 
enjoyed  before  him. 

3  He  was  the  duke  of  Lov/er  Lorrain,  and  had  obtained  that  dukedom 
from  Otho  II.  in  977.  He  transmitted  it  to  his  son  Otho,  who  was  tlie 
last  prince  of  the  Carlovingian  Ihie,  and  died  in  1006. 

4  The  principalities  of  Benevento,  Salerno,  and  Capua,  were  governed 
by  Lombard  princes,  who  held  of  the  German  emperors.  The  duke- 
doms  of  Naples,  Gaeta,  Amalfi,  and  part  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  were 
dependent  on  the  eastern  emperors  ;  while  the  Arabs,  masters  of  the 
greater  part  of  Sicily  possessed  also  Bari  and  Tarento  in  Apulia. 

5  From  this  treaty  is  derived  the  right  of  vassalage,  which  the  popes  have 
exercised  till  the  present  time,  over  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

6  The  first  invasion  of  the  Normans  in  Sicily  was  in  lOGO.     Palermo,  the 


880  NOTES. 

capital,  fell  under  their  power  in  1072,  and  in  1090  they  conquered  the 
whole  island. 

7  The  first  seeds  of  Christianity  were  planted  in  Denmark  and  Sweden. 
by  St.  Ansgar,  whom  Louis  the  Gentle  created,  in  834,  first  archbishop 
of  Hamburg,  and  metropolitan  of  the  North.  But  the  progress  ol 
Christianity  was  extremely  slow  in  those  semi-barbarous  countries- 
The  first  amialist  of  the  North  was  an  Icelander  named  Are  Frode. 
who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century.  The  mosi 
eminent  historian  of  Denmark,  was  a  monk  named  Swend  Aageson. 
who  digested,  about  1187,  an  abridgement  of  the  history  of  that  king- 
dom. He  was  followed  by  Saxo  the  grammarian,  whose  history  of 
Denmark,  written  in  beautiful  Latin,  is  full  of  fables  in  the  times  preced- 
ing the  12th  century.  Norway  had  for  its  first  annalist  a  monk  named 
Theodoric,  who  wrote  about  1160.  As  to  Sweden,  it  has  no  national 
historian  anterior  to  the  Chronicles  in  Verse,  the  first  anonymous  editor 
of  which  lived  in  the  time  of  King  Magnus  Smeck,  about  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century. 

8  Olaus  sent,  in  996  and  1000,  missionaries  into  Iceland,  who  succeeded 
in  making  the  whole  country  adopt  Christianity.  An  Icelandic  fugitive, 
named  Eric  le  Roux,  discovered  Greenland,  and  formed  the  first  settle, 
ments  there,  about  the  year,  982.  His  son.  Lief,  embraced  Christianity 
during  his  sojourn  in  Nor'.vay.  With  the  aid  of  some  ecclesiastics 
whom  King  Olaus  gave  him,  he  returned  in  1009  to  Greenland,  and 
there  converted  his  father  and  his  fellow-countrymen.  The  knowledge 
of  the  fir.^t  Norwegian  colonies  of  Greenland,  was  lost  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  southern  and  western  districts  of 
it  were  again  discovered  about  1576  ;  but  it  was  not  till  1721  that  the 
Danes  formed  new  settlements  there. 

9  The  Polabes  inhabited  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  the  principality  of  Rat. 
zenburg,  and  the  province  of  Schwerin.  The  Wagrians  were  settled 
beyond  the  Bille  m  the  Wagria,  in  the  prmcipality  of  Eutui,  and  a  part 
of  Holstein. 

.  0  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  Conrad,  Duke  of  Zahringen,  and  Albert, 
Margrave  of  the  North,  headed  an  army  of  these  crusaders  against  the 
Slavi  in  1147. 

11  The  right  of  hereditary  succession  in  the  eldest  son  of  every  ducal 
family,  was  not  introduced  into  Bohemia  till  1055.  This  was  the  ancient 
usage  in  Sweden,  Denmark,  Poland,  Russia,  and  Hungary. 

12  No  writer  of  this  nation  is  kno\\Ti  anterior  to  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  most  ancient  is  Vincent  Kadlubeck.  bishop  of  Cracow,  who  died 
1223.     He  v/rote  Hisioria  PoJonia,  first  published  in  1612. 

13  This  crovyn,  singularly  revered  in  Hungary,  contains  Greek  ornaments 
and  inscriptions,  which  give  us  to  understand  that  it  was  manufactured 
at  Constantinople.  There  is  a  probability  that  it  was  furnished  by  the 
Empress  Theophania,  mother  of  Otho  III.,  to  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  whom 
she  had  lately  raised  to  the  pontificate. 

14  The  Greeks  upbraided  the  Latins  with  fasting  on  Saturdays — permission 
to  eat  cheese,  butter,  and  milk,  during  the  first  week  of  lent — the  celi- 
bacy of  their  priests — the  repetition  of  the  unction,  of  baptism  in  confir- 
mation— the  corrupting  of  the  confession  of  faith — the  use  of  imleavened 
bread  in  the  eucharist — permission  to  eat  the  blood  of  animals  strangled 
— and  the  prohibition  against  the  priests  wearing  their  beards. 

15  The  difference  of  rank  and  pre-eminence  of  these  two  patriarchs,  be- 
came one  of  the  principal  subjects  of  dispute  between  the  two  churches. 
There  was  a  warm  debate  as  to  the  title  of  Ecumenical  Patriarch,  or 


NOTES.  381 

universal  bishop,  which  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  had  assumed 
since  the  time  of  the  patriarch  John  H.  in  G18.  The  Roman  pontiffs, 
Pelagius  II.  and  Gregory  I.,  haughtily  condemned  that  title  as  proud 
and  extravagant.  They  even  went  so  far  as  to  interdict  all  communion 
with  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  ;  and  Gregory  I.,  wishing  to  give 
these  patriarchs  an  example  of  Christian  humility,  in  opposition  to  this 
lofty  title  of  Universal  Bishop,  adopted  that  of  Servant  of  the  servants 
of  God. 

16  The  Bulgarians,  newly  converted  to  Christianity  by  Greek  and  Latin 
missionaries,  had  priests  and  bishops  of  both  churches;  and  each  pon- 
till"  claimed  the  sole  jurisdiction  over  that  provmce.  This  affair  having 
been  referred  by  the  Bulgarians  themselves  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Greek  Emperor,  he  decided  in  favor  of  the  See  of  Constantinople.  In 
consequence  of  this  decision,  the  Latin  bishops  and  priests  were  expelled 
from  Bulgaria,  and  replaced  by  the  Greeks  in  870. 

17  This  terrible  fire,  reckoned  among  their  state  secrets,  was  exploded 
from  tubes  of  copper,  or  thrown  with  cross-bows  and  machines  for  the 
purpose.  Fire-ships  were  likewise  filled  with  them,  which  they  des- 
patched among  the  enemies'  ships  to  burn  them.  These  could  not  be 
extinguished  by  water,  or  any  other  way  than  by  the  help  of  vinegar  or 
sand. 

18  The  name  of  Tartar,  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  commonly  taken,  ap- 
pears to  be  of  a  Chinese  origin.  The  Chinese  pronounce  it  Tha-tha ; 
and  designate,  by  this  name,  all  the  nations  that  dwell  north  of  the 
great  wall. 

19  The  first  that  employed  this  military  p-iiard  was  the  Caliph  Montassem, 
who  succeeded  to  the  caliphate  in  833  or  218  of  the  Hegira. 

20  Sultan  or  Sollhan,  is  a  common  name  in  the  Chaldean  and  Arabic  lan- 
guages, to  designate  a  sovereign,  ruler,  king,  or  master. 

21  Syria  was  conquered  by  the  Seljukides,  between  1074  and  1085.  They 
were  masters  of  Palestine  since  1075,  which  they  Had  conquered  from 
the  Fatimite  caliphs  of  Egypt. 

22  The  most  powerful  of  these  Emirs  dared  not  assume  the  title  of  Sultan, 
but  were  content  with  that  of  AtabcJc,  which  signifies  in  the  Turkish 
language,  Father  of  the  prince. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  V.— Period  IV. 

1  He  was  the  first  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  that  assumed  the  title  of  Pope, 
(Papa,)  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  bishops  and  prelates  who  had  for- 
merly made  use  of  that  denomination. 

2  Pope  Urban  11.,  one  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Gregory  VII.,  went 
so  far  as  to  recommend  to  all  secular  princes,  that  they  should  make 
slaves  of  such  of  the  priest's  wives  as  lived  with  their  husbands  after 
they  had  received  holy  orders.  In  Denmark  and  Sweden,  the  celi. 
bacy  of  the  clergy  was  not  introduced  till  near  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century. 

3  Pope  Nicholas  I.  and  Adrian  II.,  in  the  9th  century,  and  John  IV.  and 
Gregory  V.,  about  the  end  of  the  10th,  appealed  to  the  False  Decretab 
in  their  disputes  with  the  kings  of  France,  on  the  subject  of  supremacy 
and  legislative  power  over  the  whole  church. 

4  This  house  which  succeeded  the  Salic  dynasty,  occupied  the  throne  of 
the  empire  from  1138  to  1254. 

5  Gregory  VII.  in  1080,  confirmed  the  election  of  the  Anti-Emperor  Ro. 
dolph.     Innocent  III.,  claimed  the  right  to   arbitrate  in  the  disputes 


9S2  NOTES. 

between  Philip  of  Swabia  and  Otho  of  Brunswick  (1198,)  on  the  subject 
of  their  election.  The  contested  election  of  Richard  de  Cornwall  and 
Alphonso  of  Castille  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  was  submitted  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Pope. 

6  The  Popes  derived  their  claims  to  these  estates,  from  a  donation  of 
them,  wiiich  the  Countess  had  made  in  1077,  to  Pope  Gregory  VII. , 
and  which  she  renewed  in  1102  to  Pascal  II. 

7  The  Order  of  St.  Anthony  was  founded  about  1095  ;  and  that  of  Char- 
treux  was  founded  in  1080— 86,  by  Bruno  of  Cologne  •  and  that  of 
Grandmont,  by  Stephen  de  Thiers,  a  native  of  Auvergne. 

8  The  Arabs  took  possession  of  Palestine  under  the  Caliph  Omar,  a.  d. 
657.     It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Fatimite  Caliphs  of  Egypt,  a.  d.  968 

9-10  There  is  an  amusing  description  of  the  crusaders  in  the  Chronicle 
of  Conradus  Urspergensis,  and  the  sensation  which  their  first  appear, 
ance  made  in  Germany. 

11  One  of  these  first  divisions  was  conducted  by  Peter  the  Hermit  in 
person.  A  contemporary  author  gives  the  following  description  of 
that  ghostly  general.  "  His  appearance  was  rude  in  the  extreme,  of 
a  short  stature  but  of  a  most  fervid  zeal.  His  face  was  meagre,  his* 
feet  bare,  and  his  dress  of  the  meanest  and  the  most  squalid  sort.  On 
his  journey,  and  wherever  he  went,  he  used  neither  horse,  mare, 
nor  mule  ;  but  only  a  vehicle  drawn  by  asses."  Peter  intrusted  a  part 
of  his  army  to  a  French  gentleman  named  Walter  the  Pennyless,  who 
marched  before  him.  A  numerous  body  commanded  by  a  German 
priest  follov/ed  him.  Nearly  the  whole  of  them  perished  to  the  amount 
of  200,000  men. 

12  The  republic  of  Venice  having  refused,  in  spite  of  the  thundering 
bulls  launched  against  them,  to  surrender  up  the  city  of  Ferrara,  Pope 
Clemont  IV.  published  a  crusade  against  them  1309,  and  thus  compelled 
them  to  sue  for  peace. 

13  There  Vvcre  properly  no  armorial  bearings  before  the  12th  century.  We 
do  not  meet  with  the  Fleurs-de-lis  on  the  crown  or  the  robe  of  the  French 
kings,  until  the  time  of  Louis  VII.,  a.  d.  1164. 

14  The  crusades  were  the  means  of  spreading  leprosy  in  Europe,  as  also 
the  plague,  which  in  1347  and  the  foUowmg  years  made  dreadful  havoc. 
From  Italy  it  spread  over  all  Europe,  and  occasioned  a  violent  perse- 
cution against  the  Jews. 

15  For  these,  see  the  accounts  of  Spain,  Italy,  Portugal. 

16  This  is  the  common  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
although  Sartorius  disputes  it.  The  word  Hanse,  in  Low  German, 
means  aiiy  association  or  corporation.  We  find  this  word  used,  for  the 
first  time,' in  a  letter  which  Edward  IL  of  England  wrote  in  1315,  to 
the  King  of  France,  in  favor  of  the  Germanic  merchants. 

17  The  parliament  of  1342  is  generally  cited  as  the  first  in  which  we  find 
the  division  into  two  houses, 

18  Hence  the  names  of  Pfaghlburger  and  Ussburger,  i.  e.  burgess  within 
the  precincts,  and  without  the  city. 

19  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  the  Roman  Law,  and  especially 
the  Theodosian  Code,  still  remained  in  Italy  to  a  certain  extent,  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  darkness  that  covered  Europe  prior  to  the  12th 
century. 

20  In  the  Truce  of  God,  challenges  or  duels  were  prohibited  on  Thurs- 
days, Fridays,  Saturdays,  and  Sundays,  under  pain  of  excommunica- 
tion. They  were  also  forbidden  between  Septuagessima  Sunday  and 
Easter  Week,  and  between  Advent  Sunday  and  Epiphany. 


NOTES.  383 

521  Hugolinus,  a  famous  lawyer,  under  Frederic  I.  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  first  that  digested  the  Two  Books  of  Fiefs,  at  the  end  of  the 
Corpus  Juris. 

22  Several  other  universities  were  founded  in  the  following  century  : — 
such  as  that  of  Prague,  in  1347  ;  Vienna,  in  1365  ;  Heidelburg,  in  1386 ; 
Cologne,  in  1389  ;  Erfurt,  in  1389,  &c. 

23  This  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  originally  concluded  between  the 
c'ties  of  Mayence,  Cologne,  Worms,  Spire,  Strasburg,  and  Berlin,  fot 
the  protection  of  their  commerce  on  the  Rhin^.. 

24  Those  grand  officers  were  seven  in  number,  although  formerly  other 
princes  were  admitted  to  these  elections. 

25  There  appears  some  reason  to  doubt  this  statement  of  Dandolo,  the 
historian  of  Venice. 

26  After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  in  '  he  5th  century,  Corsica 
was  conquered  in  turn  by  the  Vandals,  Gre<  ks,  Franks,  and  Arabs. 
The  latter  settled  there  in  the  9th  century,  a  ad  were  expelled  in  the 
11th.  Sardinia  experienced  nearly  the  same  revolution  as  Corsica.  It 
fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  Greeks,  Arabs,  Geno- 
ese, and  Pisans.  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  vested  the  King  of  Arragon  in 
Sardinia  in  1297,  as  his  vassal  and  tributary,  who  expelled  the  Pisans 
in  1324—26. 

27  The  famous  Castilian  hero  Don  Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Vivar,  surnamed  the 
Cid,  had  already  seized  the  kingdom  o(  Valencia,  about  the  end  of  the 
11th  century;  but  the  Arabs  took  possession  of  it  after  his  death  1099. 

28  De  Guignes  fixes  the  entire  destruction  of  the  Almohades  in  the  year 
1296. 

29  After  the  defeat  of  the  Mahometans,  Alfonso  havmg  assembled  the 
bishops,  declared  on  his  oath  that  Jesus  Christ  appeared  to  him  on  the 
evening  before  the  battle,  promised  him  certain  victory,  and  ordered 
him  to  be  proclaimed  king  of  the  field  of  battle,  and  to  take  for  his 
arms  the  five  wounds  inflicted  on  his  body,  and  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver 
for  which  he  was  sold  to  the  .Tews. 

30  The  first  six  of  these  were  the  ancient  lay  peers  of  the  crown.  They 
were  established  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  VII.  and  IX.,  as  well  as  six 
ecclesiastical  peers, 

31  The  states  of  Germ.any,  m  order  to  preserve  the  feudal  system,  passed 
a  law,  which  forbade  the  princes  to  leave  the  grand  fiefs  of  the  empire 
vacant  more  than  a  year. 

32  By  the  deiinitive  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  in  1259,  between  Louis  IX., 
and  Henry  III.,  Normandy,  Lorraine,  Maine  Anjou,  and  Poitou,  were 
ceded  to  France,  who  then  surrendered  to  England  Limousin,  Peri, 
gord,  Quercy,  &c.,  on  condition  of  doing  fealty  and  homage  to  the 
kings  of  France,  and  to  be  held  under  the  title  of  the  Duke  of  Aqui- 
taine  and  peer  of  France. 

33  The  first  origin  of  the  inquisition  may  be  dated  from  a  commission  of 
inquisitors  in  1212,  which  Innocent  III.  established  at  Toulouce  against 
the  Albigenses.  Gregory  IX.  intrusted  the  inquisition  to  the  Domini- 
cans, who  erected  it  into  an  ordinary  tribunal,  before  which  they  cited 
not  only  those  suspected  of  heresy,  but  all  who  were  accused  of  sor- 
eery,  magic,  v/itchcraft,  Judaism,  &c. 

34  Dominico,  sub-prior  of  the  church  of  Osma  in  Spain,  conjointly  with 
Diego  d'-A.zebez,  the  bishop  of  that  church,  undertook,  in  1206,  the  mission 
against  the  heretics  in  Languedoc.  Innocent  VIII.  in  1208,  established 
a  perpetual  commission  of  preachers  for  that  country,  of  which  Dominico 
was  declared  chief.    Hence  the  origin  of  the  order  of  Preaching  Friar3> 


384  .\OTES. 

r<5  The  Irish  \vere  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  5th  century.  St.  Patrick 
was  their  first  apostle  ;  he  founded  the  archbishopric  of  Armagh  in  472. 
The  supremacy  of  the  Pope  was  not  acluiowlcdged  in  that  island  till  the 
council  of  Drogheda,  115r2,  when  the  Pope's  pallium,  and  the  celibacy 
of  the  priests,  were  introduced. 

3G  In  Denmark,  the  throne  was  elective  in  the  reigning  family.  It  was 
equally  so  in  Norsvay,  where,  by  a  strange  custom,  natural  sons  were 
admitted  to  the  crown,  and  allowed  the  privilege  of  attesting  their 
descent  from  the  royal  line  by  the  ordeal  of  fire. 

37  The  power  of  the  clergy  in  the  North  was  considerably  increased  by 
the  introduction  of  Metropolitans.  The  archbishopric  of  Lunden  was 
erected  in  1152,  and- that  of  Upsal  in  11G3. 

38  The  introduction  of  tithes  met  with  great  opposition  in  all  the  North ; 
nor  were  they  generally  received  till  near  the  end  of  the  13th  century. 
Canute  IV.  was  put  to  death  in  Denmark,  principally  for  having  attempt- 
ed  to  introduce  tithes. 

39  Except  Sigurd  I.,  King  of  Norway,  who  undertook  a  crusade  to  the 
Holy  Land,  1107,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  10,000  men,  and  a  fleet 
of  GO  sail. 

40  Tacitus,  and  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  before  the  10th  century, 
seem  to  have  included  the  Prussians,  and  the  people  inhabiting  the 
coasts  of  the  13altic  eastward  of  the  Vistula,  under  the  name  of  Estho- 
nians. 

41  It  is  alleged  this  city  took  its  name  from  Ottokar  II.,  King  of  Bohe- 
mia,  who  headed  an  army  of  crusaders,  and  encouraged  the  building 
of  it. 

42  In  the  Mogul  language,  Zin  or  Tgin,  signifies  Great,  and  Kis,  very  : 
so  that  the  word  means  Most  Great  Khan  or  Emperor.  According  to 
others  who  quote  the  constant  tradition  of  the  Moguls,  this  new  name 
was  taken  from  the  cry  of  an  extraordinary  and  divine  bird,  which  sat 
on  the  tree  during  the  assembly  in  question,  and  uttered  the  word 
Tschingkis.  This  name  was  adopted  as  a  special  and  favorable  augury 
from  heaven,  and  applied  to  the  new  conqueror. 

43  The  Igours  were  dependent  on  this  latter  empire,  a  Turkish  people  to 
the  north-west  of  China.  It  is  alleged  that  they  cultivated  the  arts  and 
sciences  ;  and  communicated  letters  and  the  alphabet  to  the  other 
Turkish  and  Mogul  tribes. 

44  tlie  former  of  these  events  took  place  in  1279,  and  the  latter  in  1243. 
The  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  were  annihilated  by  the  Moguls,  under  the  reign 
of  Mangou  Khan,  a.  d.  1258. 

45  It  is  related  that  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  when  summoned  by  the 
Great  Khan  to  submit,  and  offered  an  oflice  of  high  trust  at  his  court, 
replied  to  his  singular  message  by  way  of  pleasantry,  that  he  knew 
enough  of  fowling  to  qualify  him  for  grand  falconer. 

46  The  dynasty  of  the  Moguls  in  Persia  ended  in  1410  ;  that  of  the  Zagatai 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  usurjjers  in  the  14th  century.  This  dynasty 
produced  the  famous  Timour. 

47  Baton  Khan  was  in  the  habit  of  ascending  the  Wolga,  with  his  whole 
tribe,  from  January  till  August,  when  he  began  to  descend  that  river 
in  his  way  to  the  south. 

48  Hor-cle,  in  the  Chinese  or  Tartar  language,  means  a  tent  or  dwelling- 
place. 

49  These  tribes  dwelt  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  between  the  Jaik, 
the  Wolga,  and  the  Tanais. 

3,)  Tk ,  Moguls  of  Kipzac,  who  ruled  over  Russia,  are  known  rather  by 


NOTES. 


385 


the  name  of  Tartars  than  Moguls,  as  they  adopteJ  by  degrees,  the  Ian- 
ffuacre  and  manners  of  the  Tartars  among  whom  they  hved. 

51  An  author  who  wrote  in  the  twelfth  century,  remarks,  that  the  Hun- 
earians  «=till  lived  in  tents,  in  summer  and  autumn  ;  the  few  bouses  m 
Siat  kingdom  were  built  of  wood  or  of  stone  ;  that  the  grandees,  when 
they  went  to  court,  brought  their  seats  or  chairs  with  them  ;  and  that 
the  same  thing  was  practised  by  those  who  went  to  visit  their  neigh- 
bors  in  winter.  r         ,^  j  v. 

52  The  invasion  of  Dalmatia  became  a  source  of  troubles  and  wars  be- 
tween  the  kings  of  Hungary  and  the  republic  of  Vienna ;  and  it  was 
not  till  the  fifteenth  century  that  the  Venetians  succeeded  in  gettmg 
possession  of  the  maritime  towns  of  Dalmatia. 

53  The  Cumans  established  one  of  their  colonies  in  a  part  of  ancient 
Dacia,  now  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  which  took  from  them  the  name 
of  Cumania.  ,     ,  •     i       ^ 

54  Baldwin  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry  ;  and  he  by  his  brother- 
in-law,  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  grandson  of  Louis  VI.  of  France.  That 
prince  left  two  sons,  Robert  and  Baldwui,  who  both  reigned  at  Con- 
stantinople,  and  were  the  last  of  the  Latin  emperors. 

55  They  took  the  name  of  Baharites,  which  in  Arabic  sigmfies  mantimes 
or  dwellers  near  the  sea. 

NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  VL— Period  V. 

1  This  jubilee,  which,  according  to  the  bull  of  Boniface  VHL,  was  to 
be  celebrated  only  once  in  a  hundred  years,  was  reduced  to  fifty  by 
Clement  VL,  to  thirty  by  Urban  VL,  and  twenty-five  by  Paul  H.,  and 
Sextus  IV. 

2  Martin  V.,  Nicholas  V.,  and  Calixtus  IL,  gave  to  the  Portuguese  all  the 
territories  which  they  might  discover,  from  the  Canaries  to  the  Indies. 
Adrian  IV.,  who  adjudged  Ireland  to  Henry  II.  in  1155,  had  claimed 
that  all  islands  in  which  Christianity  was  introduced,  should  belong  to 
St.  Peter. 

^  The  kings  of  France  mamtained  the  exercise  of  that  right  in  spite  of 
the  efforts  which  the  court  of  Rome  made  to  deprive  them  of  it. 

4  The  King  even  sent  to  Italy  the  Chevalier  William  Nogart  with  a  body 
of  troops,  who  surprised  the  Pope  at  Anagni,  made  him  prisoner,  and 
pillaged  his  treasures,  as  well  as  those  of  the  cardinals  in  his  suit. 

5  If  we  can  believe  an  Arabic  author  from  Mecca,  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, paper,  of  cotton  most  probably,  was  invented  at  Mecca  by  one 
Joseph  Amru,  about  the  year  706.  According  to  others,  the  Arabs 
found  an  excellent  paper  manufactory  at  Samarcand,  when  they  con- 
quered that  country  in  704.  The  invention  of  paper  among  the  Chinese 
is  very  ancient. 

6  M.  de  Mechel  mentions  three  pictures  in  the  gallery  of  Vienna,  one 
of  the  year  1297,  and  the  other  two  of  1357,  as  having  been  painted  in 
oil  colors  on  wood. 

7  The  first  cards  were  painted  and  designed,  which  rendered  them  very 
dear.  Great  variety  of  cards  are  found  among  different  nations.  Piquet 
became  the  national  game  of  the  French,  taroc  of  the  Itahans ;  the 
Spaniards  invented  ombre  and  quadrille,  and  the  Germans  lansquenet. 

8  One  of  the  oldest  of  these  folios  is  that  found  in  the  library  of'Buxheim, 
near  Meningen.  It  represents  the  image  of  St.  Christopher  illumed, 
with  a  legend,  dated  1423.  Printing,  by  blocks  of  wood,  was  practised 
in  China  since  the  year  950. 

VOL.  II,  33 


S86  NOTES. 

9  Gutenberg,  who  still  kept  his  art  a  secret,  on  the  deatli  of  Drizhen, 
sent  difierent  persons  into  his  house,  and  charged  them  to  unscrew  the 
press,  and  take  it  to  pieces,  that  no  one  might  discover  how  or  in  what 
he  was  employed. 

10  Schoeflin  dates  the  invention  of  the  font  about  the  year  1452.  The 
honor  of  it  is  conmionly  ascribed  to  Peter  Schoefter,  the  companion  of 
Faust. 

n  In  a  deed  made  by  Gutenburg  and  his  brother  in  1459,  he  took  a  for- 
mal  engagement  to  give  to  the  library  of  the  convent  of  St.  Claire,  at 
Mayence,  the  •  books  which  he  had  already  printed,  or  might  print : 
which  proves  that  Gutenburg  had  printed  books  long  before  1459,  and 
that  he  still  intended  to  print. 

12  According  to  Casiri,  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  can 
non  among  the  Moors  in  the  years  1342 — 44.  The  first  undoubted 
proof  of  the  employment  of  cannon  in  France,  is  of  the  year  1345. 
The  Genoese,  it  is  alleged,  employed  mines   for  the   first  time  at  the 

■  siege  of  Seranessa,  against  the  Florentines,  in  1487  ;  and  the  Spaniards 
against  the  French  at  the  siege  of  the  castle  of  Oeuf,  in  1503. 

13  The  first  cannons  were  constructed  of  wood,  iron,  or  lead.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  used  cannons  made  of  leather.  They  could  not  support  near 
the  quantity  of  powder  of  those  in  modem  times. 

14  Guiot  de  Frovins,  who  wrote  a  satirical  poem  called  the  Bible,  about 
the  end  of  the  12th  century,  speaks  most  distmctly  of  the  mariner's 
compass,  which  was  used  in  his  time  in  navigation. 

15  The  herring  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Scania,  in  the  14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies, proved  a  mine  of  wealth  for  the  Hanseatic  trade  ;  so  much  the 
more  gainful,  as  all  Europe  then  observed  lent. 

16  William  Tell  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  first  founder  of  the  Swiss 
liberty. 

17  The  Grand  Duke  Michael  Joroslawitz  was  executed  by  the  Horde  in 
1318.  Demetrius  Michaelovitz  met  with  the  same  fate  in  1326. — 
The  Russian  princes,  on  going  to  an  audience  with  the  Khan,  were 
obliged  to  walk  between  two  fires  to  purify  themselves  and  the  presents 
which  they  brought.  They  were  even  compelled  to  do  reverence  to 
an  image  which  was  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  Khan's  tent. 

18  The  first  mention  which  the  annals  of  Nestor  make  of  the  Livonians, 
and  their  wars  with  the  Russians,  is  about  the  year  1040. 

19  Various  contracts  were  made  before  that  sale  was  accomplished.  The 
first  was  in  1341,  and  the  price  was  13,000  marks  of  silver.  In  1346, 
the  Margrave  Louis  sold  his  rights  over  Esthonia  to  the  Teutonic  Order 
for  6000  marks. 

20  Livonia  did  not  belong  exclusively  to  the  Teutonic  Order  at  this  time. 
The  archbishop  of  Riga  was  independent,  and  master  of  the  city  where 
he  resided. 

21  Before  Uladislaus,  there  were  only  some  of  the  sovereigns  of  Poland 
invested  with  the  royal  dignity  ;  and  the  tradition  which  carries  back 
the  uninterrupted  succession  of  the  Polish  kings  to  Bolislaus,  in  the' 
ye,ar  1000,  is. contrary  to  the  evidence  of  history. 

22  The  conversion  of  the  Lithuanians  to  Christianity  was  resol  "  '  on  in  a 
general  assembly  of  the  nation  held  in  1387.  It  consisted  simply  of 
the  ceremony  of  baptism.  The  Polish  priests  who  were  employed  on 
this  mission,  being  ignorant  of  the  Lithuanian  language,  King  Jagellon 
because  himself  a  preacher.  One  custom  which  he  practised,  succeeded 
better  than  all  the  lorce  of  reasoning  or  argument.  The  ^Lithuanians, 
till  then,  had  used  only  clothes  of  skins  or  linen      The  Kin?  caused 


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